Sports, leisure and tourism Flashcards
What is the growth of purpose of leisure time for societies in different geographic and development contexts?
The growth of leisure time is influenced by a combination of factors, including government regulations limiting working hours, increased wages allowing individuals to meet their needs in fewer hours, reduced costs of goods and services freeing up resources, the widespread adoption of the five-day work week, and technological developments automating tasks and reducing time spent on non-leisure activities.
The availability of leisure time differs significantly between High-Income Countries (HICs) and Middle/Low-Income Countries (MICs/LICs). HICs generally report higher levels of leisure due to more formal employment, the presence of labor laws, and the prevalence of automated technologies, whereas people in MICs/LICs tend to have less leisure time due to longer working hours (often in informal sectors), and a greater reliance on manual labor.
The purpose of leisure time is evolving, with tourism experiencing significant growth. This growth is propelled by increased demand resulting from higher incomes, more leisure time, the influence of technology and social media, and diaspora growth. The tourism industry is supported by improvements on the “supply” side, including more tourist facilities, government policies encouraging tourism, better transportation and information infrastructure, and increased international security.
What is the growth of changing of leisure time for societies in different geographic and development contexts?
The growth of leisure time is fueled by a variety of interconnected factors. Government regulations on working hours, coupled with increasing wages, enable individuals to earn the same amount of money while working less. Reduced costs for both basic needs and luxury items further alleviate the need for extensive work hours. The widespread acceptance of the five-day work week allows for longer periods of leisure. Finally, technological advancements continue to automate tasks, freeing up even more time for leisure pursuits.
The availability of leisure time varies significantly across different regions and developmental contexts. High-Income Countries (HICs) tend to report higher leisure time due to formal employment structures, greater adherence to labor laws, and the presence of automated technologies. Conversely, Middle and Low-Income Countries (MICs and LICs) often exhibit lower leisure time due to longer working hours in informal sectors and a greater reliance on manual labor. The financial crisis of 2009 has had an impact, in that many people have to work more to earn the same as their wages have not kept up with inflation. Also, the gender divide shows women are more likely to work than men, and take on the role of homemaker.
The concept of leisure is also evolving, shifting from more generic, mass tourism to niche and specialized types. Tourism now has a major role to play with leisure time as the tourism industry continues to grow worldwide; although this is not consistent, due to factors like the price of the country, and significant global crises. New trends that are emerging include more focus on heritage, medical, and adventure tourism.
What are the categorisation of touristic activities?
- Cost
- Duration
- Destination
What are the categorisation of sporting activities?
- Cost
- Popularity
- Site
What are detailed examples to illustrate recent changes in participation for two more societies at contrasting stages of development?
- China
- USA
What is the link between economic development and participation in leisure activities?
Economic development is intrinsically linked to participation in leisure activities. As countries develop economically, several key factors emerge that directly influence leisure time. Firstly, increased economic prosperity often leads to government regulations limiting working hours and the implementation of minimum wages, enabling individuals to earn sufficient income while working fewer hours. Simultaneously, reduced costs for essential goods and services further decrease the need for extensive work. This combination allows more people to have greater amounts of disposable income and leisure time, which can then be spent on a variety of leisure activities, including tourism, sports, and recreation. However, it is also important to consider factors like the disparity between economic classes, gender roles, and what leisure activities are made available.
What are factors affecting personal participation in sports and tourism?
- Affluence
- Gender
- Stage in lifecycle
- Personality
- Place of residence
What is the meaning of leisure?
Freely chosen activity/experience in non-work time. Includes sport, recreation, and tourism.
What is the meaning of tourism?
Travel away from home for at least one night for the purpose of leisure.
What is the meaning of sport?
A physical activity involving events and competitions at the national and international scale with professional participants.
How has government regulation contributed to the growth of leisure time for societies in different geographic and developmental contexts?
- Government Regulation: Limits on working hours imposed by governments.
- Example: The European Union’s Working Time Directive limits work to 48 hours per week (European Commission, 2017).
- Impact: These regulations directly decrease potential working hours, increasing leisure time.
How have increases in wages contributed to the growth of leisure time for societies in different geographic and developmental contexts?
- Increased Wages: Minimum wage implementation means workers can earn the same amount of money in fewer hours.
- Example: Hong Kong introduced a minimum wage in 2011 that was increased in 2017.
- Impact: Allows individuals to meet their needs while working fewer hours, increasing leisure time.
- Exception: El Salvador, where the minimum wage is only US$6.67 per day for picking cotton, requiring long hours.
How have reduced costs of goods and services contributed to the growth of leisure time for societies in different geographic and developmental contexts?
- Reduced Costs: Lower costs for basic needs (e.g., food) and luxuries (e.g., computers) reduces the amount of work required to afford them.
- Impact: Frees up time and resources that can be dedicated to leisure activities.
How has the increased acceptance of a five-day work week contributed to the growth of leisure time for societies in different geographic and developmental contexts?
- 5-Day Work Week: Greater acceptance, especially for part-time staff, leading to longer weekends and more time for leisure.
- Impact: Provides concentrated blocks of free time conducive to travel, hobbies, and other leisure pursuits.
How have technological developments contributed to the growth of leisure time for societies in different geographic and developmental contexts?
- Technological Developments: Automation makes non-leisure activities less time-consuming (e.g., dishwashers).
- Impact: Reduces time spent on household chores and other necessary tasks, increasing available leisure time.
How does the availability of leisure time differ between HICs and MICs/LICs, and why?
HICs (High-Income Countries):
- Higher reported leisure time.
- More “formal” employment (taxed, regulated).
- Automated technology reduces time spent on non-leisure activities.
MICs/LICs (Middle/Low-Income Countries):
- Less leisure time.
- More likely to work longer hours for income.
- More informal employment (underreported).
- Manual labor for tasks automated in HICs.
What “demand” factors have driven the growth of tourism?
- Higher Incomes: More disposable income available for travel and leisure activities.
- More Leisure Time: As discussed in previous cards, more free time to travel.
- Technology: TV, social media, online advertising, and online booking sites fuel desire and ease of planning.
- Diaspora Growth: More people living in countries different from their birth, increasing travel to visit relatives.
What “supply” factors have driven the growth of tourism?
- More Tourist Facilities: Increased availability of hotels, restaurants, attractions, etc.
- Government Policies: Policies designed to encourage and support tourism.
- Better Transport/Information: Improved transportation infrastructure and readily available travel information.
- Increased International Security: Reduced safety concerns in many areas.
What are the general trends in leisure time across different societies?
Despite many people working long hours, the average amount of leisure time has been increasing in many societies. This is due to a drop in work times.
How can financial crises impact leisure time trends?
Since the financial crisis of 2009, many individuals have found that they have had to work more because their wages have not increased as fast as inflation.
How does gender impact leisure time?
There is a leisure time gender divide in most societies, with women typically having less leisure time than men.
This is because women are more likely to be involved in informal employment and are more likely to take on the role of homemaker.
What is the significance of tourism as a growth industry?
Tourism is a huge growth industry. In 2016, there were over 1,235 million international tourist arrivals, contributing 10% of global GDP, 7% of global trade and 10% of global employment (UNWTO, 2017).
Has the growth in tourism been evenly spread over time and space?
- No, this growth has not been evenly spread over time or space. Some world regions appear to have higher levels of international tourist arrival than others.
- Asia and the Pacific are experiencing faster growth than other regions.
What events have caused dips in tourism trends?
- 2009: a significant dip occurred during the global economic crisis as wages and job security caused people to not travel.
- Early 2000s: terrorism concerns made people not want to travel.
- Early 1990s: the insecurity around the breakup of the Soviet Union was a further disincentive.
How do destination and transportation costs influence tourism patterns?
- While plane tickets to some destinations may be expensive, travel is cheap once you get there (e.g., Asia).
- Some destinations are ‘hubs,’ which can make them cheaper to travel to.
What is mass tourism?
Tourist activities on a mass scale; many people engage in the same activity in the same location. Families are well catered for. Hotels, restaurants and activities are usually offered in the tourist’s home language.
What is niche tourism?
Tourist activities that are popular among a small group of people. Often deliberately aim to provide an experience beyond relaxation, such as engaging with a new culture, participating in voluntary work, or experiencing the natural environment.
What are primary tourist resources
- Those that exist, or originally existed, for non-tourist purposes. They were created for another purpose.
- Examples: the natural landscape, and religious buildings.
What are secondary tourist resources?
- Those that were deliberately built to satisfy the needs of tourists.
- Examples: hotels, restaurants, and theme parks.
How can sports popularity be viewed?
- Either the number of people participating, or the number of people who are interested in the sport (including spectators, both in person and through mass media).
What are common leisure activities in China?
Reading, watching TV, online activities, shopping, table tennis and badminton, mahjong, playing cards and chess.
What challenges do some Chinese people face in accessing leisure time?
Migrant workers often work extremely long hours and may be too tired physically or mentally to engage in leisure activities.
How is cost a way to categorize touristic activities?
- The cost of a tourist activity can be a way to categorize it.
- High cost: Often involves high travel, hotels, accommodation costs.
- Low cost: Camping is an example of a low cost touristic activity.
How is cost a way to categorize sporting activities?
- High cost sports tend to involve large amounts of equipment, such as safety gear. They may also require large spaces of land, which can be expensive in high density urban environments.
- Low cost sports often involve little or no equipment, such as running or football.
- However, any sport can become costly if taken seriously. Coaching, nutrition, travel to competitions, and payments to enter races can all significantly add to the cost of participating in any given sport.
How is duration a way to categorize touristic activities?
- Tourist activities can be categorized according to how long they last.
- Can range from 1 day, to an afternoon, to a three-month trip to South East Asia.
How is destination a way to categorize touristic activities?
- Tourist activities can be categorized according to the type of place that is visited, e.g. mountain tourism, coastal tourism, urban tourism, adventure tourism, historic tourism etc.
How is cost a way to categorize sporting activities?
- High-cost sports often involve large amounts of equipment, such as safety gear, or require large, expensive spaces.
- Low-cost sports often involve little or no equipment, such as running or football.
- However, any sport can become costly with coaching, nutrition, travel to competitions, and entry fees.
How is popularity a way to categorize sporting activities?
