Global climate, vulnerability and resilience Flashcards
Define system
A system is a set of interrelated parts and the connections between them. These parts unite to form a complex whole and produce emergent properties.
Define open system
An open system exchanges matter and energy with its surroundings.
Define closed system
A closed system exchanges energy but not matter with its surroundings.
Define isolated system
An isolated system exchanges neither energy nor matter with its surroundings.
What are the common features of a system?
Common features of a system include inputs, which are the elements entering the system, either in the form of matter or energy. Processes are actions that transform these inputs into outputs. Outputs or feedback refer to the flows of matter and/or energy that leave the system.
What are the three basic types of systems?
The three basic types of systems are open systems, closed systems, and isolated systems.
What is a feedback loop?
A feedback loop occurs when part of a system’s output re-enters the system as a new input, prompting the system to respond to changes.
What are the two types of feedback loops?
The two types of feedback loops are negative feedback and positive feedback.
What is negative feedback?
Negative feedback promotes stability within a system by reversing changes and guiding the system back toward its original state of equilibrium.
What is positive feedback?
Positive feedback amplifies changes within a system, allowing them to continue in the same direction. A small disturbance can lead to an increase in that disturbance.
Give an example of negative feedback in global climate change.
An example of negative feedback in global climate change can be seen when rising global temperatures lead to increased evaporation. This process results in more cloud formation, which reflects additional sunlight back into space, potentially cooling the Earth and counteracting the initial temperature rise.
Give an example of positive feedback in urban growth.
An example of positive feedback can be observed in London’s growth. As job opportunities increased, more people moved to the city, which expanded the labor force and attracted more businesses. This cycle created additional job opportunities, further fueling population growth
How does the atmosphere exemplify an open system?
The atmosphere exemplifies an open system through its inputs of matter, such as gases from respiration, volcanic eruptions, and fossil fuel combustion. It also has inputs of energy from solar radiation and long-wave radiation from Earth’s surface. Outputs include rain and gases removed by respiration, along with long-wave radiation emitted into space.
What is the relationship between global climate change and feedback loops?
Global climate change is generally associated with positive feedback cycles that destabilize systems; however, some argue that it may also lead to negative feedback cycles that could restore the climate to a previous state considered “normal.”
What is the atmosphere and why is it important?
The atmosphere is a dynamic system of transparent gases, primarily nitrogen and oxygen, held in place by Earth’s gravity. It is vital for life as it shields from meteorites, protects from harmful solar radiation, moderates climate and temperature, and supplies oxygen for respiration and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
How does the atmosphere change over time?
The atmosphere constantly changes through processes like respiration (removing oxygen, adding carbon dioxide), photosynthesis (removing carbon dioxide, adding oxygen), and volcanic eruptions (adding various gases and particulate matter). There is a balance between these processes.
How has the Earth’s atmosphere changed since the planet’s formation?
When Earth formed 4.6 billion years ago, the atmosphere was predominantly hydrogen and helium with no free oxygen. Over time, volcanic activity and the evolution of life changed its composition to what it is today.
What are the main components of the Earth’s atmosphere?
The main components by volume are nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), argon (0.93%), carbon dioxide (0.04%), and other trace gases including neon and water vapor.
Which atmospheric components are most affected by human activities?
Components most affected by human activities include carbon dioxide, water vapor, and ozone. These can vary significantly over time and location, particularly due to the combustion of fossil fuels.
How does air pressure change with altitude?
Air pressure decreases steadily with height. At sea level, it’s about 1013.25 millibars, while at the top of Mount Everest, it’s approximately 337.75 millibars.
What are the four main layers of the Earth’s atmosphere?
The four main layers of the Earth’s atmosphere are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere.
What are the key characteristics of the troposphere?
The troposphere extends up to about 10 km above sea level. It’s warmest near the Earth’s surface, with temperature declining by 6.5-7.5°C per km. It contains most of the atmospheric mass, water vapor, clouds, and pollutants. Most weather occurs here, and it’s where the greenhouse effect takes place.
What are the main features of the stratosphere?
The stratosphere extends from 10 to 50 km above sea level. It contains the ozone layer which absorbs UV radiation. Temperature is constant at about –60°C in the lower part but increases with altitude. The air is dry, and winds increase with height.
