Global climate, vulnerability and resilience Flashcards
Define system
A system is a set of interrelated parts and the connections between them. These parts unite to form a complex whole and produce emergent properties.
Define open system
An open system exchanges matter and energy with its surroundings.
Define closed system
A closed system exchanges energy but not matter with its surroundings.
Define isolated system
An isolated system exchanges neither energy nor matter with its surroundings.
What are the common features of a system?
Common features of a system include inputs, which are the elements entering the system, either in the form of matter or energy. Processes are actions that transform these inputs into outputs. Outputs or feedback refer to the flows of matter and/or energy that leave the system.
What are the three basic types of systems?
The three basic types of systems are open systems, closed systems, and isolated systems.
What is a feedback loop?
A feedback loop occurs when part of a system’s output re-enters the system as a new input, prompting the system to respond to changes.
What are the two types of feedback loops?
The two types of feedback loops are negative feedback and positive feedback.
What is negative feedback?
Negative feedback promotes stability within a system by reversing changes and guiding the system back toward its original state of equilibrium.
What is positive feedback?
Positive feedback amplifies changes within a system, allowing them to continue in the same direction. A small disturbance can lead to an increase in that disturbance.
Give an example of negative feedback in global climate change.
An example of negative feedback in global climate change can be seen when rising global temperatures lead to increased evaporation. This process results in more cloud formation, which reflects additional sunlight back into space, potentially cooling the Earth and counteracting the initial temperature rise.
Give an example of positive feedback in urban growth.
An example of positive feedback can be observed in London’s growth. As job opportunities increased, more people moved to the city, which expanded the labor force and attracted more businesses. This cycle created additional job opportunities, further fueling population growth
How does the atmosphere exemplify an open system?
The atmosphere exemplifies an open system through its inputs of matter, such as gases from respiration, volcanic eruptions, and fossil fuel combustion. It also has inputs of energy from solar radiation and long-wave radiation from Earth’s surface. Outputs include rain and gases removed by respiration, along with long-wave radiation emitted into space.
What is the relationship between global climate change and feedback loops?
Global climate change is generally associated with positive feedback cycles that destabilize systems; however, some argue that it may also lead to negative feedback cycles that could restore the climate to a previous state considered “normal.”
What is the atmosphere and why is it important?
The atmosphere is a dynamic system of transparent gases, primarily nitrogen and oxygen, held in place by Earth’s gravity. It is vital for life as it shields from meteorites, protects from harmful solar radiation, moderates climate and temperature, and supplies oxygen for respiration and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
How does the atmosphere change over time?
The atmosphere constantly changes through processes like respiration (removing oxygen, adding carbon dioxide), photosynthesis (removing carbon dioxide, adding oxygen), and volcanic eruptions (adding various gases and particulate matter). There is a balance between these processes.
How has the Earth’s atmosphere changed since the planet’s formation?
When Earth formed 4.6 billion years ago, the atmosphere was predominantly hydrogen and helium with no free oxygen. Over time, volcanic activity and the evolution of life changed its composition to what it is today.
What are the main components of the Earth’s atmosphere?
The main components by volume are nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), argon (0.93%), carbon dioxide (0.04%), and other trace gases including neon and water vapor.
Which atmospheric components are most affected by human activities?
Components most affected by human activities include carbon dioxide, water vapor, and ozone. These can vary significantly over time and location, particularly due to the combustion of fossil fuels.
How does air pressure change with altitude?
Air pressure decreases steadily with height. At sea level, it’s about 1013.25 millibars, while at the top of Mount Everest, it’s approximately 337.75 millibars.
What are the four main layers of the Earth’s atmosphere?
The four main layers of the Earth’s atmosphere are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere.
What are the key characteristics of the troposphere?
The troposphere extends up to about 10 km above sea level. It’s warmest near the Earth’s surface, with temperature declining by 6.5-7.5°C per km. It contains most of the atmospheric mass, water vapor, clouds, and pollutants. Most weather occurs here, and it’s where the greenhouse effect takes place.
What are the main features of the stratosphere?
The stratosphere extends from 10 to 50 km above sea level. It contains the ozone layer which absorbs UV radiation. Temperature is constant at about –60°C in the lower part but increases with altitude. The air is dry, and winds increase with height.
What are the characteristics of the mesosphere?
The mesosphere ranges from about 50 to 80 km. It’s the coldest part of the atmosphere, with temperatures falling to –90°C. There are strong winds with speeds up to around 3000 km/h.
What are the key features of the thermosphere?
The thermosphere extends beyond 80 km to between 500 and 1000 km. UV and X-radiation from the sun are absorbed here. Temperature increases with height, potentially exceeding 2000°C. The ionosphere is located within this layer, where aurorae occur.
What is the Karman Line?