Popularity can be viewed by either the number of people participating in the sport, or the number of people who are interested in the sport (including spectators, both in person and through mass media).
How is the site (location) a way to categorize sporting activities?
- Site may refer to the type or size of land required for a sporting activity. This is an important consideration especially in urban areas where land may be expensive.
- Small sites where many people can play (e.g., football, netball) are ideal in areas of high density.
How is China a detailed examples to illustrate recent changes in participation for two more societies at contrasting stages of development?
- In 2015, 22% of the adult population spent 1-2 hours a day on leisure activities, 16% spent 3-4 hours, 12% spent 4-5 hours, and the rest spent more than 5 hours.
- More Chinese are spending their time online through mobile phones and laptops (⅓ of Chinese adults).
- Reading, watching TV, online activities, shopping (especially by women), table tennis, badminton, mahjong, playing cards, and chess.
- In numerous parks, there are free table-tennis tables set up and badminton courts.
- Migrant workers often work extremely long hours and may be too tired physically or mentally to engage in leisure activities.
- They also have less disposable income, especially if they have to send some of it to their families.
How is the USA a detailed examples to illustrate recent changes in participation for two more societies at contrasting stages of development?
- Since the 1960s there have been a large increase in the amount of leisure time that most American adults have for some this has been 4-9 hours per week
- This has largely been due adults having shorter working weeks especially for low wage earners
- Research has shown that many Americans are spending much of their time away from work alone
- More time is spent commuting and up to 25% of households consist of a single person
- High wage workers may spend a higher proportion of their income on eating out or buying takeaway meals
- The low-wage group is less likely to eat out
- Inequality is rising in the USA, in the 1960s, the wealthiest 1% of households accounted for 10% of wealth, but in the 2010 that has grown to over 20% of wealth
How does affluence (wealth) affect personal participation in sports and tourism?
- Higher incomes provide more disposable income for travel, equipment, and fees associated with sports and tourism.
- Affluent individuals can afford higher-quality experiences (e.g., luxury resorts, specialized coaching).
- Affluent individuals can afford travel to participate in different activities.
- Affluent individuals may be able to dedicate more time to these activities due to flexible work schedules or early retirement.
How does gender affect personal participation in sports and tourism?
- Traditional gender roles can influence the types of activities considered “suitable.” However, this is constantly changing.
- Women may face barriers to participation in some sports due to cultural norms or lack of facilities.
- Women have more pressure to do home chores, less leisure time than men.
- There may be differences in the marketing and promotion of sports and tourism activities that are targeted towards specific genders.
- The number of female sports is increasing, so it’s less affected as time goes on.
How does one’s stage in the lifecycle affect personal participation in sports and tourism?
- Young children may have limited autonomy in activity choices.
- Families with young children may prefer family-friendly destinations.
- Older adults may favor less physically demanding activities.
- Teenagers may be influenced by peers and social trends when choosing activities.
- Adults in middle age may prioritize activities that promote health and well-being due to more wealth.
How does personality affect personal participation in sports and tourism?
- Extroverts may prefer group activities and social travel.
- Introverts may prefer solo activities and more isolated destinations.
- Adventure-seekers may be drawn to extreme sports and remote locations.
- More competitive personalities may seek out sports with a strong competitive element.
- Relaxed people may focus on nature with sports like fishing.
How does one’s place of residence affect personal participation in sports and tourism?
- Access to facilities (e.g., parks, gyms, swimming pools) can influence sports participation.
- Proximity to natural attractions (e.g., mountains, beaches) can encourage outdoor activities.
- Urban vs. rural settings can shape preferences (e.g., city tours vs. hiking).
- The local climate and weather patterns can determine the availability of certain sports (e.g., skiing in mountainous regions).
- Local culture/traditions can influence the popularity of certain activities (e.g., surfing near beaches).
What human factors explain the growth of rural tourism hotspots including the role of primary and secondary touristic resources?
- Demand factors
- Supply factors
What human factors explain the growth of urban tourism hotspots including the role of primary and secondary touristic resources?
- Demand factors
- Supply factors
What physical factors explain the growth of rural tourism hotspots including the role of primary and secondary touristic resources?
- Climate
- Topography
- Natural resources
What physical factors explain the growth of urban tourism hotspots including the role of primary and secondary touristic resources?
- Climate
- Topography
- Natural resources
What variations are there in there sphere of influence for different kinds of sporting facility?
- Neighbourhood parks and gyms
- City stadiums
- National parks
What variations are there in there sphere of influence for different kinds of touristic facility?
- Neighbourhood parks and gyms
- City stadiums
- National parks
- Heritage sites
- Theme parks
What factors affect the geography of a national sports league?
- Location of its hierarchy of teams
- Distribution of supporters
What is one case study of one national sports league?
- The Swiss National League (NL) is the top-tier professional ice hockey league in Switzerland (EV Zug, ZSC Lions (Zurich), HC Davos, SC Bern, Lausanne HC etc.)
- The league consists of 14 teams. A regular season is followed by playoffs to determine the champion. The bottom team faces a playoff against the champion of the Swiss League (the second-tier league) to determine relegation.
- The NL is one of the wealthiest ice hockey leagues in Europe, attracting skilled players. Player salaries are high relative to other leagues outside of North America.
- Ice hockey is very popular in Switzerland and is considered to be the number one sport in the country.
- The SC Bern often leads in average attendance, and several other teams draw consistently strong crowds.
- The SC Bern has over 16,000 season-ticket holders.
- Teams are primarily located in the German-speaking and French-speaking parts of Switzerland, reflecting the cultural and population distribution.
- There are notable regional rivalries, for example, the “Züri Derby” between the ZSC Lions and Kloten.
- While many Swiss players play in the league, the NL also has many international players, who help contribute to the league’s quality.
- There is more than 50% foreign participation allowed. The league is also increasing in popularity and competitiveness
What are reasons for temporary sites for leisure?
- Large-scale sporting festivals
- Large-scale musical festivals
- Large-scale cultural festivals
- Large-scale religious festivals
What are the costs and benefits for a temporary site for a large-scale sporting festival?
Costs:
- Infrastructure Development: Requires significant investment in temporary infrastructure (e.g., seating, power, water, sanitation, and waste disposal).
- Logistics and Planning: Complex logistical challenges related to transportation, security, crowd control, and accessibility.
- Environmental Impact: Potential environmental damage and disruption to local ecosystems. Requires careful planning and mitigation.
- Weather Dependency: Vulnerable to weather conditions, which can impact event attendance and safety.
- Permitting and Regulations: Can involve navigating complex permitting processes and regulatory requirements.
- Restoration Costs: Costs associated with restoring the site to its original condition after the festival.
Benefits:
- Flexibility: Allows organizers to select unique locations that may not have permanent facilities, enhancing the festival’s appeal.
- Cost-Effectiveness: Can be cheaper than building or renting permanent venues, especially for one-off events.
- Customization: Enables tailored design and layout to suit the specific needs of the festival and its participants.
- Showcasing Unique Locations: The possibility of highlighting tourist and geographical features.
Example: The FIFA World Cup in Qatar utilized temporary stadiums, aiming to minimize long-term infrastructure burdens, though this approach faced scrutiny over worker conditions, sustainability concerns, and the ultimate fate of dismantled materials.
What are the costs and benefits for a temporary site for a large-scale musical festival?
Costs:
- Infrastructure Setup: Requires extensive infrastructure setup, including stages, sound systems, lighting, power, water, sanitation, and security.
- Logistics and Transportation: Managing the logistics of transporting equipment, staff, and attendees to a remote or temporary site can be challenging and expensive.
- Environmental Impact: Can have a significant environmental impact due to site disturbance, waste generation, noise pollution, and increased traffic.
- Weather Dependence: Outdoor festivals are heavily dependent on weather conditions, and organizers must have contingency plans in case of adverse weather.
- Security and Safety: Ensuring the security and safety of attendees at a large-scale event requires careful planning and implementation.
- Licensing and Permits: Requires obtaining necessary licenses and permits from local authorities, which can be a complex and time-consuming process.
Benefits:
- Location Flexibility: Allows festivals to be held in unique or scenic locations that may not have permanent venue infrastructure.
- Scalability: The site can be customized to the specific size and needs of the festival, accommodating different numbers of stages, camping areas, and attendees.
- Creative Control: Organizers have complete control over the design and layout of the site, allowing for a unique and immersive festival experience.
Example: Glastonbury incurs significant costs in infrastructure setup and cleanup, but benefits from its unique rural location and the festival’s iconic brand.
What are the costs and benefits for a temporary site for a large-scale cultural festival?
Benefits:
- Accessibility: Allows festivals to be held in locations convenient for attendees, often within urban areas or easily accessible by public transport.
- Theming & Atmosphere: Provides flexibility to create a specific ambiance or theme that enhances the cultural experience, such as traditional market setups or immersive art installations.
- Community Engagement: Can foster a sense of community by bringing people together in shared cultural experiences.
Costs:
- Site Preparation: Requires significant effort to prepare the site, including leveling, fencing, stage construction, and vendor setup.
- Infrastructure Needs: Requires temporary infrastructure for power, water, sanitation, waste management, and security.
- Noise and Disruption: Can cause noise and disruption to local residents and businesses, requiring careful planning and mitigation.
- Environmental Impact: Can have an environmental impact due to waste generation, trampling of vegetation, and potential pollution.
- Permitting and Regulations: Requires obtaining permits and complying with local regulations regarding noise levels, safety, and public assembly.
Example: The Edinburgh Fringe Festival uses temporary performance spaces throughout the city, allowing it to transform public spaces into vibrant hubs of artistic expression but requiring significant logistical coordination.
What are the costs and benefits for a temporary site for a large-scale religious festival?
Benefits:
- Accommodation of Large Crowds: Provides space to accommodate large numbers of pilgrims or attendees in areas that may not have existing infrastructure.
- Cultural Preservation: Allows for the creation of an atmosphere that reflects the traditions and customs of the religious event.
- Flexibility and Adaptability: The site can be adapted to suit the specific needs and practices of the religious community.
Costs:
- Logistical Challenges: Managing logistics for accommodation, food, water, sanitation, and transportation for large numbers of people can be extremely complex.
- Security and Safety: Ensuring the safety and security of attendees requires careful planning and crowd management.