What are the characteristics of the mesosphere?
The mesosphere ranges from about 50 to 80 km. It’s the coldest part of the atmosphere, with temperatures falling to –90°C. There are strong winds with speeds up to around 3000 km/h.
What are the key features of the thermosphere?
The thermosphere extends beyond 80 km to between 500 and 1000 km. UV and X-radiation from the sun are absorbed here. Temperature increases with height, potentially exceeding 2000°C. The ionosphere is located within this layer, where aurorae occur.
What is the Karman Line?
The Karman Line, located at 100 km above sea level, is accepted by the International Aeronautic Federation as the boundary between Earth’s atmosphere and space.
How is solar energy created and what is its importance?
Solar energy is created in the sun’s core through nuclear fusion at temperatures of 15,000,000°C, where hydrogen atoms change into helium. It drives the atmospheric system and most other systems on Earth, including the hydrological cycle and agricultural production.
What is the solar constant and how does it vary?
The solar constant is the average amount of solar energy received by the atmosphere when the sun is at its mean distance from Earth, approximately 1370 W/m2. It varies depending on the time of year and location relative to the equator, with equatorial areas receiving more solar radiation than polar regions.
How does solar radiation interact with the atmosphere?
Solar radiation can be absorbed, reflected, or scattered in the atmosphere. Only about half of it reaches the Earth’s surface. Scattering and reflection account for 30% of incoming solar radiation, while atmospheric gases and particles absorb another 19%.
What is albedo and how does it vary for different surfaces?
Albedo is the proportion of short-wave solar radiation reflected by a surface. It varies widely: the average planetary albedo is 30-35%, dark surfaces like soil have 4-20%, desert sand has 40%, clouds have 40-90%, and fresh snow has 80-90%.
What is the natural greenhouse effect and why is it important?
The natural greenhouse effect occurs when greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere absorb and re-emit long-wave heat radiation from the Earth’s surface. It maintains a mean global temperature of around 15°C, which is conducive to life on Earth. Without it, the mean global temperature would be around -18°C.
What are the main greenhouse gases and their sources?
The main greenhouse gases are:
- Water vapor: Sourced from water bodies, respiration, volcanic eruptions
- Carbon dioxide: From respiration and volcanic activity
- Methane: From livestock and anaerobic decomposition
- Nitrous oxide: Part of the planetary nitrogen cycle
- Tropospheric ozone: From chemical reactions in the troposphere and stratosphere
- Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): No natural sources
What is the difference between sources and sinks of greenhouse gases?
Sources add greenhouse gases to the atmosphere and can be natural (e.g., volcanic eruptions) or anthropogenic (e.g., fossil fuel combustion). Sinks absorb greenhouse gases from the atmosphere, such as forests storing carbon dioxide.
How do human activities affect the greenhouse effect?
Human activities can alter the concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere, impacting the amount of long-wave radiation re-radiated back to space. This human disturbance of the natural greenhouse effect is called the enhanced greenhouse effect.
What are the main factors affecting the amount of energy Earth receives from the sun?
The main factors are:
- Output from the sun
- Latitude of a location
- Time of day and time of year
- Variations in the composition of the atmosphere
What is the solar constant and how is it affected?
The solar constant is the mean amount of solar radiation that Earth receives at the edge of our atmosphere. It is affected by the 11-year sunspot cycle, with increased sunspot activity leading to higher energy output from the sun.
How does Earth’s rotation affect the global energy balance?
Earth’s rotation creates day and night cycles, affecting the amount of solar radiation received. Day length varies due to the tilt of Earth’s axis, with equatorial regions having roughly 12-hour days year-round, while polar regions can experience 24 hours of daylight or darkness.
How does Earth’s revolution affect the global energy balance?
Earth’s revolution around the sun on its tilted axis creates seasons. This causes variations in the angle at which solar radiation hits the Earth’s surface throughout the year, leading to seasonal temperature changes.
How does latitude affect the intensity of solar heating?
At lower latitudes (near the equator), solar radiation hits the Earth at a higher angle of incidence, resulting in more intense heating. At higher latitudes, the angle of incidence is more oblique, spreading the same amount of energy over a larger area and resulting in less intense heating.