The Karman Line, located at 100 km above sea level, is accepted by the International Aeronautic Federation as the boundary between Earth’s atmosphere and space.
How is solar energy created and what is its importance?
Solar energy is created in the sun’s core through nuclear fusion at temperatures of 15,000,000°C, where hydrogen atoms change into helium. It drives the atmospheric system and most other systems on Earth, including the hydrological cycle and agricultural production.
What is the solar constant and how does it vary?
The solar constant is the average amount of solar energy received by the atmosphere when the sun is at its mean distance from Earth, approximately 1370 W/m2. It varies depending on the time of year and location relative to the equator, with equatorial areas receiving more solar radiation than polar regions.
How does solar radiation interact with the atmosphere?
Solar radiation can be absorbed, reflected, or scattered in the atmosphere. Only about half of it reaches the Earth’s surface. Scattering and reflection account for 30% of incoming solar radiation, while atmospheric gases and particles absorb another 19%.
What is albedo and how does it vary for different surfaces?
Albedo is the proportion of short-wave solar radiation reflected by a surface. It varies widely: the average planetary albedo is 30-35%, dark surfaces like soil have 4-20%, desert sand has 40%, clouds have 40-90%, and fresh snow has 80-90%.
What is the natural greenhouse effect and why is it important?
The natural greenhouse effect occurs when greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere absorb and re-emit long-wave heat radiation from the Earth’s surface. It maintains a mean global temperature of around 15°C, which is conducive to life on Earth. Without it, the mean global temperature would be around -18°C.
What are the main greenhouse gases and their sources?
The main greenhouse gases are:
- Water vapor: Sourced from water bodies, respiration, volcanic eruptions
- Carbon dioxide: From respiration and volcanic activity
- Methane: From livestock and anaerobic decomposition
- Nitrous oxide: Part of the planetary nitrogen cycle
- Tropospheric ozone: From chemical reactions in the troposphere and stratosphere
- Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): No natural sources
What is the difference between sources and sinks of greenhouse gases?
Sources add greenhouse gases to the atmosphere and can be natural (e.g., volcanic eruptions) or anthropogenic (e.g., fossil fuel combustion). Sinks absorb greenhouse gases from the atmosphere, such as forests storing carbon dioxide.
How do human activities affect the greenhouse effect?
Human activities can alter the concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere, impacting the amount of long-wave radiation re-radiated back to space. This human disturbance of the natural greenhouse effect is called the enhanced greenhouse effect.
What are the main factors affecting the amount of energy Earth receives from the sun?
The main factors are:
- Output from the sun
- Latitude of a location
- Time of day and time of year
- Variations in the composition of the atmosphere
What is the solar constant and how is it affected?
The solar constant is the mean amount of solar radiation that Earth receives at the edge of our atmosphere. It is affected by the 11-year sunspot cycle, with increased sunspot activity leading to higher energy output from the sun.
How does Earth’s rotation affect the global energy balance?
Earth’s rotation creates day and night cycles, affecting the amount of solar radiation received. Day length varies due to the tilt of Earth’s axis, with equatorial regions having roughly 12-hour days year-round, while polar regions can experience 24 hours of daylight or darkness.
How does Earth’s revolution affect the global energy balance?
Earth’s revolution around the sun on its tilted axis creates seasons. This causes variations in the angle at which solar radiation hits the Earth’s surface throughout the year, leading to seasonal temperature changes.
How does latitude affect the intensity of solar heating?
At lower latitudes (near the equator), solar radiation hits the Earth at a higher angle of incidence, resulting in more intense heating. At higher latitudes, the angle of incidence is more oblique, spreading the same amount of energy over a larger area and resulting in less intense heating.
What is the net radiation balance pattern across latitudes?
The area between about 30° north and south of the equator receives positive net solar radiation, while the rest of the Earth has a negative balance. This imbalance is offset by heat redistribution through atmospheric and oceanic circulation.
What factors are believed to have triggered past ice ages?
Factors believed to have triggered past ice ages include:
- Changes in solar output
- Varying positions of continents and oceans
- Distance between Earth and the sun
- Oceanic circulation
- Atmospheric composition
How do positive feedback mechanisms relate to ice ages?
Positive feedback mechanisms can amplify initial changes in the Earth’s climate system, potentially leading to or ending an ice age. These feedback loops can push the planet between different climate states until a new dynamic equilibrium is reached.
What is global dimming?
Global dimming is the gradual decrease in the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth’s surface, observed between the 1950s and 1990s. There was an overall decline of 1-2% per decade, varying spatially.
What are the main causes of global dimming?
Global dimming is primarily caused by an increase in particulates and sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere. These can come from natural sources (e.g., volcanic eruptions) or anthropogenic sources (e.g., combustion of fossil fuels and wood).
How do particulates and aerosols contribute to global dimming?