- Environmental Impact: Can have a significant environmental impact due to waste generation, pollution, and strain on local resources.
- Health Concerns: Overcrowding and inadequate sanitation can lead to health risks and the spread of disease.
Example: The Kumbh Mela, a Hindu pilgrimage and festival held every 12 years at different locations in India, involves vast temporary tent cities and infrastructure, which are constructed and dismantled for each event. This massive undertaking involves significant logistical challenges and environmental concerns, but it provides a space for millions of pilgrims to participate in the sacred rituals.
What is one case study of one festival in a rural location including its site factors and geographic impacts?
Glastonbury Festival is the UK’s largest music festival. It has been held on Worthy Farm near Glastonbury most years since 1970, when it was started by Michael Eavis. He and his daughter Emily are still the main people in charge of the festival. Over 200,000 people went in 2017. The festival usually lasts three or four nights.
The Glastonbury Festival takes place on Worthy Farm, near Glastonbury in south west England. The nearest major city is Bristol, about 40 km away.
Glastonbury started off as a small festival but has grown substantially (BBC News, 2010). The following two graphs show the increase in attendance and ticket price, and during the following years the trend continued.
As the annual festival has grown, so have the temporary secondary tourist resources that are required – over 200,000 people come to an area usually populated by just a few thousand. The local area does not have permanent facilities to cope with such a large number of people, so temporary and portable facilities are provided. The following were provided in 2017:
- 514 food stalls
- 900 shops, including 150 that take card payments.
- 5,000 toilets provided.
- 3,000,000 gallons of water.
- Accommodation for the vast majority of the festival-goers is in one million square metres of public camping space.
A rural site is required, since an urban area could not easily provide the space necessary. A huge site is used for the festival – it is over 360 hectares (Belfast Telegraph, 2017). This is larger than Worthy Farm, so over 21 different landowners contribute land to the temporary festival in addition to the main site.
Another benefit of the site is the low population in the vicinity. The nearest town, Glastonbury, has a population of less than 10,000 so disruption to a large population is avoided.
However, an unusual limitation for a site this large is that it is not near a major transport route. The nearest motorway (major highway) is around 27km away. Congestion on narrow rural roads is a major issue during the festival weekend
A complicating factor is soil erosion. Because the soil needs to recover after the festival, every few years there is a ‘fallow’ year in which the festival doesn’t take place. This happened in 2012 and 2018. There is pressure to find an alternative location, such as Longleat which is a country estate about 20 km from Worthy Farm. However, this is a difficult problem to solve because of local opposition to such a large festival taking place in a new area (Rawlinson, 2016). No decision has yet been published about the choice of alternative venue for future years.
Costs and benefits can be analysed using thematic approach. Below, the themes of social, economic, and environmental issues are discussed.
How do demand factors contribute to the growth of rural tourism hotspots?
- Higher incomes: People have more disposable income to travel to rural areas and experience rural life.
- More leisure time: Increased free time enables longer trips and more frequent visits to escape urban environments.
- Technology: Online booking platforms and social media marketing make rural destinations more accessible and appealing to wider audiences.
- Desire for authentic experiences: Tourists seek unique cultural and natural experiences away from the tourist crowds.
- Growing awareness of sustainability promotes eco-tourism and responsible travel to rural destinations.
- Increasing urbanization has led to a longing for rural environments among city dwellers.
How do supply factors contribute to the growth of rural tourism hotspots?
- Development of tourist facilities: More hotels, restaurants, and attractions catering to different tastes, especially in rural areas.
- Government policies: Policies that encourage tourism, protect rural environments, and support local businesses.
- Improved infrastructure: Better roads, transportation networks, and communication infrastructure to ensure the best tourism.
- Increased security: Enhanced safety and security measures that make rural areas more attractive for tourism.
- Rural communities actively promote local traditions, crafts, and cuisine to attract tourists.
- Collaboration between local businesses, organizations, and government agencies creates a positive tourist experience.
What role do primary tourist resources play in the growth of rural tourism hotspots?
- Natural landscape: Mountains, lakes, forests, and other natural features offer scenic beauty and recreational opportunities.
- Cultural heritage: Historic sites, traditional villages, local customs, and archaeological finds showcase cultural uniqueness.
- Examples: mountains, rainforests, coral reefs.
- Unique biodiversity hotspots attract nature enthusiasts and scientific researchers.
- Rural areas often offer opportunities to experience solitude, tranquility, and peacefulness.
What role do secondary tourist resources play in the growth of rural tourism hotspots?
- Accommodation: Hotels, guesthouses, farm stays, and campsites offer a variety of lodging options.
- Food and beverage services: Restaurants, cafes, local food producers, and farmers’ markets provide culinary experiences.
- Recreational facilities: Hiking trails, bike rentals, fishing spots, and other activity providers facilitate outdoor adventures.
- Infrastructure: Information centers, transportation services, signage, and public restrooms ensure tourist convenience.
- Local crafts, artisan shops, and souvenir outlets promote local businesses and cultural exchange.
- Museums, art galleries, and cultural centers showcase local history, art, and traditions.
How do demand factors contribute to the growth of urban tourism hotspots?
- Higher incomes: People have more disposable income to travel to urban areas, seeking diverse experiences and amenities.
- More leisure time: Increased free time enables frequent city breaks and longer explorations of urban attractions.
- Technology: Online platforms and social media showcase the vibrant culture, nightlife, and shopping opportunities in cities.
- Desire for cultural experiences: Tourists seek museums, theaters, concerts, and diverse culinary scenes unique to cities.
- Proximity to entertainment events such as concerts and sports games.
- Visiting friends/family in new city destinations.
How do demand factors contribute to the growth of urban tourism hotspots?
- Higher incomes: People have more disposable income to travel to urban areas, seeking diverse experiences and amenities.
- More leisure time: Increased free time enables frequent city breaks and longer explorations of urban attractions.
- Technology: Online platforms and social media showcase the vibrant culture, nightlife, and shopping opportunities in cities.
- Desire for cultural experiences: Tourists seek museums, theaters, concerts, and diverse culinary scenes unique to cities.
- Proximity to entertainment events such as concerts and sports games.
- Visiting friends/family in new city destinations.
How do supply factors contribute to the growth of urban tourism hotspots?
- Development of tourist facilities: Hotels, restaurants, entertainment venues, and shopping malls cater to diverse tastes and budgets in cities.
- Government policies: Urban planning initiatives, cultural preservation efforts, and tourism promotion campaigns.
- Improved infrastructure: Public transportation systems, pedestrian-friendly zones, and efficient airports enhance urban accessibility.
- Increased security: Enhanced safety and security measures ensure tourist well-being and reduce concerns in urban environments.
- Urban redevelopment projects revitalize historical areas and create appealing tourist districts.
- Strong branding and marketing campaigns highlight the unique character and attractions of urban destinations
What role do primary tourist resources play in the growth of urban tourism hotspots?
- Historical landmarks: Iconic buildings, monuments, and historical sites showcasing the city’s past.
- Cultural institutions: World-class museums, art galleries, theaters, and music venues attracting cultural tourists.
- Examples: Modern architecture, religious temples and cathedrals.
- Diverse neighborhoods with distinct architectural styles, cultural identities, and culinary traditions.
- Large public parks and gardens offering green spaces and recreational opportunities within the city.
What role do secondary tourist resources play in the growth of urban tourism hotspots?
- Accommodation: High rise hotels, guesthouses, serviced apartments, and boutique hotels offer a range of lodging options.
- Food and beverage services: Restaurants, cafes, bars, food trucks, and street food vendors providing a diverse culinary scene.
- Recreational facilities: Theme parks, entertainment centers, shopping malls, sports venues, and nightlife destinations.
- Infrastructure: Tourist information centers, transportation services, guided tours, and convenient amenities enhance urban explorations.
- Souvenir shops, artisan markets, and luxury boutiques offering local crafts, art, fashion, and design.
- Conference centers, business hotels, co-working spaces, and event venues catering to business travelers and events.
How does climate contribute to the growth of rural tourism hotspots?
- Mild temperatures: Comfortable weather conditions for outdoor activities.
- Sunshine: Sunny days for hiking, biking, and exploring natural landscapes.
- Distinct seasons: Seasonal changes provide unique experiences (e.g., autumn foliage, winter sports).
- Low rainfall will encourage a broader range of activities.
- Locations with specific climatic qualities will draw visitors - e.g. ski resorts with colder temperatures.
How does topography contribute to the growth of rural tourism hotspots?
- Mountains: Hiking, climbing, skiing, and scenic views.
- Valleys: Picturesque landscapes, vineyards, and agricultural activities.
- Coastal areas: Beaches, cliffs, and water sports.
- Low-lying land is suited to walking and cycling.
- Areas with varied topography provide a broader range of potential pursuits.
How do natural resources contribute to the growth of rural tourism hotspots?
- Forests: Hiking, camping, wildlife viewing, and timber production.
- Lakes and rivers: Fishing, boating, swimming, and water sports.
- Wildlife: Unique species attract nature enthusiasts and wildlife photographers.
- Unique rock formations and geological features.
- Fertile soil suited to agriculture and vineyards.
What role do primary physical tourist resources play in the growth of rural tourism hotspots?
- Scenic landscapes: Unique natural beauty is often the foundational attraction.
- Biodiversity: Unique ecosystems offer ecotourism opportunities and attract nature enthusiasts.
- Natural formations may allow the area to be used for rock climbing and caving.
- Natural springs and volcanic activity.
How are secondary tourist resources adapted to the physical environment to support rural tourism?
- Ski resorts: Constructed to take advantage of mountainous terrain and snowy conditions.
- Eco-lodges: Designed to minimize environmental impact and blend with the natural surroundings.
- Well-maintained hiking trails and visitor centres that preserve natural environments.
- Well-designed camp sites that allow visitors to experience the beauty of the area.
How does climate contribute to the growth of urban tourism hotspots?
- Temperature: Mild temperatures year-round allow for outdoor exploration and events. However, some people may be attracted to hot places.
- Air Quality: Cities that have better air quality may attract tourists more often than those with poor air quality.
- Sunshine: Sunny days enhance the enjoyment of outdoor attractions and activities.
- Comfortable humidity levels make walking and outdoor pursuits more enjoyable.
