Anatomy and Physiology Flashcards
1
Q
What are the agonist and antagonist in elbow flexion ?
A
Agonist - Biceps
Antagonist - Triceps
2
Q
What are the agonist and antagonist in elbow extension ?
A
Agonist - Triceps
Antagonist - Biceps
3
Q
What are the agonist and antagonist in ankle plantarflexion ?
A
Agonist - Gastrocnemius
Antagonist - Tibialis Anterior
4
Q
What are the agonist and antagonist in ankle dorsiflexion ?
A
Agonist - Tibialis Anterior
Antagonist - Gastrocnemius
5
Q
What are the agonist and antagonist in knee flexion ?
A
Agonist - Hamstrings
Antagonist - Quadriceps
6
Q
What are the agonist and antagonist in knee extension ?
A
Agonist - Quadriceps
Antagonist - Hamstrings
7
Q
What are the agonist and antagonist in hip flexion ?
A
Agonist - Hip Flexors
Antagonist - Gluteals
8
Q
What are the agonist and antagonist in hip extension ?
A
Agonist - Gluteals
Antagonist - Hip Flexors
9
Q
What are the agonist and antagonist in hip adduction ?
A
Agonist - Adductors
Antagonist - TFL
10
Q
What are the agonist and antagonist in hip abduction ?
A
Agonist - TFL
Antagonist - Adductors
11
Q
What are the agonist and antagonist in hip horizontal adduction ?
A
Agonist - Adductors
Antagonist - TFL
12
Q
What are the agonist and antagonist in hip horizontal abduction ?
A
Agonist - TFL
Antagonist - Adductors
13
Q
What are the agonist and antagonist in shoulder flexion ?
A
Agonist - Anterior Deltoid
Antagonist - Latissimus Dorsi
14
Q
What are the agonist and antagonist in shoulder extension ?
A
Agonist - Latissimus Dorsi
Antagonist - Anterior Deltoid
15
Q
What are the agonist and antagonist in shoulder adduction ?
A
Agonist - Posterior Deltoid
Antagonist - Middle Deltoid
16
Q
What are the agonist and antagonist in shoulder abduction ?
A
Agonist - Middle Deltoid
Antagonist - Posterior Deltoid
17
Q
What are the agonist and antagonist in shoulder horizontal adduction ?
A
Agonist - Pectorals
Antagonist - Latissimus Dorsi
18
Q
What are the agonist and antagonist in shoulder horizontal abduction ?
A
Agonist - Latissimus Dorsi
Antagonist - Pectorals
19
Q
What is an isometric muscle contraction ?
A
When the muscle contracts but stays the same length
20
Q
Isotonic muscles contractions have what ?
A
Movement
21
Q
What is an isotonic concentric muscle contraction ?
A
When the agonist muscle contacts and gets shorter
22
Q
What is an isotonic eccentric muscle contraction ?
A
When the agonist muscle contracts and gets longer
23
Q
Flexion and Extension are in what Plane and Axis ?
A
Sagittal Plane + Transverse Axis
24
Q
Adduction and Abduction are in what Plane and Axis ?
A
Frontal Plane + Sagittal Axis
25
Horizontal Adduction and Abduction are in what Plane and Axis ?
Transverse Plane + Longitudinal Axis
26
What does the Sino Atrial node cause ?
Atrial Systole
27
The Atrial Ventricular node picks up what ?
Electrical impulses
28
Where do the electrical impulses trave to next ?
The bundle of His, and down the left and right branches
29
What causes ventricular systole ?
Purkinje Fibres
30
What are sensory receptors ?
Chemoreceptors - increased CO2 + acidity
Proprioceptors - movement
Baroreceptors - change in blood pressure
31
Where in the brain do these receptors send info to, when controlling the heart ?
Medulla Oblongata - Cardiac Control Centre
32
What system and nerve increases heart rate ?
Sympathetic system + Accelerator nerve
33
What system and nerve helps decreases heart rate ?