Particulates and aerosols reflect sunlight back into space and act as seeds for water droplets in clouds. This creates clouds with higher albedo, reflecting more solar radiation back to space.
What was the impact of the 1783 Laki fissure eruption in Iceland?
The Laki eruption produced a dense ash cloud, created a haze across Europe, caused acid rain that killed crops and livestock, and led to record low temperatures in the USA. The northern hemisphere temperature dropped by 1°C.
How did the 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption affect global climate?
The Mount Pinatubo eruption caused a 10% drop in sunlight reaching Earth’s surface, a 0.5°C drop in northern hemisphere temperatures, created a stratospheric cloud lasting 3 years, and destroyed a large amount of ozone.
How might global dimming mask the severity of global climate change?
Anthropogenic pollution produces both carbon dioxide (warming) and particulate matter (cooling), which partially cancel each other out. As pollution control measures reduce particulate matter but not CO2, the full extent of warming may become more apparent.
What is the relationship between global dimming and the Little Ice Age?
Recent research has linked global dimming to the Little Ice Age that occurred between 1275-1300, suggesting that positive feedback cycles involving particulates in the atmosphere may contribute to such cooling periods.
Define climate forcing
A factor that drives climate change.
What is albedo and what is Earth’s planetary albedo?
Albedo is the proportion of solar radiation reflected by a surface. Earth’s planetary albedo is between 30 and 35% (0.3-0.35).
How does albedo relate to climate forcing?
Scientists believe that Earth’s albedo is a significant climate forcing factor. A change in albedo can bring about significant changes in the Earth’s energy budget and drive climate change.
How does cloud cover affect albedo?
Cloud cover significantly increases albedo. Areas with more cloud cover reflect more solar radiation back to space, resulting in a cooling effect.
What is the impact of a 1% drop in Earth’s albedo?
A 1% drop in Earth’s albedo has a forcing impact similar to doubling the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere.
How does snow cover affect albedo and temperature?
Snow has a high albedo. Increased snow cover can set off positive feedback cycles: more reflection leads to cooling, which allows snow to stay longer. Conversely, decreased snow cover exposes darker surfaces, decreasing albedo and increasing absorption of solar radiation.
How does deforestation impact albedo?
Deforestation may double the albedo of an area, as forest cover has a lower albedo than grassland.
How does urbanization affect albedo?
Urbanization can increase or decrease albedo depending on building materials used. Large areas of asphalt reduce albedo more than concrete. Cities often have lower albedo, contributing to the urban heat island effect.
What are some surfaces with high and low albedo?
High albedo surfaces include fresh snow (0.80-0.90) and desert sand (0.40). Low albedo surfaces include forests (0.05-0.20) and asphalt (0.05-0.20).
How can changes in albedo create feedback cycles?
A decrease in albedo leads to more absorption of solar radiation, causing warming, which can further decrease albedo (e.g., melting snow). An increase in albedo leads to more reflection, causing cooling, which can further increase albedo (e.g., more snow cover).
What is methane and why is it significant for global warming?
Methane (CH4) is the major constituent in natural gas. It has a much higher global warming potential (GWP) than carbon dioxide, being 84-86 times more effective at warming the planet over a 20-year period.
Why has methane been largely ignored as a greenhouse gas?
Methane has been largely ignored due to its short lifespan of about 20 years in the atmosphere before it decays. However, this approach underestimates its significant warming impact during that time.
What are the main natural sources of methane?
Natural sources of methane include:
- Wetlands and rice fields (anaerobic decomposition)
- Digestive processes of herbivores like cows, sheep, and termites
- Oceans (microbial activity and mud volcanoes)
What are the main anthropogenic sources of methane?
Anthropogenic sources of methane include:
- Fossil fuel production, distribution, and use
- Landfill and waste disposal sites
- Burning biomass and using biofuels
How has the concentration of methane in the atmosphere changed since the Industrial Revolution?
Methane levels have risen by 149% since the Industrial Revolution. The concentration has been steadily increasing since 1984, with a brief leveling off between 2000 and 2005, before climbing again to reach 1800 ppb by 2015.
What are some reasons for the rise in methane concentration?
Reasons for the rise in methane concentration include:
- Increased fossil fuel burning
- Changes in global diet (more meat and rice consumption)
- Growing population generating more waste
- Rising temperatures increasing methane emissions from fresh water and thawing permafrost
How does methane contribute to a positive feedback loop in climate change?
Rising temperatures cause more methane to be released from sources like permafrost and fresh water. This additional methane further increases global warming, which in turn leads to more methane release, creating a positive feedback loop.
Why is there controversy over how methane’s global warming potential is calculated for policy purposes?
Policy makers often use a 100-year period to calculate methane’s GWP, which makes it appear less harmful. Environmentalists argue this underestimates methane’s significant warming impact over its 20-year lifespan in the atmosphere.