- Cities can attract visitors regardless of climate through the provision of indoor attractions and activities, such as climate-controlled shopping and entertainment centres.
How do natural settings and topography contribute to the growth of urban tourism hotspots?
- Waterfronts: Cities located on rivers, coasts, or lakes offer opportunities for boat tours, beaches, and scenic views.
- Green Spaces: Parks, gardens, and urban forests provide respite and recreational areas within the city.
- Scenic Overlooks: Hills, mountains, or high-rise buildings offer panoramic views of the city skyline.
- The presence of natural features, such as hills and rivers, contribute to the distinctiveness and character of an urban area.
- Urban design can incorporate and enhance the natural environment, creating a more attractive destination.
How do natural resources directly contribute to the growth of urban tourism hotspots?
- (Limited Direct Role): Unlike rural tourism, natural resources play a less central role in most urban tourism, although urban planners often aim to integrate and enhance natural features.
- Water Supply: Access to clean and reliable water sources is essential for tourism infrastructure and amenities.
- Building Materials: Local availability of building materials can influence the architectural style and character of the city.
- Access to energy sources can enhance the facilities available in the urban area.
- Although less significant, urban green spaces and parks can offer limited natural resource attractions within the city.
How do primary physical tourist resources contribute to the growth of urban tourism hotspots?
- Distinctive Architecture: Unique building styles, architectural landmarks, and historical structures define the city’s skyline.
- Urban Layout and Design: Well-planned streets, pedestrian-friendly zones, and public spaces enhance the urban experience.
- The aesthetic appeal and visual harmony of urban environments contribute to tourist satisfaction.
- Preserved historical buildings and archaeological sites offer insights into the city’s past.
How are secondary tourist resources physically adapted to enhance urban tourism?
- Skyscrapers with observation decks: Utilize height to offer panoramic city views.
- Waterfront developments: Incorporate boardwalks, marinas, and recreational areas.
- Green roofs and vertical gardens enhance the visual appeal and sustainability of buildings.
- Integration of outdoor seating, public art, and performance spaces in urban design.
What is the typical sphere of influence for neighbourhood parks?
- Local Residents: Primarily serve people within a short walking or biking distance.
- Families with Young Children: Often used by families with playgrounds and open spaces.
- Dog Walkers: Common for local dog owners to use for exercise.
- After school care, or care groups may use the facilities.
- Older residents may be drawn to these parks due to the localness.
What is the typical sphere of influence for local gyms?
- Immediate Community: Draws members from the surrounding residential areas and nearby workplaces (e.g., 2-5 mile radius).
- Health-Conscious Individuals: Caters to people seeking fitness facilities and classes close to home or work.
- Members of certain workplaces/healthcare practices may be drawn if there are perks to joining.
- People who prefer a more private workout experience.
What is the typical sphere of influence for city stadiums?
- Metropolitan Area: Attracts spectators and fans from across the entire city and its suburbs (e.g., 20-50+ mile radius).
- Regional and National Events: Can draw visitors from other regions or even countries for major sporting events or concerts.
- Tourists who are visiting the city for a holiday.
- Local community groups may hire it out.
What is the typical sphere of influence for national parks?
- National and international: Attracts visitors from across the country and around the world seeking natural landscapes and recreational opportunities.
- Nature Enthusiasts and Tourists: Appeals to people interested in hiking, camping, wildlife viewing, and outdoor adventures.
- People who want to see local biodiversity.
- Educational groups such as schools and universities may also visit.
What is the typical sphere of influence for neighbourhood parks as touristic facilities?
- Local Residents: Primarily serve people within a short walking or biking distance
- Families with Young Children: Often used by families with playgrounds and open spaces.
- Local Community Groups: Host events, picnics, and recreational activities.
- Tourists may visit local parks if staying in Airbnbs in the neighbourhood.
- The area may also contain small gardens.
What is the typical sphere of influence for local gyms as touristic facilities?
- Immediate Community: Draws members from the surrounding residential areas and nearby workplaces (e.g., 2-5 mile radius).
- Health-Conscious Tourists: Used by visitors seeking fitness facilities while traveling.
- Visitors who seek a sense of community whilst traveling.
- Travelers who require it for their sport, such as weightlifters.
What is the typical sphere of influence for city stadiums as touristic facilities?
- Metropolitan Area: Attracts spectators and fans from across the entire city and its suburbs (e.g., 20-50+ mile radius).
- Regional and National Events: Can draw visitors from other regions or even countries for major sporting events or concerts.
- City stadiums provide a focus on a certain sport for tourists.
- The city may be accessible to tourists because of a particular sport played there.
What is the typical sphere of influence for national parks as touristic facilities?
- National and International: Attracts visitors from across the country and around the world seeking natural landscapes and recreational opportunities.
- Nature Enthusiasts and Tourists: Appeals to people interested in hiking, camping, wildlife viewing, and outdoor adventures.
- Tourists may go to the country purely for the national parks.
- Certain tourists may be drawn to specific parks due to the biodiversity.
What is the typical sphere of influence for heritage sites as touristic facilities?
- Regional and National: Attract visitors interested in history, culture, and historical significance
- International Visitors: Specific heritage sites may draw tourists from around the world due to their global importance.
- Specific family may have an interest in visiting a heritage site.
- Heritage sites can be used for educational trips.
What is the typical sphere of influence for theme parks as touristic facilities?
- Regional: Attract families and thrill-seekers from across the region (e.g., 50-150+ mile radius).
- National and International Tourists: Major theme parks can draw visitors from further distances, especially if associated with well-known brands.
- Theme parks can attract different age groups.
- Theme parks can provide a broad range of activities.
How does population distribution affect the geography of a national sports league?
- Major Cities: Densely populated cities often support multiple teams across different leagues, maximizing potential fan base and revenue.
- Regional Centers: Teams are strategically located in regional hubs to capture a wider fan base and serve as a source of local pride.
- Teams may relocate to cities with growing populations and untapped fan potential, seeking greater market share and profitability.
- Under-populated areas may struggle to support a team, leading to financial instability and potential relocation or folding of the team.
- Some leagues actively promote teams that reflect their regional culture
How do economic factors affect the geography of a national sports league?
- Wealthy Cities: Teams tend to locate in areas with strong economies and high disposable incomes, allowing for greater ticket sales and merchandise purchases.
- Corporate Sponsorship: Cities with a large corporate presence attract lucrative sponsorship deals, providing teams with essential revenue streams.
- Areas with low wages may struggle to host a team, leading to difficulty attracting and retaining top players.
- The economic state of the world may affect the popularity of sports and thus the location, with more teams thriving during periods of prosperity.
- High incomes allow tourists to travel.
How does transportation infrastructure affect the geography of a national sports league?
- Accessibility: Teams are located in cities with well-developed transportation networks for easy travel to games for both players and fans, including highways and public transit.
- Airports: Major cities with international airports can host teams in leagues with global reach, facilitating travel for players, staff, and international fans.
- Cities that a far away from each other may struggle to form a league, unless strong transport links are made.
- Cities with strong public transport will ensure more supporters, increasing game attendance and revenue for the team.
- Government regulations to limit transport during specific times.
How do historical and cultural factors affect the geography of a national sports league?
- Traditional Sporting Cities: Some cities have a long-standing history and strong cultural connection to specific sports, fostering a deep-rooted fan base.
- Fan Base Loyalty: Established teams often benefit from loyal fan bases that have been built over generations, creating a strong sense of community and tradition.
- Fans of certain teams may pass the love for sport down generations, ensuring long-term support for the team.
- Historic rivalries between towns may be a foundation for certain teams, creating intense local interest.
- Different ethnic backgrounds that love sports.
How do geographic rivalries affect the geography of a national sports league?
- Teams located in close proximity create natural rivalries that draw large crowds and media attention, increasing excitement and engagement.
- Derby Matches: Highly anticipated games between rival teams boost attendance and increase league popularity, leading to greater revenue and brand recognition.
- Rivalries can be a way of marketing the city and creating revenue for the team, enhancing its reputation and attracting fans.
- Local rivalries are more important than international, as they reflect the specific history, culture, and identity of the region.
- If people from certain backgrounds tend to live in areas, this can cause friction.
What are the economic impacts of Glastonbury festival?
- About 100 people are permanently employed to run the festival.
- In 2017 the festival spent over US$8 million with local companies.
- A 2007 study showed that the average person spent about US$180 on site and roughly the same off-site in the local area.
- Each year the festival raises US$1.35 million for charities.
What are the social impacts of Glastonbury festival?
Crime is low, but present with 188 crimes reported to police in 2017, with 71 people arrested compared to 40 in 2016. Figures on the impact on local residents are not available.
Each year the festival has a ‘health focus’ and in 2015 it was blood donation leading to an increase in blood stocks in the area.
Glastonbury benefits from a greater ‘reach’ to tourists from other places – in 2007 over 700 journalists from around the world reported on the festival.
What are the environmental impacts of Glastonbury festival?
- The physical soil degradation from trampling means the land requires a year off every six years or so. Recent “fallow” years include 2012 and 2018
- High energy consumption – over 120 generators are required, with a 2014 study showing that many of them were inefficient because they were oversized.
- Renewable energy can be used. In the Green Fields coordinators camp a 1.5 kW solar unit (plus 22 kWh of battery storage) has been used to supply steady energy.
- Although around two thirds of the visitors arrive by car, causing traffic congestion and air pollution, the emissions of carbon dioxide may be lower than those people remaining at home because during the festival they stay in tents. However this is a complex issue and no comprehensive study has been done.
- Noise pollution: some individuals have claimed that the festival can be heard over 8km away
What are niche tourism strategies with a global sphere of influence?
- Adventure tourism
- Movie location tourism
- Heritage tourism
What is the role of TNCs in expanding international tourism destinations?
- Investment in infrastructure
- Marketing and promotion
- Development of tourist attractions
- Standardisation of services
What are the costs and benefits of TNC involvement in expanding international destinations for different stakeholders?
Different stakeholders include:
- Host country governments
- Local communities
- Tourists
- TNCs
What are the costs and benefits of tourism as a national development strategy?
- Economic effects
- Social effects
- Cultural effects
What political factors affect the hosting of international sporting events including Olympics and football World Cup events?