Parasympathetic system + Vegas nerve
34
What hormones also affect heart rate ?
Increase - Adrenaline
Decrease - Acetylcholine
35
Where is the blood flow to the muscles and organs controlled ?
Arterioles + Pre-capillary sphincters
36
What happens to the blood flow at the organs during vasoconstrictions ?
Increased stimulation of the sympathetic nerve, causes vasoconstriction to decrease the blood flow to the capillaries of the non-essential organs
37
What happens to the blood flow at the muscles during vasodilation ?
Decreased stimulation of the sympathetic nerve, causes vasodilation of arterioles + sphincters, to increase the blood flow to the capillaries of the working muscles
38
What is the first method of the Venous Return Mechanism ?
One way valves in veins
39
What is the second method of the Venous Return Mechanism ?
Skeletal muscle pump
40
What is the third method of the Venous Return Mechanism ?
Respiratory pump
41
What is the fourth method of the Venous Return Mechanism ?
Suction pressure of the heart
42
What is the first step of Starlings Law ?
Increased venous return
43
What is the second step of Starlings Law ?
Greater diastolic filling
44
What is the third step of Starlings Law ?
Cardiac muscles stretch
45
What is the fourth step of Starlings Law ?
Greater force of muscle contraction
46
What is the fifth step of Starlings Law ?
Increased ejection fraction
47
What is the first method of Cardio Vascular Drift ?
Increased heart rate due to a decrease in stroke volume
48
What is the second + third methods of Cardio Vascular Drift ?
Occurs in warm environments after 10 minutes
49
What is the fourth method of Cardio Vascular Drift ?
Caused by a reduction of fluid in the blood volume
50
What is the fifth method of Cardio Vascular Drift ?
Venous return decreases
51
What is the sixth method of Cardio Vascular Drift ?
Aims to cool the body down by maintaining cardiac output
52
Where in the brain do the receptors send info to, when controlling breathing ?
Medulla Oblongata - Respiratory Control Centre
53
How do you increase breathing rate ?
Sympathetic system + Phrenic nerve
54
How do you decrease breathing rate ?
Parasympathetic system
55
What hormones also affect breathing rate ?
Increase - Adrenaline
Decrease - Acetylchloride
56
How does the alveoli having a vast surface area help to assist diffusion ?
Allows more places for diffusion to take place
57
How does thin alveoli walls help to assist diffusion ?
One cell thick allows for a short diffusion pathway
58
How does the moist lining of alveoli help to assist diffusion ?
Water helps to dissolve and diffuse oxygen
59
How does a large capillary network to the alveoli help to assist diffusion ?
Lots of blood vessels for gaseous exchange
60
How does a short diffusion path help to assist diffusion ?
Thin membranes for gases to diffuse through
61
What respiratory illnesses can smoking cause ?
Bronchitis, Cancer
62
How does smoking prevent efficient diffusion, and causes emphysema?
Damages the alveoli so tar can now collect in the alveoli, can also create holes in the alveoli
63
How does smoking effect the respiratory systems supply of oxygen to the muscles ?
Decreased efficiency
64
How does smoking effect the filtering of air particles ?
Damages cilia so tar can collect on tiny hairs that are responsible for filtering air particles, so it can't happen efficiently
65
What is arterio-venous difference ?
The difference between the oxygen content of the arterial blood arriving at the muscles and the venous blood leaving the muscles
66
What happens to the A-VO2 difference at rest ?
It is low - not much oxygen is required by the muscles
67
What happens to the A-VO2 difference during exercise ?
It is high - lots of oxygen is required by the muscles
68
How does training affect the A-VO2 difference ?
Training increases the A-VO2 difference
69
What type of exercise are type 1 muscle fibers designed for ?
Aerobic exercise - endurance athletes have lots of these
70
What is type 1 muscle fiber's resistance to fatigue and speed of contraction ?