What is the enhanced greenhouse effect?
The enhanced greenhouse effect is the natural greenhouse effect out of balance due to human activities increasing the proportion of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere. This traps extra heat, causing temperatures to rise.
How has the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere changed since the Industrial Revolution?
Carbon dioxide levels have increased from 280 parts per million (ppm) before the Industrial Revolution to over 400 ppm today.
What are the three main human activities increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide?
- Combustion of fossil fuels (for power generation, transportation, and industry)
- Removal of natural vegetation (reducing carbon sinks)
- Industrial processes (e.g., cement and steel production, petrochemical industry)
How does water vapor act as a greenhouse gas?
Water vapor is the most abundant and variable GHG in the atmosphere. Its levels have been increasing overall, potentially creating a positive feedback cycle where higher temperatures lead to more evaporation and further warming.
What human activities contribute to increased atmospheric water vapor?
- Internal combustion engines (13% of petrol engine exhaust is water vapor)
- Electricity generation (steam as a byproduct)
- Agricultural irrigation
- Deforestation (changing water exchange between vegetation and atmosphere)
How does deforestation affect atmospheric carbon dioxide levels?
Deforestation doesn’t directly add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, but it reduces the removal of CO2 by decreasing the amount of vegetation available for photosynthesis and reducing the biomass store.
What is the relationship between human population growth and GHG emissions?
Increasing human population and rising standards of living are underlying factors in the increase of all GHG emissions. More people leads to more vehicles, increased electricity demand, higher food production, and more land use changes.
How do scientists disagree about the impact of increased water vapor in the atmosphere?
Some scientists argue it will create a positive feedback cycle (more evaporation leading to more warming), while others suggest it could lead to negative feedback (more cloud formation reflecting solar radiation).
What is the main source of five of the main greenhouse gases (GHGs)?
The combustion of fossil fuels is a major source of five main GHGs: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapor, and tropospheric ozone.
How do GHG emissions vary with economic development?
Generally, as countries develop economically, their GHG emissions increase due to industrialization, urbanization, and increased energy use. However, some highly developed countries have lower emissions due to shifts to service-based economies and better technologies.
What is the relationship between income level and carbon dioxide emissions?
Higher-income countries tend to have higher carbon dioxide emissions per capita. However, total emissions may be lower in high-income countries compared to upper-middle-income countries due to population differences and economic shifts.
How does the process of economic development affect GHG emissions?
As countries move from traditional agricultural societies to industrialized economies, GHG emissions increase due to mechanization, urbanization, increased energy demand, and changes in land use.
Why do some high-income countries now have lower GHG emissions?
High-income countries often have lower emissions because:
1. They’ve shifted from manufacturing to service-based industries
2. Many of their companies operate in developing countries
3. They use better emission-reducing technologies
4. They have stricter environmental laws and regulations
How does globalization relate to GHG emissions?
There is a positive correlation between globalization and carbon dioxide emissions. Increased international trade and transportation associated with globalization tend to increase GHG emissions.
What is the KOF index of globalization?
The KOF index measures economic, political, and social globalization by assessing economic flows and restrictions, information flows, personal contact, and cultural proximity.
How do transnational corporations (TNCs) impact GHG emission statistics?
TNCs often have headquarters in developed countries but manufacturing operations in developing areas. This can result in lower reported emissions for developed countries, as the emissions from factories are attributed to the countries where they are located.
What are the four interconnected spheres of Earth, and how do they relate to climate change?
The four interconnected spheres are the atmosphere, biosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere. Climate change primarily affects the atmosphere, biosphere, and hydrosphere. The lithosphere is minimally impacted and not typically studied in this context.
Describe the atmosphere’s composition, structure, and role in climate change.
The atmosphere is a mixture of gases surrounding Earth: 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% other gases including carbon dioxide and argon. The troposphere (zone of weather) and stratosphere (containing the ozone layer) are most relevant for climate. The atmosphere’s composition, especially greenhouse gas concentrations, is crucial in regulating Earth’s temperature and climate.
What is the biosphere and how does it interact with the atmosphere?
The biosphere contains all living organisms, mostly found between 3 meters below the surface and 30 meters above on land, and in the top 200 meters of oceans. It interacts with the atmosphere through photosynthesis (absorbing CO2, releasing O2) and respiration (absorbing O2, releasing CO2). Human activities like deforestation can disrupt this balance, potentially creating positive feedback cycles that increase atmospheric CO2 and global temperatures.
Explain the hydrosphere’s components and its role in climate regulation.
The hydrosphere includes all water in liquid, solid, and gas states. Oceans contain 97% of Earth’s water, while two-thirds of freshwater is in ice sheets. It regulates Earth’s temperature through heat absorption and distribution. The hydrosphere interacts with the atmosphere through evaporation, sublimation, and precipitation. Climate change may alter these interactions, potentially intensifying the water cycle and leading to more extreme weather events.