- Government Support: Strong government backing is essential, as hosting events often requires public funding for infrastructure, security, and operational costs. Government support can also involve legislative changes or policy adjustments to meet the requirements of the organizing body. The UK government heavily supported the 2012 London Olympics.
- National Image and Prestige: Hosting these events is often seen as a way to enhance a nation’s image, promote tourism, and demonstrate its capabilities on a global stage, leading to political competition among countries. The FIFA world cup in Qatar was heavily criticised and boosted the image of a country that not many people thought of as tourists.
- Political Stability: Countries with stable political systems and low levels of corruption are generally favored, as they can provide a secure and predictable environment for the event. Hosting events in countries with political instability can bring about concern. Hosting events in countries with political instability can bring about concern.
- International Relations: A country’s relationships with other nations and international bodies can influence its chances of winning a bid. Support from influential countries or organizations can be crucial. Good relations may mean it’s easier to host the event.
- Human Rights and Ethical Considerations: Concerns about human rights, labor practices, and social justice issues can impact a country’s bid, as organizing bodies face pressure to ensure ethical standards are met. Qatar faced enormous criticism as labourers were not paid.
- Legacy and Long-Term Impacts: Governments often seek to ensure that hosting the event leaves a positive legacy, such as improved infrastructure, increased tourism, and enhanced sporting facilities, leading to strategic planning and investment.
Investment allows other sporting games to occur in the area. - Countries must take into account security, terrorism and political factors.
What economic factors affect the hosting of international sporting events including Olympics and football World Cup events?
- Infrastructure Costs: Hosting these events requires significant investment in infrastructure, including stadiums, transportation networks, accommodation, and telecommunications. The economic viability of these investments and their long-term use are key concerns. The cost of building stadiums for the FIFA World Cup can be in the billions of dollars.
- Economic Impact Assessments: Host cities and countries conduct economic impact assessments to forecast the potential benefits of hosting the event, including increased tourism revenue, job creation, and economic growth. These assessments influence bidding decisions and government support. The economic benefit of the games being held in London.
- Tourism Revenue: Increased tourism during and after the event is a major economic incentive for hosting. However, the sustainability of this increase and its distribution across different sectors of the economy are important factors. As the prices for things such as flights increase, tourism will increase.
- Sponsorship and Broadcasting Rights: Revenue from sponsorships, advertising, and broadcasting rights is a crucial source of funding for these events. The ability to attract lucrative deals is a key economic consideration. Certain brand deals providing funding.
- Cost Overruns and Financial Risks: Many events have experienced significant cost overruns, posing financial risks to host cities and countries. Managing these risks through effective budgeting and financial planning is essential. Due to the cost of hosting the event, countries may struggle to recoup the money.
What cultural factors affect the hosting of international sporting events including Olympics and football World Cup events?
- National Identity and Pride: Hosting events allows a nation to showcase its culture, traditions, and values to a global audience, fostering a sense of national pride and unity, and offering a chance to redefine or reinforce its global image. The Beijing 2008 Olympics used its opening ceremonies to demonstrate China’s rich history and modern achievements, enhancing national pride and showcasing its cultural heritage through elaborate performances.
- Cultural Sensitivity: Organizers must be sensitive to the cultural norms and values of the host country and participating nations, including language, religion, customs, and social etiquette, to avoid misunderstandings and ensure respectful interactions. During the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa, accommodations were made for Muslim players during Ramadan, including adjusted training schedules and meal arrangements.
- Local Traditions and Customs: Incorporating local traditions and customs into the event can enhance the cultural experience for visitors and promote cross-cultural understanding, creating a unique atmosphere that reflects the host country’s identity.
The Rio 2016 Olympics integrated Brazilian culture through samba performances and traditional music, showcasing the country’s vibrant culture to a global audience. - Language and Communication: Effective communication in multiple languages is essential for accommodating athletes, officials, media, and spectators from diverse cultural backgrounds, ensuring a smooth and inclusive event experience. Olympic host cities provide multilingual signage, translation services, and volunteer interpreters to assist visitors from different countries.
- Cultural Exchange and Dialogue: Hosting events provides opportunities for cultural exchange and dialogue among participants and visitors, promoting mutual respect and understanding and fostering greater international cooperation. The Olympic Village provides athletes from different countries with opportunities to interact, share their cultures, and build lasting relationships, enhancing global cultural understanding.
- Social Inclusion and Accessibility: Ensuring that the event is inclusive and accessible to people from all cultural backgrounds, including those with disabilities, is crucial for promoting social justice and equality and ensuring that everyone can participate and enjoy the event. he Paralympic Games, held after the Olympics, highlight the importance of inclusivity and accessibility, showcasing the achievements of athletes with disabilities and promoting greater social awareness.
What is one case study of costs and benefits for a country hosting an international event?
Benefits:
- The Games improved London’s image and provided new sports facilities, including sailing venues in Weymouth. The UK government invested £300 million to create the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park, featuring housing, schools, health centers, business spaces, and sports venues. The Olympic Village was converted into over 2,800 flats, with plans for 11,000 residences, one-third designated as affordable housing.
- The Games also inspired volunteerism, with over 6,000 events in the first “Join In” weekend. A new youth sport strategy invested £1 billion over five years, creating 6,000 community sports clubs, while the Department of Education provided £65 million to promote competitive sports in schools. The “Get Set” education program reached 6.5 million young people in 85% of UK schools. Over 2,000 community projects educated youth about sports, health, art, and Olympic values.
- The Olympic Park became the “largest new urban park in Europe for 150 years.” Before construction, 2.3 million cubic meters of contaminated soil were cleaned. Transport for London invested £6.5 billion, resulting in ten railway lines and 30 new bridges. The Home Office invested £40 million to upgrade London Underground communications. 60 projects promoted greener travel, including a £10 million investment in pedestrian and cycling routes. A fleet of 200 electric vehicles and 120 charging stations supported the Games. Over 98% of demolition waste was recycled, 45 hectares of habitat were developed, and 300,000 plants and over 1,000 trees were planted.
- An Oxford Economics study estimated the Games would generate £16.5 billion for the British economy between 2005 and 2017. Visitors spent £760 million during the Games, averaging £1,290 per person, and overseas visitor expenditure in August totaled £4.5 billion. 75% of Olympic spending aimed to provide a lasting legacy for East London residents.
- Preparations for the Games were a major factor in a 1.2% reduction in London’s unemployment rate. Over 46,000 people worked on the Olympic Park and Village, 10% of whom were previously unemployed. The Westfield Stratford shopping centre, a £1.4 billion investment, created 10,000 permanent jobs.
Costs:
- The Games’ final cost ballooned to around £10 billion, significantly exceeding the initial £2.2 billion estimate. Some sources put revenues around US$3.5 billion and spending in excess of US$18 billion – a negative balance of $14 billion plus. This led to concerns about diverting funds from other areas like the arts and increased living costs for poorer residents. 380 businesses were forced to relocate.
What are the characteristics of adventure tourism as a niche tourism strategy with a global sphere of influence?
- Target Audience: Attracts thrill-seekers, outdoor enthusiasts, and individuals seeking physically challenging experiences in remote settings.
- Activities: Includes activities like trekking in the Himalayas, rock climbing in Yosemite, white-water rafting on the Zambezi, scuba diving in the Great Barrier Reef, and wildlife safaris in the Serengeti.
- Destinations: Can occur in remote and exotic locations worldwide, such as the Himalayas, the Amazon rainforest, the African savanna, and the Arctic Circle. These often require long-distance travel.
- Adventure tourism often promotes sustainable travel practices, supports local communities, and encourages responsible environmental stewardship.
- Aims to be a new experience outside relaxation, often involving overcoming challenges and pushing personal boundaries. This is supported by the tourist attraction itself and locals.
- The rise of adventure tourism has spurred the development of eco-lodges and local guiding services in the Costa Rican rainforest.
What are the characteristics of movie location tourism as a niche tourism strategy with a global sphere of influence?
- Target Audience: Appeals to film buffs, fans of specific movies or TV shows, and those interested in behind-the-scenes experiences and set-jetting.
- Activities: Involves visiting locations where movies or TV shows were filmed, taking tours of studios (e.g., Warner Bros. Studios in Hollywood), and participating in themed events and fan conventions.
- Destinations: Can occur in various locations worldwide, from Hollywood studios to exotic filming locations like New Zealand (Lord of the Rings), Croatia (Game of Thrones), and Scotland (Harry Potter).
- Many locations are remote and benefit economically from increased tourism revenue, driving infrastructure development and creating jobs.
- The movie is a primary resource, whilst tour guides and merchandise shops are secondary resources, enhancing the visitor experience and contributing to the local economy.
- The “Harry Potter” films have led to a surge in tourism to Alnwick Castle in England.
What are the characteristics of heritage tourism as a niche tourism strategy with a global sphere of influence?
- Target Audience: Attracts history buffs, cultural enthusiasts, individuals seeking to connect with their roots, and those interested in preserving cultural traditions.
- Activities: Includes visiting historical sites (e.g., the Colosseum in Rome), museums (e.g., the British Museum), cultural events (e.g., Oktoberfest in Germany), and ancestral homelands.
- Destinations: Can occur in various locations worldwide, from ancient ruins and UNESCO World Heritage Sites (e.g., Machu Picchu) to historical cities (e.g., Kyoto) and cultural landmarks.
- Heritage tourism can help preserve cultural traditions, boost local economies, and promote cross-cultural understanding and appreciation. It can also promote national pride.
- Heritage can be linked to historical events, such as visiting battlefields or sites associated with significant historical figures, providing educational experiences.
- Heritage tourism has played a role in the revitalization of historic districts in Charleston, South Carolina.
How do TNCs contribute to expanding international tourism destinations through investment in infrastructure?
- Hotels and Resorts: TNCs like Marriott, Hilton, and InterContinental invest in hotels and resorts, particularly in previously undeveloped tourist areas, offering a consistent standard of accommodation and driving up local prices. The development of luxury resorts by international hotel chains in the Maldives has transformed the islands into a high-end tourist destination.
- Transportation: TNCs like airlines (e.g., Emirates, Lufthansa) and cruise lines (e.g., Carnival, Royal Caribbean) invest in transportation networks, making destinations more accessible to international tourists. Emirates Airlines’ expansion has made Dubai a major hub for international travel, boosting tourism to the UAE.