What is the net radiation balance pattern across latitudes?
The area between about 30° north and south of the equator receives positive net solar radiation, while the rest of the Earth has a negative balance. This imbalance is offset by heat redistribution through atmospheric and oceanic circulation.
What factors are believed to have triggered past ice ages?
Factors believed to have triggered past ice ages include:
- Changes in solar output
- Varying positions of continents and oceans
- Distance between Earth and the sun
- Oceanic circulation
- Atmospheric composition
How do positive feedback mechanisms relate to ice ages?
Positive feedback mechanisms can amplify initial changes in the Earth’s climate system, potentially leading to or ending an ice age. These feedback loops can push the planet between different climate states until a new dynamic equilibrium is reached.
What is global dimming?
Global dimming is the gradual decrease in the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth’s surface, observed between the 1950s and 1990s. There was an overall decline of 1-2% per decade, varying spatially.
What are the main causes of global dimming?
Global dimming is primarily caused by an increase in particulates and sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere. These can come from natural sources (e.g., volcanic eruptions) or anthropogenic sources (e.g., combustion of fossil fuels and wood).
How do particulates and aerosols contribute to global dimming?
Particulates and aerosols reflect sunlight back into space and act as seeds for water droplets in clouds. This creates clouds with higher albedo, reflecting more solar radiation back to space.
What was the impact of the 1783 Laki fissure eruption in Iceland?
The Laki eruption produced a dense ash cloud, created a haze across Europe, caused acid rain that killed crops and livestock, and led to record low temperatures in the USA. The northern hemisphere temperature dropped by 1°C.
How did the 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption affect global climate?
The Mount Pinatubo eruption caused a 10% drop in sunlight reaching Earth’s surface, a 0.5°C drop in northern hemisphere temperatures, created a stratospheric cloud lasting 3 years, and destroyed a large amount of ozone.
How might global dimming mask the severity of global climate change?
Anthropogenic pollution produces both carbon dioxide (warming) and particulate matter (cooling), which partially cancel each other out. As pollution control measures reduce particulate matter but not CO2, the full extent of warming may become more apparent.
What is the relationship between global dimming and the Little Ice Age?
Recent research has linked global dimming to the Little Ice Age that occurred between 1275-1300, suggesting that positive feedback cycles involving particulates in the atmosphere may contribute to such cooling periods.
Define climate forcing
A factor that drives climate change.
What is albedo and what is Earth’s planetary albedo?
Albedo is the proportion of solar radiation reflected by a surface. Earth’s planetary albedo is between 30 and 35% (0.3-0.35).
How does albedo relate to climate forcing?
Scientists believe that Earth’s albedo is a significant climate forcing factor. A change in albedo can bring about significant changes in the Earth’s energy budget and drive climate change.
How does cloud cover affect albedo?
Cloud cover significantly increases albedo. Areas with more cloud cover reflect more solar radiation back to space, resulting in a cooling effect.
What is the impact of a 1% drop in Earth’s albedo?
A 1% drop in Earth’s albedo has a forcing impact similar to doubling the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere.
How does snow cover affect albedo and temperature?
Snow has a high albedo. Increased snow cover can set off positive feedback cycles: more reflection leads to cooling, which allows snow to stay longer. Conversely, decreased snow cover exposes darker surfaces, decreasing albedo and increasing absorption of solar radiation.
How does deforestation impact albedo?
Deforestation may double the albedo of an area, as forest cover has a lower albedo than grassland.
How does urbanization affect albedo?
Urbanization can increase or decrease albedo depending on building materials used. Large areas of asphalt reduce albedo more than concrete. Cities often have lower albedo, contributing to the urban heat island effect.
What are some surfaces with high and low albedo?
High albedo surfaces include fresh snow (0.80-0.90) and desert sand (0.40). Low albedo surfaces include forests (0.05-0.20) and asphalt (0.05-0.20).
How can changes in albedo create feedback cycles?
A decrease in albedo leads to more absorption of solar radiation, causing warming, which can further decrease albedo (e.g., melting snow). An increase in albedo leads to more reflection, causing cooling, which can further increase albedo (e.g., more snow cover).
What is methane and why is it significant for global warming?