How do human activities affect the interactions between the spheres?
Human activities impact sphere interactions in various ways:
- Altering the hydrological cycle through reservoir construction, irrigation, and wetland drainage
- Changing land use through deforestation and urbanization, affecting gas exchange between biosphere and atmosphere
- Increasing greenhouse gas emissions through fossil fuel combustion, affecting atmospheric composition
- Modifying ocean chemistry and temperature through pollution and global warming, impacting the hydrosphere-atmosphere exchange
What is the enhanced greenhouse effect and how has it impacted global temperatures?
The enhanced greenhouse effect occurs as the proportion of greenhouse gases (water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide) in the atmosphere rises, leading to increased mean global temperatures. Between 1880 and 2013, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels increased by 40%, corresponding to a 0.85°C rise in global temperature.
What are the IPCC’s temperature projections for 2100 under different scenarios?
The IPCC projects:
- If greenhouse gas emissions are reduced and carbon dioxide absorption increases through forestation, mean global temperature will increase by 0.3 to 1.7°C.
- If high greenhouse gas emissions continue, temperatures could rise by 2.6 to 4.8°C.
How might climate change affect precipitation patterns?
Climate change is likely to:
- Increase annual precipitation in high altitudes, the equatorial Pacific, and wet subtropical regions
- Decrease annual precipitation in mid-latitudes and dry subtropical regions
- Increase frequency, duration, and intensity of extreme weather events like heatwaves and rainstorms
What are the main causes and projected impacts of sea level rise?
Sea level rise is caused by:
- Thermal expansion of oceans
- Melting of snow and ice (glaciers, ice sheets)
IPCC projections suggest sea levels may rise by 26 to 82 cm by 2100. Impacts include increased coastal flooding, damage to infrastructure, salinization of agricultural land, and degradation of coastal ecosystems.
How might climate change affect freshwater availability?
Climate change may reduce freshwater quantity and quality through:
- Reduced precipitation in semi-arid and arid regions
- Increased evaporation rates due to higher temperatures
- Reduced glacier or snow water storage, affecting downstream water resources
- Increased frequency and intensity of droughts
How do oceans act as a carbon sink and how is this affected by climate change?
Oceans absorb 93% of atmospheric carbon through:
- Dissolution at the air-water interface
- Input from rivers carrying dissolved organic carbon
- Biological processes converting carbon into calcium carbonate
Climate change interferes with this process by:
- Reducing dissolution rates as oceans warm
- Decreasing the ocean’s capacity to hold carbon dioxide
- Altering ocean chemistry through pollution
- Disrupting thermohaline circulation
How does sea ice contribute to carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere?
Sea ice formation involves chemical processes that remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Frost flowers on sea ice contain high concentrations of calcium carbonate, which absorbs large amounts of carbon dioxide. Melting sea ice may create a positive feedback loop by reducing this carbon dioxide removal mechanism.
How does ocean warming affect its ability to absorb carbon dioxide?
Warm water holds less gas, so warmer oceans can store less carbon dioxide. This reduces the ocean’s capacity as a carbon sink. Additionally, the dissolution of atmospheric carbon dioxide into oceans is temperature-dependent, being most rapid in cooler polar regions. Ocean warming slows this exchange process.
What are the impacts of climate change on ice stores and global communications?
Climate change is causing:
- Retreat of glaciers in Mount Kilimanjaro (East Africa) and the Andes (South America)
- Shrinking of ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica
- Decrease in snow cover
- Opening of new shipping routes in polar regions, improving global communications
How does climate change affect coastal areas and their populations?
Over 40% of the world’s population lives within 100 km of a coastline. Rising sea levels increase flood risks, particularly in low-lying areas like the Netherlands, Bangladesh, and the Maldives. Impacts include:
- Damage to infrastructure, homes, and industry
- Loss of livelihoods
- Risk to human life (e.g., drowning)
- Saline intrusion into groundwater resources
- Contamination of freshwater, affecting domestic, agricultural, and industrial uses
How does the geosphere act as a carbon sink, and how are humans affecting it?
The geosphere stores about 80% of Earth’s carbon in limestone and other calcium carbonate-based rocks, with the rest in fossil fuels. This carbon typically remains locked up for millions of years. However, human extraction and combustion of fossil fuels releases vast amounts of carbon, significantly contributing to global climate change.
How do changes in the biosphere contribute to oceanic carbon absorption?
The biosphere contributes to oceanic carbon absorption through:
- Plants converting CO2 into organic carbon via photosynthesis, which moves through food chains
- Organisms dying and sinking to the ocean bottom, transferring carbon to deep ocean sediments
- Sea creatures converting dissolved carbon into calcium carbonate for shells and other hard structures
What is the relationship between acid deposition and oceanic carbon absorption?