- TNC investment in infrastructure improves the overall tourist experience, increasing visitor satisfaction and repeat business. Transport makes travel easier, such as tour guides.
How do TNCs contribute to expanding international tourism destinations through marketing and promotion?
- Global Reach: TNCs have the resources to market destinations to a global audience through advertising campaigns, online platforms, and travel agencies, increasing awareness and attracting more tourists.
Tourism Australia partners with TNCs to promote Australia as a destination through targeted marketing campaigns. - Branding: TNCs can create strong brands for destinations, associating them with positive images and experiences, enhancing their appeal to international tourists. The “Visit Dubai” campaign leverages the city’s luxurious hotels and attractions to brand it as a high-end tourist destination.
- TNC marketing efforts drive demand for travel to specific locations, contributing to economic growth and job creation in those areas. Online advertising such as social media can also drive demand, creating new destinations and shifting tourism patterns. For example, Social media infleuncers.
How do TNCs contribute to expanding international tourism destinations through the development of tourist attractions?
- Theme Parks and Entertainment: TNCs like Disney and Universal develop theme parks and entertainment complexes, drawing millions of tourists to specific locations and driving economic growth. The opening of Shanghai Disney Resort significantly boosted tourism to Shanghai and the surrounding region.
- Retail and Shopping: TNCs create shopping malls and retail outlets, catering to the needs and desires of international tourists, enhancing their shopping experience. The presence of luxury retail brands in Singapore’s Orchard Road attracts high-spending tourists from across Asia.
- Tourist numbers have risen since 2008, showing that tourism is improving and that TNCs are playing a significant role in this growth. TNCs provide employment and stimulate local economies, contributing to sustainable development and poverty reduction. TNCs also provide opportunities to experience sporting tourism.
How do TNCs contribute to expanding international tourism destinations through the standardisation of services?
- Quality Control: TNCs ensure a consistent level of quality in accommodation, dining, and other services, providing tourists with a reliable and predictable experience. The consistent standards of cleanliness and service at McDonald’s restaurants worldwide provide tourists with a familiar and reliable dining option.
- TNC brands offer a sense of familiarity and comfort to tourists, especially in unfamiliar destinations, reducing anxiety and enhancing their overall travel experience. Tourists may choose to stay at a Marriott hotel in a new city because they know what to expect in terms of service and amenities.
- Chain hotels are common (such as Marriott or Hyatt) that meet a certain criteria, providing tourists with assurance and peace of mind.
- There is a clear and massive growth in ways of spending leisure time, and TNCs play a key role in facilitating and catering to these diverse leisure activities. Cruise holidays often offer package holidays to people from all over the world.
What are the costs and benefits of TNC involvement in expanding international destinations for host country governments?
Benefits:
- Increased Revenue: Tax revenue from TNC profits, employee income, and tourism-related activities, contributing to national GDP and funding public services. The Singaporean government benefits from taxes generated by TNC-operated hotels and resorts.
- Infrastructure Development: TNC investment in infrastructure (e.g., airports, roads, utilities) improves overall infrastructure and benefits local communities.
TNCs building resorts in the Caribbean have funded upgrades to local airports and roads.
- Job Creation: TNCs provide employment opportunities for local residents, reducing unemployment and increasing household income. Hotel chains like Hilton offer jobs to local populations, providing income.
Costs:
- Economic Leakage: Profits may be repatriated to the TNC’s home country, limiting the economic benefits to the host country and potentially increasing economic inequality. Profits from resorts in developing countries may be sent back to the TNC’s headquarters, limiting benefits to the local economy.
- Dependence on TNCs: Over-reliance on TNCs can make the host country vulnerable to economic fluctuations and TNC decisions, undermining economic stability. A country heavily reliant on a single TNC for tourism revenue could suffer if the TNC decides to withdraw or reduce operations.
- Loss of Control: Governments may have limited control over TNC operations and policies, potentially leading to exploitation of resources or labor. TNCs may influence environmental regulations or labor laws in the host country.
- There may also be a loss of profit for other smaller businesses and local people. TNCs may take away trade from smaller businesse
What are the costs and benefits of TNC involvement in expanding international destinations for local communities?
Benefits:
- Employment Opportunities: TNCs create jobs for local residents, providing income and improving living standards, especially in areas with limited employment options. A TNC-owned hotel creates jobs for people from local villages.
- Skills Development: Training and skills development programs offered by TNCs can enhance the local workforce’s capabilities, increasing their long-term employability. Tour guiding programmes being offered to locals.
- Infrastructure Improvements: Improved infrastructure (e.g., roads, utilities) benefits local communities, enhancing their quality of life and access to services. A TNC funding a new power plant can enhance services for the locals.
- As many people want to travel, TNCs are able to provide those services to people, helping them explore the world and connect with different cultures.
Costs:
- Displacement: Local communities may be displaced to make way for tourism developments, leading to loss of homes, land, and traditional livelihoods.
Locals being evicted in order to build resorts.
- Cultural Disruption: Traditional cultures and lifestyles may be disrupted by the influx of tourists, leading to loss of cultural identity and heritage.
Traditional festivals get outshined by tourist festivals.
- Environmental Degradation: Tourism development can lead to environmental degradation, impacting local resources and livelihoods, particularly in ecologically sensitive areas. Waste from hotel goes into ocean. Changing tourism can lead to social divides and the creation of a rich and poor divide.
Locals who can afford to visit places vs tourists.
What are the costs and benefits of TNC involvement in expanding international destinations for tourists?
Benefits:
- Convenience and Reliability: TNCs offer a consistent level of quality and service, ensuring a reliable and convenient travel experience, especially for those unfamiliar with the destination. Tourists may choose to stay at a well-known hotel in a new place.
- Wide Range of Options: TNCs provide a diverse range of accommodation, transportation, and activity options, catering to different tastes and budgets.
TNC cruise companies offer a range of activities to tourists.
- Accessibility: TNCs make destinations more accessible by investing in transportation networks and offering package deals, making it easier and more affordable for tourists to visit. Offering tourists packages to visit specific locations.
Costs:
- Homogenization of Experiences: TNCs can lead to the homogenization of tourist experiences, reducing cultural authenticity and creating a sense of sameness across destinations. Tourist spots that are the same as those from other parts of the world.
- Increased Costs: TNC-driven tourism can drive up prices, making destinations less affordable for budget travelers and potentially excluding locals. Rising prices drive out locals as they can no longer afford to visit the same locations
- Loss of Cultural Immersion: TNCs can create artificial environments that limit opportunities for genuine cultural immersion, reducing tourists’ interaction with local cultures and communities. TNCs can provide shopping centres that encourage touruists to shop at TNCs and not support local businesses.
- Mass tourism can damage local sites if not treated well.
- Tourists leaving rubbish in the oceans and ruining the marine life
What are the costs and benefits of TNC involvement in expanding international destinations for the TNCs themselves?
Benefits:
- Increased Profits: Expansion into new markets can lead to increased profits and revenue streams, boosting overall financial performance. A hotels can expand and increase profits.
- Market Share: Expanding into new destinations allows TNCs to increase their market share and brand recognition, strengthening their competitive position. The hotels becoming globally recongnised.
- Diversification: Diversifying into new destinations reduces risk by spreading investments across multiple markets, mitigating the impact of economic downturns or political instability. TNCS can avoid putting all their investments into one area.
Costs:
- High Investment Costs: Expanding into new destinations requires significant upfront investment in infrastructure, marketing, and operations, increasing financial burden and risk. A TNC putting all of their investments in one destination.
- Political and Economic Risks: TNCs face political and economic risks in new markets, including instability, regulatory changes, and currency fluctuations, potentially impacting profitability. A TNC trying to promote tourism to area where there is conflict.
- Reputational Risks: TNCs can face reputational risks if they are perceived to be exploiting local communities or damaging the environment, harming their brand image and consumer trust. A TNC destorying nature and polluting it.
What is a case study showing niche tourism in Nepal?
Adventure tourism:
- Nepal is world-renowned for trekking and mountaineering, attracting thrill-seekers who want to conquer peaks like Everest, Annapurna, and other remote areas. This includes activities like:
- Trekking and Hiking: The Annapurna Circuit and Everest Base Camp treks are popular.
- Mountaineering: Expeditions to Mount Everest and other Himalayan peaks.
- White-water Rafting: Rivers such as the Trisuli and Sun Koshi offer rafting experiences.
- Paragliding: Pokhara is famous for paragliding with stunning views of the Himalayas.
- Nepal heavily relies on this sort of tourism.
Heritage Tourism:
- Nepal is a cultural hub and contains places like:
- Kathmandu Valley: Rich in ancient temples, palaces, and UNESCO World Heritage Sites, which attract history enthusiasts and cultural explorers.
- Lumbini: The birthplace of Buddha, is a major pilgrimage site for Buddhists worldwide.
- Bhaktapur and Patan: Known for their well-preserved traditional architecture and art.
Cultural tourism:
- Participating in local festivals like Dashain, Tihar, and Holi.
- Homestays: Staying with local families to experience authentic Nepali life.
- Monasteries and Temples: Visiting ancient monasteries and temples to learn about Buddhism and Hinduism.
- Tourism contributes to Nepal’s economy.
Nepal may look to the cultural and sporting side of tourism to increase the level of tourist interest. As it grows and people have more leisure time, Nepal may increase their number of tourist attractions and facilities. They can market on social media more. However, migrant workers may not benefit due to the amount of work that they have to do. The popularity of niche tourism in Nepal has led to the creation of eco-lodges and community-based tourism initiatives in remote region
What is a case study showing Kenya’s national tourism strategy?
Kenya’s national tourism strategy has been implemented through various initiatives:
National Tourism Strategy 2013-2018:
- The National Tourism Strategy of 2013-18 was a continuation of previous efforts including the Vision 2030 (examined below), with its legal basis being created in the Tourism Act 2010. The overall philosophy of the strategy was that of being “a dignified nation geared towards wealth creation” .