Methane (CH4) is the major constituent in natural gas. It has a much higher global warming potential (GWP) than carbon dioxide, being 84-86 times more effective at warming the planet over a 20-year period.
Why has methane been largely ignored as a greenhouse gas?
Methane has been largely ignored due to its short lifespan of about 20 years in the atmosphere before it decays. However, this approach underestimates its significant warming impact during that time.
What are the main natural sources of methane?
Natural sources of methane include:
- Wetlands and rice fields (anaerobic decomposition)
- Digestive processes of herbivores like cows, sheep, and termites
- Oceans (microbial activity and mud volcanoes)
What are the main anthropogenic sources of methane?
Anthropogenic sources of methane include:
- Fossil fuel production, distribution, and use
- Landfill and waste disposal sites
- Burning biomass and using biofuels
How has the concentration of methane in the atmosphere changed since the Industrial Revolution?
Methane levels have risen by 149% since the Industrial Revolution. The concentration has been steadily increasing since 1984, with a brief leveling off between 2000 and 2005, before climbing again to reach 1800 ppb by 2015.
What are some reasons for the rise in methane concentration?
Reasons for the rise in methane concentration include:
- Increased fossil fuel burning
- Changes in global diet (more meat and rice consumption)
- Growing population generating more waste
- Rising temperatures increasing methane emissions from fresh water and thawing permafrost
How does methane contribute to a positive feedback loop in climate change?
Rising temperatures cause more methane to be released from sources like permafrost and fresh water. This additional methane further increases global warming, which in turn leads to more methane release, creating a positive feedback loop.
Why is there controversy over how methane’s global warming potential is calculated for policy purposes?
Policy makers often use a 100-year period to calculate methane’s GWP, which makes it appear less harmful. Environmentalists argue this underestimates methane’s significant warming impact over its 20-year lifespan in the atmosphere.
What is the enhanced greenhouse effect?
The enhanced greenhouse effect is the natural greenhouse effect out of balance due to human activities increasing the proportion of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere. This traps extra heat, causing temperatures to rise.
How has the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere changed since the Industrial Revolution?
Carbon dioxide levels have increased from 280 parts per million (ppm) before the Industrial Revolution to over 400 ppm today.
What are the three main human activities increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide?
- Combustion of fossil fuels (for power generation, transportation, and industry)
- Removal of natural vegetation (reducing carbon sinks)
- Industrial processes (e.g., cement and steel production, petrochemical industry)
How does water vapor act as a greenhouse gas?
Water vapor is the most abundant and variable GHG in the atmosphere. Its levels have been increasing overall, potentially creating a positive feedback cycle where higher temperatures lead to more evaporation and further warming.
What human activities contribute to increased atmospheric water vapor?
- Internal combustion engines (13% of petrol engine exhaust is water vapor)
- Electricity generation (steam as a byproduct)
- Agricultural irrigation
- Deforestation (changing water exchange between vegetation and atmosphere)
How does deforestation affect atmospheric carbon dioxide levels?
Deforestation doesn’t directly add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, but it reduces the removal of CO2 by decreasing the amount of vegetation available for photosynthesis and reducing the biomass store.
What is the relationship between human population growth and GHG emissions?
Increasing human population and rising standards of living are underlying factors in the increase of all GHG emissions. More people leads to more vehicles, increased electricity demand, higher food production, and more land use changes.
How do scientists disagree about the impact of increased water vapor in the atmosphere?
Some scientists argue it will create a positive feedback cycle (more evaporation leading to more warming), while others suggest it could lead to negative feedback (more cloud formation reflecting solar radiation).
What is the main source of five of the main greenhouse gases (GHGs)?
The combustion of fossil fuels is a major source of five main GHGs: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapor, and tropospheric ozone.
How do GHG emissions vary with economic development?
Generally, as countries develop economically, their GHG emissions increase due to industrialization, urbanization, and increased energy use. However, some highly developed countries have lower emissions due to shifts to service-based economies and better technologies.
What is the relationship between income level and carbon dioxide emissions?
Higher-income countries tend to have higher carbon dioxide emissions per capita. However, total emissions may be lower in high-income countries compared to upper-middle-income countries due to population differences and economic shifts.
How does the process of economic development affect GHG emissions?