Very resistant to fatigue, slow speed of contraction
71
Type 1 muscle fibers contain lots of ----- which makes them ----- in colour ?
Myoglobin, Red
72
What activities are type 2A muscle fibers suited for ?
Involving endurance and power (1500 m)
73
What is the resistance to fatigue and speed of contraction of type 2A muscle fibers ?
Medium resistance to fatigue and fast speed of contraction
74
How can resistance training affect fast twitch muscle fibers ?
Can change Type 2X fibers into type 2A due to an increased ability to utalise oxygen
75
What activities are type 2X muscle fibers suited for ?
Highly explosive events (100 m)
76
What is the resistance to fatigue and speed of contraction for type 2X muscle fibers ?
Low resistance to fatigue and fast speed of contraction
77
What are type 2X muscle fibers more capable of ?
Generating greater force and speed, when a quick short burst of energy is released
78
What is a motor unit ?
The motor neuron and the bundle of fibers it stimulates
79
How many types of muscle fibers does a motor unit stimulate ?
One type of fibers
80
What is the All or None Law ?
Either all the muscle fibers within a motor unit contract or none do
81
What does a muscle contraction involve ?
The interaction of the muscles within the nervous system
82
How does a motor unit maintain a contraction in wave summation ?
It must receive a continuous string of impulses
83
What increases the strength of contraction in wave summation ?
If a second impulse arrives before a muscle has had time to relax
84
In wave summation what will happen when using this system ?
The muscle will continue to contract until fatigue sets in
85
What increases the strength of contraction to its maximum in Tetanic Contraction ?
A number of impulses arrive at the muscle fibers - no time for them to relax, this increases the strength of contraction to its maximum
86
How do you produce maximal contractions in Spatial Summation ?
All motor units within a particular muscle will be recruited
87
What happens during this stage in Tetanic Contraction ?
The motor unit has been maximally stimulated and remains that way for some time.
88
Which type of motor unit will be recruited first in Spatial Summation ?
Fast twitch motor units to provide a more forceful contraction
89
What happens when muscles need to work for a longer period of time in Spatial Summation ?
Fatigue can be delayed by rotating the number of motor units being stimulated at any one time
90
What is PNF stretching used to improve ?
Flexibility and mobility
91
What triggers a stretch reflex ?
Sensory information sent to the CNS
92
What are the muscle spindles and where dop they lie ?
Proprioceptors, between skeletal muscle fibers
93
What does the stretch reflex do ?
Muscles to contract to prevent overstretching reducing risk of injury
94
Where are the Golgi tendon organs found ?
Between the muscle fiber and tendon
95
What do they Golgi tendon organs detect ?
Levels of tension in a muscle
96
When the muscle contacts isometrically in PNF stretching what happens, and what is it called ?
Sense the increase in muscle tension and sends signals to the brain allowing the agonist to relax and lengthen, autogenic inhibition
97
What is the only useable form of energy in the body ?
ATP - Adenosine Tri -Phosphate
98
Where is ATP found in the body ?
Found in all cells
99
How is energy created ?
By Breaking down the high energy bonds
100
What enzyme causes the break down of ATP ?
ATPase
101
What happens during phase 1 of the ATP-PC System ?
Phosphocreatine is broken down by creatine kinase
102
What happens during phase 2 of the ATP-PC System ?
Energy produced from breakdown resynthesises ATP
103
How long does the ATP-PC System last for ?
8 - 10 seconds
104
Where is phosphocreatine stored in the body ?
Within the muscles cell next to ATP
105
What are the advantages of the ATP-PC system ?
ATP immediately resynthesised
PCr stores are replenished quickly
No fatiguing by products
Creatine supplementation
106
What are the disadvantages of the ATP-PC system ?
Limited supply of PCr
PCr stores only replenished when oxygen is present - at rest
1 PCr produces 1 ATP
107
What is used to produce energy in the lactic acid system ?
Uses glucose that is stored as glycogen
108
What breaks glucose down into pyruvic acid ?