Acid deposition (acid rain) and other pollutants change the chemical composition of oceans. This damages fragile ecosystems that cycle carbon, limiting the oceans’ ability to absorb atmospheric carbon.
How does climate change impact hydroelectric power generation?
Reduction in glacier or snow water storage leads to reduced water resources downstream during spring and summer. This affects river flow, impacting both water resources and hydroelectric power production. For example, loss of glacial melt in the Andes Mountains is expected to have devastating effects on hydroelectric power generation in Peru.
What is the KOF index of globalization and how does it relate to carbon dioxide emissions?
The KOF index measures economic, political, and social globalization by assessing economic flows and restrictions, information flows, personal contact, and cultural proximity. There is a reasonably strong positive correlation between globalization (as measured by the KOF index) and carbon dioxide emissions, suggesting that as globalization increases, so do emissions.
How do transnational corporations (TNCs) impact greenhouse gas emission statistics?
TNCs often have headquarters in developed countries but manufacturing operations in developing areas. For example, Nike is based in Oregon, USA, but has factories in China (124), Thailand (73), South Korea (35), and Vietnam (34). This can result in lower reported emissions for developed countries, as the emissions from factories are attributed to the countries where they are located.
What were the specific impacts of the 1783 Laki fissure eruption in Iceland?
The Laki eruption lasted 8 months and produced:
- A dense cloud of ash that spread into the stratosphere
- A haze across Europe
- Toxic gases (sulfur dioxide, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride) causing acid rain that killed crops and livestock
- Record low temperatures in the USA in 1783 and 1784
- A 1°C drop in northern hemisphere temperature
What were the precise effects of the 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption?
The Mount Pinatubo eruption:
- Ejected 17 million tons of ejecta into the atmosphere
- Caused a 10% drop in the amount of sunlight reaching Earth’s surface
- Led to a drop in northern hemisphere temperatures of around 0.5°C
- Created a cloud in the stratosphere that lasted for 3 years
- Destroyed a large amount of ozone
How does the albedo of different surfaces compare?
Mean albedo of selected surfaces:
- Fresh snow: 80-90% (0.8-0.9)
- Desert sand: 40% (0.4)
- Grassland: 15-25% (0.15-0.25)
- Deciduous forest: 10-20% (0.1-0.2)
- Coniferous forest: 5-15% (0.05-0.15)
- Water (high sun angle): 2-3% (0.02-0.03)
- Asphalt: 5-10% (0.05-0.1)
What are the main threats to the biosphere from climate change?
The main threats to the biosphere from climate change include rising temperatures, which increase the risk of drought and wildfires. Changing precipitation patterns also pose a significant threat by increasing the likelihood of flooding and drought. Additionally, ocean acidification, resulting from increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and acid deposition, further threatens marine ecosystems.
How is climate change affecting terrestrial species ranges?
Climate change is causing many terrestrial species to shift their ranges to higher latitudes or altitudes in search of more suitable temperatures. While animals can migrate relatively quickly, those already living in extreme environments, such as polar bears at high latitudes, may have nowhere to go. Plants, on the other hand, migrate passively through seed dispersal. Species that are less adaptable or already near their thermal tolerance limits may decline in number and face extinction. The longer warm summers and shorter cool winters have led to an increase in insect pests, as longer summers extend breeding seasons while milder winters fail to kill off eggs and larvae. The geographical range of some species will expand, potentially threatening local species. For example, boreal forests are encroaching on tundra ecosystems, threatening species such as the snowy owl, Arctic fox, and caribou. The pizzly bear, a hybrid of grizzly and polar bears, exemplifies these changes; shrinking sea ice forces polar bears to hunt on land during mating season while warming climates lead grizzly bears to emerge from hibernation earlier and expand their range into polar bear territory. If changes occur too rapidly, some species may not be able to adapt quickly enough and could face extinction.
What ecological hotspots have been identified by NASA as likely to experience high species turnover?
A study by scientists at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the California Institute of Technology identified several ecological hotspots where species turnover is expected to be highest. These hotspots include the Himalayas and Tibetan plateau due to their status as climatic islands. Equatorial East Africa is also highlighted because of its drought-sensitive climate. Other notable areas include Madagascar, Mediterranean regions, parts of South America, and the Great Plains and Great Lakes in North America.
How is climate change impacting the aquatic biosphere?
