Skill Acquisition Flashcards
What are skills ?
Skills are learned, and not inherited genetically
What are the characteristics of skilled movement ?
Aesthetically pleasing
Consistently correct
Efficient
Fluent
Accurate
Controlled
Economic
+ Goal directed
+ Pre-determined
+ Adaptable
What is the Open - Closed continuum about ?
How environmental conditions affect the skill
What is an Open skill ?
The environment changes frequently and lots of decisions need to be made
What is a Closed skill ?
The environment is predictable and few decisions need to be made
What is the Gross - Fine continuum about ?
How precise a movement is and the amount of muscular movement needed
What is a Gross skill ?
Using lots of different muscle groups or large muscle groups
What is a Fine skill ?
Using very small muscles or few muscles
What is the Discrete - Serial - Continuous continuum about ?
The relationship between the subroutines and is the identification if the beginning and end of the movement
What is a Discrete skill ?
Clear start and end to the movement
What is a Serial skill ?
A series of linked discrete skills
What is a Continuous skill ?
No clear start and end - series of repeated subroutines
What is the Self paced - Externally paced continuum about ?
The level of control the performer has over the timing and speed of the skill
What is a Self paced skill ?
Performer has control over the start and speed of the performance
What is an Externally paced skill ?
Performer has no control over the start and speed of the performance
What is the High - Low continuum about ?
How easily a skill can be broken down into subroutines
What is a Low organised skill ?
Easy to break down into sub-routines
What is a High organised skill ?
Hard to break down into sub-routines
What is the Simple - Complex continuum about ?
The amount of information you need to complete the skill
What is a Simple skill ?
A skill that requires few decisions and little information to process
What is a Complex skill ?
A skill that requires many decisions and lots of information to process
What is Positive transfer ?
Previously learned skills help the development of new skills
What is Negative transfer ?
Previously learned skills hinder the development of new skills
What is Bilateral transfer ?
Transfer of learning from one limb to another - kinaesthetic awareness can improve this
What is Zero transfer ?
Previously learned skills have no impact on the learning of new skills
What is whole practice ?
The complete skill is practiced in its entirety, without attempt to break it down into subroutines
When may a coach use whole practice ?
Simple, closed, discrete, high skills
When skills are safe
When the performer is motivated, fit enough and an expert
What are the advantages of whole practice ?
Get the feel of the whole movement
More realistic
Makes skills more consistently correct
Maintains links between the subroutines
What are the disadvantages of whole practice ?
Fatigue
Safety
Beginners may struggle
Too much info to process
What is whole part - whole practice ?
Performer tries the whole skill, it is then broken down into parts, each part is practiced in isolation, the parts are reintegrated and the skill is practiced as a whole again
When may a coach use whole part - whole practice ?
Serial, complex, low skills
Dangerous skills
What are the advantages of whole - part - whole practice ?
More fluent skill
Danger reduced
Fatigue less likely
Immediate feedback
What are the disadvantages of whole - part - whole practice ?
Time consuming
Loss of kinaesthetic feel
Can’t be done with all skill types
What is progressive part practice ?
Breaking down the skill into a series of parts and then ‘chaining’ them together one at a time
When may a coach use progressive part practice ?
Dangerous skill
Serial, low and complex skills
What are the advantages of progressive part practice ?
Rest between stages
Reduces danger
Success at each stage
Confidence as each part is perfected
What are the disadvantages of progressive part practice ?
Time consuming
Could disrupt flow of movement
Not a feel for whole movement
If first part was incorrect the rest of the skill is incorrect
What is massed practice ?
Learner practices a skill continuously without rest intervals
What are the advantages of massed practice ?
Improve fitness level and save time
Good for experienced performers
Stimulates performance conditions where fatigue is an element
Good for establishing habitual skill
What are the disadvantages of massed practice ?
No time for feedback
Not suitable for dangerous tasks
Can cause fatigue and demotivation
Beginners affected by lack of concentration and attention
Boredom
Negative transfer
What is distributed practice ?
Practice sessions that include rest intervals
What are the advantages of distributed practice ?
Help maintain motivation
Allows for mental rehearsal
Rest allows for recovery and feedback
Less dangerous
Research has shown this to be the most effective form of practice
What are the disadvantages of distributed practice ?
More time consuming
Skills may have to be reintroduced after each break
May lead to frustration/ de-motivation when rest intervals delay practice
What is variable practice ?