The strategy included five main areas, all of which link to improving sustainability:
1. The need to have an effective product development and deployment approach
2. The need to enhance the marketing of Kenyan tourism products
3. The need to address inadequate financing and improve the investment environment
4. The need to be more scientific through research and information management
5. The need to focus on human capital, legal, policy and institutional framework
The strategy included the following aims:
- To develop tourism as primarily a domestic industry, followed by regional and international tourism
- To develop sustainable tourism as a central pillar of the Kenyan economy
The results of the strategy have been variable. The aim to raise the number of tourist arrivals to 3 million failed (see graph below). This is partly due to the economic crisis of 2008 which reduced international tourism in general, and specific problems within Kenya including terrorist attacks which received world attention, most significantly the 2013 attack on the Westgate shopping centre. Tourism is a major part of the Kenyan economy. In 2016 the total contribution was US$2.5bn which is equivalent to 3.7% of the total economy.
Vision 2030:
In 2007, the government of Kenya released Vision 2030, a new co-ordinated national strategy with the aim of “transforming Kenya into a newly industrialising, middle income country providing a high quality of life to all its citizens by 2030”. Economic, social and political themes are found throughout the strategy. The importance of tourism is underlined by it being specifically included as a major element of the ‘economic’ section. The National Tourism Strategy 2013-18 was created specifically to fit within the Vision 2030 aims. It included both specific goals for immediate effect and longer term ‘flagship projects’. As of 2017, the flagship projects were expanded to six projects. However, only one of these was on track:
- Development of Resort Cities (Not Started/Behind Schedule)
- Underutilised Parks Initiative (Commenced)
National Tourism Blueprint 2030:
- Product development, to expand the attractions beyond beach and safari tourism to include sports tourism, adventure, heritage and cuisine
- Innovation, focusing on technology
Marketing strategy, including advertising
- Investment in infrastructure
Specific improvements include:
- Better transport links including the Madaraka Express train from Nairobi to Mombasa, and a six-lane expressway on the same route, as well as a new airport at Isiolo
- Offering 48 transit visas from January 2018
Building 13 new hotels in the country. However, as these will include international chains such as Marriott, Hilton and Sheraton, there remain concerns over the leakage of tourist income from the country.
What is another case study of costs and benefits for a country hosting an international event?
Benefits:
Although the Rio Olympics spurred some improvements in infrastructure, these gains were ultimately outweighed by the negative consequences of the Games. The most notable infrastructure development was in the area of transportation, with the construction of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) lines, a new metro extension, and a light rail system. These investments improved connectivity and reduced traffic congestion in certain parts of the city. The positive impact of these improvements, however, was limited by the Games’ damaged international reputation. Concerns over the Zika virus, crime, water pollution, and the readiness of venues created a negative perception of Rio de Janeiro, hindering the city’s ability to capitalize on the Games for tourism and business development. In the aftermath of the event, many of the newly constructed Olympic venues struggled to attract sufficient funding for maintenance and operation, leading to their abandonment and decay.
Costs:
The most prominent drawback of the Rio Olympics was the staggering financial burden placed on the city and the Brazilian economy. Initially projected to cost less than US$3 billion, the Games’ expenses spiraled to an estimated US$13.1 billion when factoring in infrastructure projects. This massive overspend coincided with a severe recession in Brazil, further straining public resources and diverting funds from essential social services. Moreover, preparations for the Games resulted in large-scale social displacement. An estimated 77,000 residents, primarily from impoverished favelas, were forcibly evicted from their homes to make way for Olympic venues and infrastructure. These evictions disrupted communities, undermined social networks, and exacerbated existing inequalities within the city.
What is the meaning of carrying capacity?
Maximum number of visitors or level of activity that a site or destination can sustain without causing unacceptable impacts on the environment, local community, or visitor experience.
The physical carrying capacity refers to the maximum number of people who can use a space for the purposes of tourism. An example is the number of people that can fit onto a hiking trail. Mowforth and Munt (2015) suggest that a person needs one meter of trail length in order to walk freely (assuming the trail is 1m wide), which means the physical carrying capacity would be 1000 people per 1000 metres of trail. However, they also recognise that to truly work out the physical carrying capacity, there would be need to be some spare space, and that to work out the maximum number of people who could use the trail we would need to know the time it took for each person to walk.
Perceptual carrying capacity is to do with the perception of people. It can be defined as: “The level reached when local residents of an area no longer want tourists because they are destroying the environment, damaging the local culture or crowding them out of local activities.” It can also apply to tourists themselves. For example, one group of people hiking the trail may be happy with a large number of people alongside them. But others might avoid the trail because it is too busy. Their perception is that a busy trail has too many people, i.e. their perception of the carrying capacity has been reached.
Environmental carrying capacity is also known as the ecological carrying capacity. It is reached when the environment can’t cope with the number of people using it. It can be defined as: “The level of tourist development or recreational activity beyond which the environment as previously experienced is degraded or compromised.”
What are the consequences of unsustainable touristic growth in rural and urban hotspots using the Butler model?
In 1980, Richard Butler published an influential paper called The Concept Of A Tourist Area Cycle Of Evolution: Implications For Management Of Resources. He argued that the development of tourism in an area would eventually exceed carrying capacity and cause problems, and that the tourist destination would need to rethink its approach to tourism or it would become unsustainable. His model is shown below. If the tourism area successfully adapts, it can enter a period of sustainable tourism called ‘rejuvenation’. If not, unsustainable tourism will lead to a period of ‘decline’.
- Six stages reflect the changes in a tourist destination.
- Closely linked to carrying capacity and sustainability.
- Suggests that destinations carry the seeds of their own destruction i.e. they are too popular for their own good.
- In the original model there were five variations for Stage 6 “Decline”, with the most negative being a catastrophe such as war or disease.
- Originally focused on ‘sea and sand’ tourism e.g. in Spanish seaside resorts, but was accepted for many alternative destinations.
Leakage is the most frequently cited issue: although tourism can be a great form of wealth distribution, often as little as 5-10% of the money tourists spend remains in the destinations they visit. Leakage is the way that money spent by a tourist on their trip does not go to the destination. The money ‘leaks’ away from the destination through complex processes such as Western tour operator and hotel chain.
What are the consequences of unsustainable touristic growth in urban hotspots?
Environmental Degradation:
- Pollution: Increased air and water pollution from transportation, sewage, and waste disposal. Cruise ships, in particular, contribute significantly to water pollution in port cities.
- Resource Depletion: Overuse of natural resources such as water and energy, leading to shortages and higher costs for local residents.
- Habitat Destruction: Construction of tourist facilities (hotels, resorts, infrastructure) can destroy natural habitats and ecosystems.
- Waste Generation: Increased waste production overwhelms local waste management systems, leading to overflowing landfills and litter in public spaces.
Social and Cultural Impacts:
- Overcrowding: Crowded streets, attractions, and public transportation diminish the quality of life for residents and the visitor experience for tourists.
- Strain on Infrastructure: Local infrastructure (roads, water supply, sewage systems, healthcare) becomes overburdened, leading to breakdowns and reduced service quality for everyone.
- Increased Cost of Living: Rising property values and rents due to tourist demand displace local residents and make housing unaffordable.
- Loss of Authenticity: Commercialization of local culture and traditions to cater to tourists can lead to a loss of authenticity and cultural identity.
- Commodification of Culture: Turning cultural practices and artifacts into commodities for tourist consumption can devalue their significance and meaning.
- Resentment from Locals: Residents may become resentful of tourists due to overcrowding, noise, increased prices, and perceived disrespect for local customs.
Economic Impacts:
- “Leakage” of Revenue: A significant portion of tourism revenue may leave the local economy through multinational corporations (e.g., hotel chains, tour operators) and imported goods.
- Job Quality: Many tourism jobs are low-paying, seasonal, and offer limited opportunities for advancement.
- Dependence on Tourism: Over-reliance on tourism makes the local economy vulnerable to fluctuations in tourism demand (e.g., due to economic downturns, natural disasters, or political instability).
- Increased Inequality: Tourism can exacerbate income inequality as the benefits are often concentrated among a small number of businesses and property owners.
What are possible management options to increase site resilience?
- Carrying Capacity Management:
- Limiting Visitor Numbers: Implement quotas or permits to restrict the number of visitors at any given time. This reduces overcrowding and minimizes the impact on the environment and local communities. As noted in the provided document’s image, restricting numbers is a key aspect of sustainability.
- Zoning and Spatial Planning: Designate specific areas for different types of tourism activities, separating high-impact zones from more sensitive areas.
- Time-Based Management: Implement time-based restrictions, such as limiting the hours of operation or staggering visitation throughout the day or year.
- Dynamic Pricing: Adjust prices based on demand to discourage visitation during peak periods and encourage visits during off-seasons. - Sustainable Tourism Practices:
- Promoting Eco-Tourism: Encourage tourism that focuses on natural areas, minimizes negative impacts, and supports local communities through economic benefits and awareness. The file notes that “Ecotourism is growing and has been doing so for some time”.
- Minimizing Resource Consumption: Implement measures to reduce water and energy consumption, such as using water-efficient fixtures, promoting energy conservation, and utilizing renewable energy sources.
- Waste Reduction and Management: Implement comprehensive waste management programs, including recycling, composting, and waste reduction initiatives. As is noted in the file, one key aspect of sustainability is minimising waste.
- Sustainable Transportation: Promote the use of public transportation, walking, cycling, and other low-impact transportation options.
- Supporting Local Businesses: Encourage tourists to patronize local businesses that are committed to sustainable practices and contribute to the local economy. - Community Engagement and Empowerment:
- Informed Participation: Involve local communities in tourism planning and decision-making processes to ensure their needs and perspectives are considered. As the file notes, “to be truly sustainable, tourism development must include the informed participation of stakeholders.”
- Economic Benefits for Host Communities: Ensure that tourism generates economic benefits for local communities through employment opportunities, revenue sharing, and support for local businesses.
- Cultural Preservation: Promote and support the conservation of local culture and heritage through tourism activities that respect and celebrate local traditions.
- Education and Awareness: Educate tourists and local communities about sustainable tourism practices, cultural sensitivity, and environmental conservation.
What is the concept of sustainable tourism?
The concept of sustainable tourism includes:
- Resource Conservation: Protecting primary tourist resources, including natural heritage (biodiversity, landscapes) and cultural heritage (historic sites, traditions). This means minimizing consumption of resources like water and energy and reducing waste production.