PFK (phosphofructokinase)
109
If no oxygen is present, what happens to the pyruvic acid ?
Converted into lactic acid by LDH
110
In the break down of glucose how many ATP can be resynthesised ?
2
111
What are the advantages of the lactic acid system ?
Few chemical reactions so ATP is quickly resynthesised
No wait for sufficient O2 to be present
Lactic acid can be converted back to glycogen
Can be called upon during aerobic activity for a sprint finish
112
What are the disadvantages of the lactic acid system ?
Accumulation of lactate causes fatigue
Only a small amount of energy unlocked from glucose without oxygen (5%)
113
What is OBLA ?
Onset of Blood Lactate Accumulation
114
What are the factors that affect blood lactate accumulation ?
Exercise Intensity - higher intensity = faster accumulation
Respiratory Exchange ratio
Muscle fiber types - slow twitch produces less lactate
The rate of blood lactate removal
Training of muscles - trained muscles work better anaerobically
115
What is EPOC ?
Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption
116
Why does EPOC happen ?
At the start of exercise the body will need to work anaerobically there maybe insufficient oxygen present creating an oxygen deficit
117
What is submaximal oxygen deficit ?
Not enough oxygen available at the start of exercise to provide all energy anaerobically
118
What is maximal oxygen deficit ?
A way of measuring anaerobic capacity
119
What takes place during the fast replenishment phase of EPOC ?
Re- saturate myoglobin
Provide aerobic energy to regenerate ATP-PC
120
How long does the EPOC fast replenishment phase last ?
Complete within 2 - 3 minutes, uses 4 liters of O2
121
What takes place during the slow replenishment phase of EPOC ?
Removal of lactic acid
Convert lactate to CO2, water, pyruvate and glucose
Maintain elevated heart and breathing rate
122
How long does the EPOC slow replenishment phase last ?
Take up to 2 hours and uses 5 - 10 liters of O2
123
Is the first stage of the aerobic system aerobic or anaerobic ?
Anaerobic
124
Where does glycolysis take place ?
Sarcoplasm of the muscle cell
125
What is glycolysis and how many ATP are formed ?
Break down of glucose into pyruvic acid, 2ATP
126
What happens after pyruvic acid is produced ?
Glycolysis enters the next stage (Krebs Cycle), it splits into 2 acetyl groups and is then carried into the Krebs Cycle
127
Where does the Krebs Cycle take place ?
The matrix of the mitochondria - rich supply of enzymes
128
What happens in stage 1 of the Krebs Cycle ?
Oxidation of citric acid - involves the removal of hydrogen atoms
129
What happens in stage 2 of the Krebs Cycle ?
Production of CO2 - only O2 and C remain - then removed by lungs
130
What happens in stage 3 of the Krebs Cycle ?
Resynthesis of ATP - sufficient energy is released at this stage to resynthesise 2 ATP
131
Where is the hydrogen produced by the Krebs Cycle transported to ?
It's carried through the Electron Transport Chain
132
What is one feature of the Electron Transport Chain ?
Water is formed from hydrogen and some oxygen
133
What is another feature of the Electron Transport Chain ?
34 ATP are resynthesised
134
What can be used as secondary energy stores ?
Fats - broken down into fatty acids
Proteins - broken down down into amino acids
135
What are the advantages of the aerobic system ?
Lots more ATP can be resynthesised - 38
No fatiguing by products
Lots of energy stores - last for several hours
136
What are the disadvantages of the aerobic system ?
Can't be used immediately - sufficient oxygen needs to be present
Takes lots of oxygen to break fats down
When glycogen stores are fully depleated fats is the sole energy source
137
What is VO2 max, and what is the units its measured in ?
Maximum volume of oxygen that can be utilised or consumed by the muscles per minute (ml/kg/min)
138
What are the factors that affect VO2 max ?
Physiology, lifestyle, genetics, gender, training, age, body composition
139
What is a factor that VO2 max capacity is dependent on ?