A skill practiced in a constantly changing environment
What are the advantages of variable practice ?
Develops schema, decision making and perceptual skills
Develops subroutines
Adapt techniques to the changing environment
Can improve the speed of learning
What are the disadvantages of variable practice ?
Time consuming
Negative transfer if skills are not correctly performed
Need to already have a well learned motor programme in a fixed environment
What is mental rehearsal ?
Performer goes over the movement in their mind/ cognitively without any movement occurring
What are the advantages of mental rehearsal ?
Can focus attention
Adaptations are stored in memory
Rehearse complex skills / strategies
Used in cognitive stage
Experts use it for emotional control and reaching optimum arousal levels
What are the disadvantages of mental rehearsal ?
Not effective with simple skills
Used by itself, its not effective as physical practice
What is learning ?
A permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of practice
Linked to practice or experience
Relatively permanent
Not a ‘fluke’ or one-off occurrence
What is performance ?
A more temporary occurrence, influenced by other factors such as anxiety and nerves that may be felt by a player just before a major game
Not necessarily repeated
What are the features of the cognitive stage ?
Lots of errors made
Create a mental picture of the skill
Performer observes a demonstration or is given verbal instructions
What are the features of feedback in the cognitive stage ?
Extrinsic feedback from the coach
Positive
Knowledge of results and performance (technique and outcome of skill)
What are the features of the associative stage ?
Longer than the cognitive stage
Develop movement patterns through practice and feedback
Movements start to become smoother
Length of time in this phase is affected by ability, complexity of skill, practice amount and quality of feedback
What are the features of feedback in the associative stage ?
Extrinsic moving towards intrinsic
Positive and negative
Knowledge of results and performance
What are the features of the autonomous stage ?
Performer is so efficient they can focus on other factors such as tactics
Skill is completed almost without conscious thought
Correct mistakes through kinaesthesis
What are the features of feedback in the autonomous stage ?
Intrinsic feedback
Detailed feedback
Positive and negative
Knowledge of results and performance (quality of technique and outcome of skill)
What is positive feedback ?
Tell the performer what went well
What is negative feedback ?
Tell the performer what went wrong/ didn’t work well
What is knowledge of results ?
Feedback the performer gets about the outcome of the action
What is knowledge of performance ?
Feedback the performer gets about the quality of performance or technique
What is extrinsic feedback ?
Feedback from outside of the performer
What is intrinsic feedback ?
Feedback from within the performer (kinaesthesis)
What is a learning plateau ?
When performance reaches a point at which no further improvement occurs
Why do learning plateaus occur ?
Fatigue
Lack of fitness
Injury/ overtraining
Boredom
Limits in performers abilities
Poor coaching
How can a coach stop learning plateaus from occurring ?
Use mental rehearsal
Reset goals
Give rest/ recovery periods
Bring in competition
Explain plateaus
Offer rewards/ praise
Give performer new responsibility/role
Varey practice
What is operant conditioning also known as ?
‘Trial and Error’ learning
In operant conditioning what happens when the desired response is performed ?
Reinforcement - the SR bond is strengthened and the correct response is stored in the long term memory
In operant conditioning what happens when the undesirable response is performed ?
Punishment - the SR bond is weakened
In operant conditioning what happens in the future because of these responses ?
There is an increased chance of correct response when external cue is applied
What is positive reinforcement ?
Create feelings of satisfaction to encourage the repetition of an action
What is negative reinforcement ?
The withdrawal of an unpleasant stimulus when the desired response occurs
What is punishment ?
Used to reduce the chance of actions being repeated
In observational learning what is vicarious experience ?
We learn by watching other people and copying their actions
In observational learning what is created by the performer ?
A mental picture to create movement patterns more easily
How can demonstrations be made more effective ?
If the demonstrator is a competent performer
In observational learning what is the element of Attention ?
Ensure the performer takes notice by making the demonstration clear and accurate
Coach needs to highlight key areas of the skill for a learner to focus on
In observational learning what is the element of Retention ?
The creation of a mental picture which can be stored in the memory and recalled when needed
In observational learning what is the element of Motor Reproduction ?
Ensure the learner has the physical ability to copy the skill
Attempt to complete the skill either immediately or after a series of progressive part practice situations
In observational learning what is the element of Motivation ?