As countries move from traditional agricultural societies to industrialized economies, GHG emissions increase due to mechanization, urbanization, increased energy demand, and changes in land use.
Why do some high-income countries now have lower GHG emissions?
High-income countries often have lower emissions because:
1. They’ve shifted from manufacturing to service-based industries
2. Many of their companies operate in developing countries
3. They use better emission-reducing technologies
4. They have stricter environmental laws and regulations
How does globalization relate to GHG emissions?
There is a positive correlation between globalization and carbon dioxide emissions. Increased international trade and transportation associated with globalization tend to increase GHG emissions.
What is the KOF index of globalization?
The KOF index measures economic, political, and social globalization by assessing economic flows and restrictions, information flows, personal contact, and cultural proximity.
How do transnational corporations (TNCs) impact GHG emission statistics?
TNCs often have headquarters in developed countries but manufacturing operations in developing areas. This can result in lower reported emissions for developed countries, as the emissions from factories are attributed to the countries where they are located.
What are the four interconnected spheres of Earth, and how do they relate to climate change?
The four interconnected spheres are the atmosphere, biosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere. Climate change primarily affects the atmosphere, biosphere, and hydrosphere. The lithosphere is minimally impacted and not typically studied in this context.
Describe the atmosphere’s composition, structure, and role in climate change.
The atmosphere is a mixture of gases surrounding Earth: 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% other gases including carbon dioxide and argon. The troposphere (zone of weather) and stratosphere (containing the ozone layer) are most relevant for climate. The atmosphere’s composition, especially greenhouse gas concentrations, is crucial in regulating Earth’s temperature and climate.
What is the biosphere and how does it interact with the atmosphere?
The biosphere contains all living organisms, mostly found between 3 meters below the surface and 30 meters above on land, and in the top 200 meters of oceans. It interacts with the atmosphere through photosynthesis (absorbing CO2, releasing O2) and respiration (absorbing O2, releasing CO2). Human activities like deforestation can disrupt this balance, potentially creating positive feedback cycles that increase atmospheric CO2 and global temperatures.
Explain the hydrosphere’s components and its role in climate regulation.
The hydrosphere includes all water in liquid, solid, and gas states. Oceans contain 97% of Earth’s water, while two-thirds of freshwater is in ice sheets. It regulates Earth’s temperature through heat absorption and distribution. The hydrosphere interacts with the atmosphere through evaporation, sublimation, and precipitation. Climate change may alter these interactions, potentially intensifying the water cycle and leading to more extreme weather events.
How do human activities affect the interactions between the spheres?
Human activities impact sphere interactions in various ways:
- Altering the hydrological cycle through reservoir construction, irrigation, and wetland drainage
- Changing land use through deforestation and urbanization, affecting gas exchange between biosphere and atmosphere
- Increasing greenhouse gas emissions through fossil fuel combustion, affecting atmospheric composition
- Modifying ocean chemistry and temperature through pollution and global warming, impacting the hydrosphere-atmosphere exchange
What is the enhanced greenhouse effect and how has it impacted global temperatures?
The enhanced greenhouse effect occurs as the proportion of greenhouse gases (water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide) in the atmosphere rises, leading to increased mean global temperatures. Between 1880 and 2013, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels increased by 40%, corresponding to a 0.85°C rise in global temperature.
What are the IPCC’s temperature projections for 2100 under different scenarios?
The IPCC projects:
- If greenhouse gas emissions are reduced and carbon dioxide absorption increases through forestation, mean global temperature will increase by 0.3 to 1.7°C.
- If high greenhouse gas emissions continue, temperatures could rise by 2.6 to 4.8°C.
How might climate change affect precipitation patterns?
Climate change is likely to:
- Increase annual precipitation in high altitudes, the equatorial Pacific, and wet subtropical regions
- Decrease annual precipitation in mid-latitudes and dry subtropical regions
- Increase frequency, duration, and intensity of extreme weather events like heatwaves and rainstorms
What are the main causes and projected impacts of sea level rise?
Sea level rise is caused by:
- Thermal expansion of oceans
- Melting of snow and ice (glaciers, ice sheets)
IPCC projections suggest sea levels may rise by 26 to 82 cm by 2100. Impacts include increased coastal flooding, damage to infrastructure, salinization of agricultural land, and degradation of coastal ecosystems.