- Economic Viability: Ensuring the long-term economic benefits of tourism for host communities. This includes creating stable employment opportunities, promoting local businesses, and avoiding economic inequality where some groups benefit significantly more than others. Tourism should be a force for poverty reduction, especially in rural areas.
- Social and Cultural Preservation: Safeguarding the cultural heritage and traditional values of local communities. While intercultural exchange is encouraged, sustainable tourism aims to prevent the erosion of local cultures due to tourism’s influence.
- Informed Participation: Emphasizing the active involvement of stakeholders (those with a direct interest in tourism development) in planning and decision-making. This requires effective political leadership to ensure diverse perspectives are heard and considered.
Ecotourism:
Ecotourism is a specific type of sustainable tourism that focuses on responsible travel to natural areas. It has three core elements:
- Focus on Natural Areas: Ecotourism experiences take place in natural environments, such as rainforests, mountains, and coastal areas.
- Ensuring the Well-being of Host Communities: Ecotourism activities benefit local communities economically and socially.
- Educational Component: Ecotourism experiences involve interpretation and education about the natural environment and local cultures.
The UNWTO identifies five key features of ecotourism:
- Nature-based tourism with the motivation to appreciate nature and culture in natural areas.
- Educational aspects.
- Often specialized and involving small group tours.
- Minimizing negative impacts on the environment.
- Supporting natural areas by creating economic benefits for host communities and increasing awareness.
Growth of Ecotourism:
- Ecotourism is a growing sector of the tourism industry. While precise figures are difficult to obtain, the text provides the following anecdotal evidence:
- US Travelers (2013-2016): Around one-third of US leisure tourists made a “sustainable” trip, spending US$600 more than typical travelers and staying longer (7 days vs. 4 days).
- Global Protected Areas (2016): The UNWTO estimated 14,000 protected areas worldwide attracted 8 billion visitors, contributing US$600 billion to national economies.
- German Travelers (2017): A significant increase in interest in sustainable travel, with 78% of German travelers stating it was “very important” compared to 52% in 2016.
- Wellness Tourism: Growing popularity of travel for therapeutic benefits in natural settings (e.g., hot springs).
Examples of Ecotourism (Implied):
- Near Oodnadatta, Australia: Small group tours that stay within an area’s carrying capacity are a sign of sustainable tours.
- Queensland, Australia: Whale watching provides a great example of the focus on the natural enviroment.
What is a case study of sustainable tourism in one low-income country?
- 7.5% of Kenya designated for wildlife conservation
- 23 National Parks, 28 National Reserves, 6 marine reserves
- 1070+ bird species, diverse wildlife (lions, elephants, zebras)
- 536 km coastline, 6 World Heritage Sites
- Tourism: 10% of GDP (US$1 billion/year), employs 9.3% of workers
- Kenya Tourist Board principles: environmental conservation, education/empowerment, social responsibility, culture/heritage preservation
- ‘Eco-rating Scheme’ (2002) and ‘Travel Life’ rating (2015)
- 100+ eco-rated facilities
- Vision 2030: national development plan with tourism as lead sector
- Maasai Mara National Reserve (est. 1961): premier ecotourism destination
- Cottars Safari Service (est. 1919):
- Charges conservation fees
- Employs local guides
- Supports community projects (e.g., Olderikesi
Wildlife Conservancy)
- Olarro Lodge:
- Gold Eco-rating Certification
- Sustainable practices: solar power, wind turbines,
rainwater harvesting
- 7,500 acre conservancy owned by 150 local Maasai
What are factors influencing international tourism?
- Greater use of social media
- International security
- Diaspora growth
What is the growing importance of political influences on international sport participation?
- National Pride: Sporting success = national pride (politicians associate themselves with victories to boost popularity & elections).
- Healthy Lifestyles: Governments promote sport for public health.
- Economic Boost: Hosting events is seen as boosting the economy.
- Diplomatic Relations: Sports facilitate diplomacy, low-risk, low-cost high-profile (e.g. Pakistani & Indian Prime Ministers watching the Cricket World Cup together in 2011 after terrorist attacks in Mumbai helped normalize relations).
- Athletes with Political Power: Sportspersons hold political power (e.g., “Take a Knee” protests by NFL players in Sept 2017, sparking political debate).
International Agreements:
- Freedom of Movement: Relaxing migration & tourism restrictions allows athletes to compete more freely (e.g., Schengen Agreement in EU).
- Legal Basis for Cooperation: Treaty of Lisbon (Article 165) in Europe gave the European Commission some responsibility for developing sporting initiatives.
- Olympic Truce: UN-backed agreement to halt hostilities during the Olympics.
What is the growing importance of cultural influences on international sport participation?
- Intersectionality: Interlocking systems of oppression with identity based on race and gender can affect participation, which means it is complex
- Traditional Gender Roles: Societal expectations often channel women and men into specific sports.
- Challenging Gender Norms: Women are playing an increasing role at international sporting events, where Olympic events increasing however inequalities remain. The pay received between male and female competitors is significantly different.
Media Representation:
- Male journalists more likely to cover male athletes (less exposure for female athletes). Though improving, Women accounted for only 9% of sports media coverage in 2011.
- Counterarguments for Gender Equality: Beliefs that physical and biological differences necessitate separate categories (e.g., contact sports); male sports attract more public interest.
- Paralympics’ Growth: From 1948 for WWII veterans to 4,250 athletes from 164 countries with 2.7 million spectators by 2012.
Paralympics and Changing Attitudes:
- Recognizing disabled athletes as role models, with the Games taking a more mainstream role
Paralympics and Intersectionality:
- Significant inequalities still persist: Athletes from high-income countries are over three times more likely to participate than those from low-income countries. Intersectionality in the Paralmpics are female athletes from lower income countries less likely to participate (due to equipemnt costs, travel costs, etc).
What are the consequences of unsustainable touristic growth in urban hotspots?
Environmental Degradation:
- Intensified Pollution: Air and noise pollution from transportation and concentrated tourist activities exacerbate existing urban pollution problems. Historic city centers can face damage from vehicle emissions and vibration.
- Waste Overload: Tourism significantly increases waste generation, straining already burdened urban waste management systems. Historic cities may have difficulties with waste disposal in general, with tourists adding to the stress.
- Resource Stress: Increased water and energy consumption puts a strain on urban resources, leading to shortages and higher costs for residents.
Social and Cultural Impacts:
- Extreme Overcrowding: Popular attractions and public spaces become overwhelmed, diminishing the quality of life for residents and creating negative visitor experiences.
- Infrastructure Strain: Transportation networks, public services, and utilities struggle to cope with the influx of tourists, leading to congestion, delays, and reduced service quality.
- Gentrification and Displacement: Rising property values and rents driven by tourist demand can force long-term residents out of their homes, altering the character of neighborhoods.
- Loss of Cultural Authenticity: Tourist-oriented businesses and activities replace local shops and services, leading to a homogenization of the urban landscape and a decline in cultural authenticity.
- Commodification of Culture: Cultural heritage sites and traditions are commercialized for tourist consumption, potentially devaluing their intrinsic meaning.
Economic Impacts:
- “Tourism Leakage”: A significant portion of tourism revenue flows out of the local economy through multinational corporations and imported goods, limiting the economic benefits for local businesses and residents.
- Job Quality Concerns: Tourism jobs often low-paying and seasonal, exacerbating economic inequality.
- Overdependence and Vulnerability: Urban economies become overly reliant on tourism, making them vulnerable to economic downturns, travel restrictions, and global events.
- Competition with Residents: Tourists may compete with residents for jobs, housing, and other services.
What is the meaning of sustainable tourism?
Tourism that conserves primary tourist resources and supports the livelihoods and culture of local people.
Can it be argued that all tourism is unsustainable even sustainable tourism?
The text raises a critical point about the potential contradiction inherent in the concept of “sustainable tourism”. Mullins (2017) argues that all tourism may be inherently unsustainable due to:
- Environmental Damage: Carbon emissions from travel, resource consumption at destinations. The text notes that travellers take 32 million flights a year producing 781 million tons of carbon and using twice the amount of water compared to at home.
- Cultural Interruption: The impact of tourists on local cultures, potentially leading to a loss of authenticity and the commodification of traditions.
- Economic Disruption: The potential for wealthy visitors to drive up prices and disrupt local economies.
How is social media influencing the future of international tourism?
- Replacing traditional marketing/advertising methods
- Content generated by: government sources, private companies, and individuals
- Individual content becoming more important due to:
- Argument quality: More detailed, relevant content
for specific audiences - Peer tourist source: Considered more trustworthy
than official sources
- Argument quality: More detailed, relevant content
- Creates virtuous cycle: Shared experiences inspire more travel
- Can also create negative cycles if bad experiences are shared
- Impacts on tourism industry:
- Customer service: Quick, public feedback leads to
faster problem-solving - Loyalty: Branded experiences shared, targeted
advertising encourages future bookings
- Customer service: Quick, public feedback leads to
- Travel research: People actively seek out ratings
and reviews from other tourists - Enables travelers to imagine themselves in destinations through user-generated content
How does international security affect the future of tourism?
- Global standardization of safety in airlines, airports, and cruises
- International standards help deter attacks, increasing sense of security
- Terrorism deaths (2000-2014): Very small proportion in Western countries (exception: 2001 US attacks)
- High-profile attacks can cause shift to perceived safer destinations
- Air travel safety:
- Over 100,000 flights land safely daily
- IATA six-point safety strategy minimizes incidents
- Increased safety encourages more frequent travel to diverse destinations
- Tourism between Western countries and most of the world remains very safe
- Overall, travel is safer than ever before
- Travelers feel more comfortable exploring new destinations, leading to tourism growth
How does diaspora growth contribute to the future of international tourism?
- Diaspora tourism: Travel to ancestral homelands for heritage/roots connection
- Driven by increasing numbers of people living outside their birth country
- UN data shows rising international migrant populations globally:
- Steady increase in migrant numbers across all
major world regions - Particularly notable growth in Europe, Northern
America, and Oceania
- Steady increase in migrant numbers across all
- Diaspora travelers tend to regularly visit countries of origin
- Contributes significantly to overall growth in international tourism
- Connects personal heritage with travel experiences
- Sustained growth in international travel as diaspora populations continue to expand