The learner must have the drive and desire to copy the actions of the model
Rewards and praise
Positive feedback
Positive reinforcement
Make sure they get success
What does cognitive theory start with ?
Performers are given a problem to solve, rather than being told the solution to the problem
In cognitive theory how does the performer solve the problem ?
Use trial and error
In cognitive theory what happens when the problem is solved ?
Understands to solve the problem and why they must perform in a specific way
In cognitive theory how is the solution to the problem used in new situations ?
Apply and adapt their movements
What is constructivism ?
People construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiencing things and reflecting on these experiences
What are the features of constructivism ?
Learners focused/ take responsibility for own learning
Learner constructs/ builds learning in different stages
Learn by interacting with others, experiencing situations and reflecting on those experiences
Learner asks questions
What is inter-psychological learning ?
Learning using others (externally) or a ‘more knowledgeable other’ (MKO) to develop knowledge/ skill
What is intra-psychological learning ?
Learning that takes place within that individual
They construct actions based on what they have already learnt
What is the ‘Zone of proximal development’ ?
Performer asks questions to find out what they need to do next to learn the skill
- What can I do ?
- What can I do with help ?
- What can’t I do / how can I learn to do it ?
What is verbal guidance ?
Using words to explain the key points of the skill
What stage of learning is verbal guidance most effective in ?
Cognitive - learn sequences
Autonomous - refine performance + discuss tactics
How can you optimes verbal guidance ?
Information is clear and audible
Focus on a few key points
What are some advantages of verbal guidance ?
Feedback can be immediate
Can focus on specific points in a demo
What are some disadvantages of verbal guidance ?
Some movements are hard to describe
Difficult with large groups
May become boring
What is visual guidance ?
The creation of a mental picture of the skill through demonstrations or videos
What stage of learning is visual guidance most effective in ?
Useful at every stage of learning
How can you optimes visual guidance ?
Must be clear and accurate
Have the learners attention
What are some advantages of visual guidance ?
Highlights weaknesses
Clear picture pf the skill
What are some disadvantages of visual guidance ?
Demotivating if the performer can’t copy the skill
Too much information at once - cause a cognitive overload
What is manual guidance ?
Coach physically holds or moves the performer
What stage of learning is manual guidance most effective in ?
Used at every stage
Cognitive - helps to develop kinaesthesis
How can you optimes manual guidance ?
Avoid doing it too often
Ensure movement pattern is correct
What are some advantages of manual guidance ?
Reduces fear = increase in confidence
Can reduce risks with dangerous skills
What are some disadvantages of manual guidance ?
Difficult in large groups
Performer may become reliant
Limited use with complex skills - many subroutines
What is mechanical guidance ?
Use of apparatus or equipment to shape and support the skill
What stage of learning is mechanical guidance most effective in ?
Cognitive and Associative - good for safety and the feel of the skill
Autonomous - limited value
How can you optimes mechanical guidance ?
Ensure movement pattern is correct
Combine with verbal
What are some advantages of mechanical guidance ?
Can be used with the disabled or recovering from injury
Develops kinesthetic awareness
What are some disadvantages of mechanical guidance ?
Can become over reliant
Does not learn from their own mistakes - struggle to correct them independently
In the general information processing model, what is the input ?
Performer picks up the important input cues from the display via the receptor system
In the general information processing model, what is the receptor system ?
External: Sight, Auditory
Internal: Tactile, Equilibrium, Kinaesthesis
In the general information processing model, what is selective attention ?
Filtering out irrelevant information gathered from the display and focusing on the relevant stimuli
In the general information processing model, what are the benefits of selective attention ?
Decreased reaction time
Increased number of correct decisions
Increased functioning of the working memory
In the general information processing model, how can you develop selective attention ?
Train with distractions
Optimum arousal level
Increase the intensity of stimuli in training
In the general information processing model, what is decision making ?
The performer must decide what to do with the stimulus identifies
Compare current scenarios to the long term memory
In the general information processing model, what is the output ?
The performer must instruct their muscles to move accordingly
In the general information processing model, what is the DCR process ?
Detection -> Comparison -> Recognition
In the general information processing model, what is feedback ?
Information received via intrinsic or extrinsic sources is used to repeat the process or adjust depending on the success rate
In Whiting’s model of information processing, what is the perceptual mechanism ?