How might climate change affect freshwater availability?
Climate change may reduce freshwater quantity and quality through:
- Reduced precipitation in semi-arid and arid regions
- Increased evaporation rates due to higher temperatures
- Reduced glacier or snow water storage, affecting downstream water resources
- Increased frequency and intensity of droughts
How do oceans act as a carbon sink and how is this affected by climate change?
Oceans absorb 93% of atmospheric carbon through:
- Dissolution at the air-water interface
- Input from rivers carrying dissolved organic carbon
- Biological processes converting carbon into calcium carbonate
Climate change interferes with this process by:
- Reducing dissolution rates as oceans warm
- Decreasing the ocean’s capacity to hold carbon dioxide
- Altering ocean chemistry through pollution
- Disrupting thermohaline circulation
How does sea ice contribute to carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere?
Sea ice formation involves chemical processes that remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Frost flowers on sea ice contain high concentrations of calcium carbonate, which absorbs large amounts of carbon dioxide. Melting sea ice may create a positive feedback loop by reducing this carbon dioxide removal mechanism.
How does ocean warming affect its ability to absorb carbon dioxide?
Warm water holds less gas, so warmer oceans can store less carbon dioxide. This reduces the ocean’s capacity as a carbon sink. Additionally, the dissolution of atmospheric carbon dioxide into oceans is temperature-dependent, being most rapid in cooler polar regions. Ocean warming slows this exchange process.
What are the impacts of climate change on ice stores and global communications?
Climate change is causing:
- Retreat of glaciers in Mount Kilimanjaro (East Africa) and the Andes (South America)
- Shrinking of ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica
- Decrease in snow cover
- Opening of new shipping routes in polar regions, improving global communications
How does climate change affect coastal areas and their populations?
Over 40% of the world’s population lives within 100 km of a coastline. Rising sea levels increase flood risks, particularly in low-lying areas like the Netherlands, Bangladesh, and the Maldives. Impacts include:
- Damage to infrastructure, homes, and industry
- Loss of livelihoods
- Risk to human life (e.g., drowning)
- Saline intrusion into groundwater resources
- Contamination of freshwater, affecting domestic, agricultural, and industrial uses
How does the geosphere act as a carbon sink, and how are humans affecting it?
The geosphere stores about 80% of Earth’s carbon in limestone and other calcium carbonate-based rocks, with the rest in fossil fuels. This carbon typically remains locked up for millions of years. However, human extraction and combustion of fossil fuels releases vast amounts of carbon, significantly contributing to global climate change.
How do changes in the biosphere contribute to oceanic carbon absorption?
The biosphere contributes to oceanic carbon absorption through:
- Plants converting CO2 into organic carbon via photosynthesis, which moves through food chains
- Organisms dying and sinking to the ocean bottom, transferring carbon to deep ocean sediments
- Sea creatures converting dissolved carbon into calcium carbonate for shells and other hard structures
What is the relationship between acid deposition and oceanic carbon absorption?
Acid deposition (acid rain) and other pollutants change the chemical composition of oceans. This damages fragile ecosystems that cycle carbon, limiting the oceans’ ability to absorb atmospheric carbon.
How does climate change impact hydroelectric power generation?
Reduction in glacier or snow water storage leads to reduced water resources downstream during spring and summer. This affects river flow, impacting both water resources and hydroelectric power production. For example, loss of glacial melt in the Andes Mountains is expected to have devastating effects on hydroelectric power generation in Peru.
What is the KOF index of globalization and how does it relate to carbon dioxide emissions?
The KOF index measures economic, political, and social globalization by assessing economic flows and restrictions, information flows, personal contact, and cultural proximity. There is a reasonably strong positive correlation between globalization (as measured by the KOF index) and carbon dioxide emissions, suggesting that as globalization increases, so do emissions.
How do transnational corporations (TNCs) impact greenhouse gas emission statistics?
TNCs often have headquarters in developed countries but manufacturing operations in developing areas. For example, Nike is based in Oregon, USA, but has factories in China (124), Thailand (73), South Korea (35), and Vietnam (34). This can result in lower reported emissions for developed countries, as the emissions from factories are attributed to the countries where they are located.