Climate change has significant impacts on the aquatic biosphere. Reports from the US Environmental Protection Agency indicate that warm-water fish are increasingly outcompeting cold-water fish in various rivers, with species such as salmon and trout projected to lose 47% of their habitat by 2080. Rising sea levels result in saltwater intrusion into freshwater ecosystems, which may force some species to relocate or face extinction. This disruption can lead to losses within food chains and food webs, thereby affecting entire ecosystems. Sea ice ecosystems are particularly threatened by higher temperatures that reduce both their duration and extent. Ocean acidification poses additional challenges; coral reefs are at risk of coral bleaching due to ocean temperatures rising by 1-2°C coupled with pollution. Scientists estimate that coral cover in Australia’s Great Barrier Reef could drop below 10%, which is considered a tipping point for reef growth that may prevent recovery. Ocean acidification also negatively affects reproduction, growth, and development in many marine organisms by reducing their ability to form calcium carbonate shells or skeletal structures.
How does climate change effects alter animal migration patterns?
Climate change alters animal migration patterns significantly. For instance, warmer temperatures have led migratory birds that winter in the south to return north approximately 13 days earlier in spring than they did a century ago. Similarly, 16 out of 23 butterfly species observed in California have been arriving earlier due to changing climatic conditions. These shifts in migration timing may not align with food availability or pest avoidance strategies, potentially leading to higher mortality rates among migrating species.
How does carbon enter the biosphere and what role do forests play as carbon sinks?
Carbon enters the biosphere when plants extract carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during photosynthesis. This carbon is then combined with other elements like hydrogen and oxygen to form organic compounds that are passed along food chains. The biosphere’s carbon-based life forms—both living and dead—constitute one of the largest carbon sinks within the carbon cycle. Forests are particularly significant as they store up to 80% of above-ground carbon and around 30% of below-ground carbon; notably, approximately 45% of this forest carbon is found in just two regions: the Russian Taiga and Amazonia in South America. The amount of carbon held in the biosphere fluctuates diurnally and seasonally with photosynthesis cycles being more pronounced in the northern hemisphere due to greater landmass.
How do human activities alter carbon balance in biospheric sinks?
Human activities significantly disrupt the carbon balance within biospheric sinks both directly and indirectly. Deforestation leads not only to loss of biodiversity but also reduces ecosystem resilience and decreases atmospheric carbon dioxide removal through photosynthesis. This direct effect is often worsened when remaining vegetation is burned or left to decay after tree removal, releasing additional carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. It is estimated that over 12 million hectares of forest are lost each year, contributing an additional 1.5 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide annually.
What impact does rising temperature have on soil carbon stores?
Rising temperatures associated with global climate change are having a profound impact on soil carbon stores. Historically, soils served as significant carbon sinks that removed more carbon dioxide than they released prior to the Industrial Revolution. However, increased temperatures lead to higher decomposition rates within soils, resulting in greater releases of carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere. This phenomenon occurs globally but poses particular challenges in Arctic regions where warming causes permafrost melting; this melting not only enhances CO2 emissions but also releases methane—a potent greenhouse gas—into the atmosphere.
What defines extreme weather events?
Extreme weather is weather that is not typical and infrequent, not ‘normal’ with regard to severity and duration, and has severe impacts. Scientists study changes in frequency, intensity, duration, and timing of these events over time.
How does a small rise in mean temperature affect extreme heat events?
A small rise in mean temperature shifts the normal distribution curve to the right, resulting in more frequent and intense extreme hot weather events. This pattern is likely similar for precipitation, with warmer air holding more moisture leading to more extreme precipitation events.
What are some global trends in heatwaves?
Heatwaves are increasing in number and length globally. Days are hotter with limited nighttime cooling. Australia and the USA have experienced twice the number of record high temperatures compared to record lows in recent years. 75 countries have set new record high temperatures, while only 15 have set record lows. About 29% of new record highs in Europe are attributed to global climate change.
What were the impacts of the hottest July day ever recorded in the UK in 2015?
On July 1, 2015, the UK recorded 36.7°C, breaking the previous record. Impacts included a level 3 heatwave alert for England, wildfires, transportation disruptions, health emergencies, and infrastructure strain. Simultaneously, parts of Scotland and north-east England experienced severe thunderstorms and hail.
How are extreme cold events changing?
Extreme cold events are decreasing. There are fewer cold nights and frosty days in mid-latitude regions. Snow cover has shrunk, and mountain glaciers and snow packs are disappearing rapidly. The winter freeze arrives later, and the spring thaw comes earlier. For northern hemisphere lakes and rivers, the freeze date has moved back six days in 100 years, while ice break-up occurs about six days earlier.
What were the impacts of the extreme cold event in the northeastern USA on February 13, 2016?
A cold front swept across the Great Lakes, dropping temperatures below -17.8°C. Impacts included cancellation of an ice festival, wind chill warnings due to 72 km/h winds, opening of official shelters for the homeless, and warnings for residents to stay indoors. This cold snap followed several weeks of unseasonably warm weather.