Data from the display is collected and stored
Filters out irrelevant information from the display via selective attention (is the D from the DCR model)
In Whiting’s model of information processing, what is the translatory mechanism ?
The performer must now decide what to do
The information gathered during the perceptual mechanism is compared to what is held in the long term memory and a decision is made about what to do next (is the D from the DCR model)
In Whiting’s model of information processing, what is the effector mechanism ?
Once a decision has been made, the muscles need to carry out the chosen motor programme
Transfer the decision that has been made by the brain to the muscles via the nerves (coded impulses)
In Whiting’s model of information processing, what is the muscular system and output ?
The muscles perform the chosen movement (motor programme)
In Whiting’s model of information processing, what is feedback ?
Intrinsic - about how the movement felt (kinaesthesis, tactile, equilibrium)
Extrinsic - did the pass reach the intended target
In the working memory, what is the central executive ?
Information from the display is divided up and sent to one of the ‘sub-systems’ irrelevant info is ignored and filtered out
In the working memory, what happens in the phonological loop ?
Deals with auditory and written info - made of 2 parts :
‘Phonological score’ - holds info in speech form for 1-2 seconds - the inner ear
‘Articulatory system’ - speech production - the inner voice
In the working memory, what happens in the visuo-spatial sketchpad ?
Temporary store of visual and spatial information, used for navigation
‘Visual Cache’ - information about form and colour
‘Inner scribe’ - information about space and movement
In the working memory, what happens in the episodic buffer ?
Allows visual and auditory information to be chunked to create a full picture
The complete picture (memory trace) is sent to the long term memory
The memory trace is compared with stored memories in the LTM (to enable a decision to be made about what to do)
In storing information in the Long Term Memory, what is chunking ?
Different pieces of information can be grouped together and remembered as the piece of information
In storing information in the Long Term Memory, what is chaining ?
Linking together pieces of information
In storing information in the Long Term Memory, what is association ?
Trying to link new information to that which is already known
In storing information in the Long Term Memory, what is repetition ?
Rehearse and practice the skill as much as possible
‘overlearn’ the skill
In storing information in the Long Term Memory, what is rewards ?
Extrinsic or intrinsic
Make a performer want to remember
In storing information in the Long Term Memory, what is mental rehearsal ?
Information is best remembered by having a mental image
In storing information in the Long Term Memory, what is focus ?
Ignoring distractions through selective attention
In storing information in the Long Term Memory, what is uniqueness ?
If a coach presents information in an unusual way you are more likely to remember it
In storing information in the Long Term Memory, what enjoyment ?
If you enjoy learning something you are more likely to remember it
What is response time ?
The time from the onset of the stimulus to the completion of a movement
What is reaction time ?
Time taken from the onset of the stimulus to the completion of a movement
What is movement time ?
The time between the start of the movement its completion
What is choice reaction time ?
Involves numerous stimuli, each with a different response
What is simple reaction time ?
Involves the stimulus and one possible response
What is Hick’s Law ?
As the number of choices increases, so does the reaction time
What is the Psychological Refractory Period ?
The time period where the response to a second stimulus is significantly solved because the first stimuli is still being processed
The first stimuli must be cleared before the second stimuli is processed
What is anticipation ?
‘Pre-judging a stimulus’
Trying to work out what is going to happen before it happens
What is temporal anticipation ?
When is it going to happen ?
What is spatial anticipation ?
What is going to happen / where ?
How can a performer improve their response time ?
Mental rehearsal
Selective attention
Improve fitness
Anticipation
Training
Optimum arousal level
Increase intensity of a signal
Give a warning signal
What are schemas ?
Basic stored motor programmes that can be recalled and adapted to suit the situation a performer is in
What is recall schema, and what does it consist of ?
Before the movement
Knowledge of initial conditions and Knowledge of response specifications
What is knowledge of initial conditions ?
Information about the location of the performer, their environment and limb position
What is knowledge of response specifications ?
Information about the tasks to be completed
What is recognition schema and what does it consist of ?
Control the movement, during and after it
Sensory consequences and response outcomes
What is sensory consequences ?
The feeling experienced during and after the movement : information given by the sensory system
What is response outcomes ?
What happened ?
How does this compare with what we wanted to happen
How can a coach help an athlete develop schema ?
Insight learning
Mental rehearsal
Variable practice
Praise = motivation
Lots of accurate feedback
Develop the basics first