An effective oxygen delivery system
140
What is another factor that VO2 max capacity is dependent on ?
Large volume of slow twitch muscle fibers
Myoglobin
High density of mitochondria
141
Why would you carry out a VO2 max test ?
Base line tests
Goal Setting
Determine a correct intensity
Any adaptations from training
Compare to normative data
142
What does the Respiratory Exchange Ratio estimate ?
Use of fats and carbohydrates used during exercise
143
How is the Respiratory Exchange Ratio measured/ calculated ?
Respiratory quotient = volume of CO2/ Volume of O2
144
Why do athletes do lactate sampling ?
So athletes can train at the correct intensity
145
How is lactate sampling performed ?
A pin prick to sample blood and a device measures lactate levels
146
What does the results of lactate sampling show ?
Lactate threshold - 2mmol of lactate per liter of blood, above resting levels
OBLA - 4 mmol of lactate per liter of blood
The higher the reading of lactate the higher the intensity
147
What is indirect calorimetry ?
Allows measurement of oxygen consumption + carbon dioxide production
Can be done during rest + aerobic exercise
Estimates the use of fats + carbohydrates during exercise
Can give precise calculation of VO2 max
Non invasive and accurate
148
How is the test for indirect calorimetry performed ?
A metabolic cart analyses expired gas
149
In speed, agility, quickness training, what components of fitness are trained ?
Agility, balance, coordination, flexibility, power, reaction time, muscular endurance, cardiovascular endurance
150
In speed, agility, quickness training, what are the physiological adaptations ?
Higher density of 2X fibers, gain more neuromuscular patterns, developing fitness, correct technique, coordination of agonistic pairs
151
In speed, agility, quickness training, what is the impact on energy systems ?
Increased glycolysis, ATP, PC systems
152
In speed, agility, quickness training, what are the advantages ?
Can mimic demands of sport or a position
Developing anaerobic power
Stress aerobic systems allowing players to recover from efforts quickly
153
In speed, agility, quickness training, what are the disadvantages ?
Causes stress on heart + body
Cause injury due to lack of form
Does not fully replicate specific sporting actions
154
In plyometrics training, what components of fitness are trained ?
Speed, strength, power
155
In plyometrics training, what are the physiological adaptations ?
Increased elasticity of muscles, stretch reflex, concentric contractions, contractility of muscle fibers
156
In plyometrics training, what is the impact on the energy systems ?
Increased resting levels of ATP, PC free creatine and glycogen in the muscles
157
In plyometrics training, what are the advantages ?
Effective for developing power
Minimal equipment
Suitable for explosive skills
Develops both speed and strength
158
In plyometrics training, what are the disadvantages ?
Fatigue quickly
High risk of injuries
Can cause stress on joints
Not suitable for beginners or young athletes
159
In HIIT training, what components of fitness are trained ?
Power, speed, agility
160
In HIIT training, what are the physiological adaptations ?
Improve VO2 max, increased stroke volume, improved lactate uptake + clearance, neuromuscular coordination
161
In HIIT training, what is the impact on the energy systems ?
Improve aerobic systems during recovery, heavily anaerobic
162
In HIIT training, what are the advantages ?
No equipment required
Can help loose fat
Decrease heart rate and blood pressure
Can reduce blood sugar levels
163
In HIIT training, what are the disadvantages ?
Higher risk of injury
Not great for beginners
Can cause injury if not performed correctly
164
In Altitude training, what components of fitness are trained ?
Cardiovascular endurance and muscular endurance
165
What are the three options of Altitude training ?
Live high - train high
Live high - train low
Live low - train high
166
In Altitude training, what is the impact on energy systems ?
More energy can be released during the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain, lack of oxygen prevents fats as a second energy store
167
In Altitude training, what are the advantages ?
Improves oxygen delivery
Risen red blood cell volume - more oxygen transported to the muscles
168
In Altitude training, what are the disadvantages ?