Define drought
A sustained period of unusually dry weather lasting long enough to cause water shortages and crop damage.
How is global precipitation changing according to NASA’s model simulation?
NASA’s 2013 model simulation shows a trend towards fewer moderate precipitation events and more extreme events (both excess and deficit). The global precipitation total has changed little, but it is distributed differently in time and space.
What trends in daily precipitation were observed between 1950 and 2008?
Trends from 1950-2008 show some areas received less than the expected mean precipitation (at risk of drought) while others received more (at risk of floods). This suggests an increase in the number and intensity of extreme precipitation events globally.
How did extreme precipitation change between 1951 and 2010 according to the University of New South Wales study?
The study of 11,000 weather stations found extreme precipitation increased by 1-2% every 10 years in both wet regions (e.g. South-east Asia) and dry regions (e.g. Australia). Annual precipitation increased slightly less in wet areas.
How does global warming affect atmospheric moisture and precipitation patterns?
Warmer temperatures increase evaporation, leading to about 4% more atmospheric moisture. This causes the atmosphere to take longer to “fill up” before raining, resulting in heavier, shorter, less frequent precipitation events in all areas. Storms gather moisture from an area 10-25 times larger than the precipitation area.
How have flooding trends changed since 1900?
The number of 100-year floods has increased since 1900. However, land use changes like deforestation and urbanization also exacerbate flooding by increasing surface runoff. In the USA, heavy rainfall over 90-day periods was 20% more common between 1981-2006 than in the previous 25 years.
What factors linked to climate change are driving drought conditions?
Drought-driving factors include: 1) Shifts in atmospheric circulation reducing rainfall in some areas, 2) Precipitation patterns shifting to fewer, heavier events with longer dry periods, 3) Higher temperatures increasing evaporation rates, 4) More precipitation falling as rain rather than snow, affecting water storage and timing of water availability.
How did the 2008 drought in central India relate to climate change?
A 2010 study linked the 2008 drought directly to climate change. Abnormally high surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean caused a shift in monsoon rains. Central India experienced a 50% reduction in monsoon rains, while the rest of India received over 90% of expected rainfall. This shift may force changes in cropping patterns throughout India.
How is climate change expected to impact crop yields globally?
Crop yields are projected to increase in mid- to high-latitude regions but decrease in low-latitude regions, where most low-income countries are located. This uneven impact could exacerbate global inequalities.
What are some potential positive and negative effects of increased CO2 and warming on crops?
Increased CO2 and moderate warming may boost photosynthesis rates for some plants. However, benefits may be limited by water availability, nutrient levels, and increased ground-level ozone. Higher temperatures can reduce overall global yields of wheat and maize, while having less impact on rice and soybean.
How do extreme weather events associated with climate change affect agriculture?
Frequent and severe heatwaves, droughts, and floods can significantly reduce crop yields. Examples include high overnight temperatures reducing corn yields in the US Corn Belt and warm winters causing $220 million in damage to Michigan cherry crops.
What are some impacts of climate change on livestock?
Climate change affects livestock through:
- Heat stress, reducing reproductive capacity and increasing mortality
- Drought reducing feed supply
- Increased CO2 levels reducing feed quality
- Spread of tropical diseases to higher latitudes
How might climate change alter crop cultivation ranges?
Rising temperatures may lengthen growing seasons and allow crops to spread to higher altitudes and latitudes. For instance, maize, sunflowers, and soybeans may become viable at higher latitudes. However, crops near their upper thermal tolerance limits in arid and tropical regions may see their ranges shrink.
What are some ways climate change impacts soil quality?
Climate change affects soil through:
- Increased decomposition rates, reducing organic carbon in soil
- Drying of peat bogs, releasing stored carbon
- Reduced soil moisture, potentially increasing salinization
- Increased leaching in well-drained soils
- Greater water erosion in poorly drained soils
How are scientists working to mitigate climate change impacts on agriculture?
Scientists are developing new crop varieties and technologies to improve yields. The IPCC predicts a potential 5-20% increase in crop yields in coming decades, though this depends on maintaining sufficient agricultural land.
What are the three categories of climate change impacts on human health?
The impacts of climate change on human health can be divided into three main categories. The first category includes direct impacts, which encompass the effects of heatwaves and extreme weather events. The second category involves impacts linked to changes in the biosphere, such as alterations in crop yields and pest prevalence. The third category consists of indirect impacts that are associated with changes in resources, particularly water availability.
How do heatwaves affect human health?
Heatwaves can lead to significant health issues, particularly cardiovascular and respiratory problems, especially among the elderly population. These extreme temperatures increase occupational health risks, which can result in heatstroke and even death. For instance, the European heatwave of 2003 was the hottest summer in 500 years and contributed to approximately 35,000 deaths across Europe while also exacerbating the effects of air pollution.
How is climate change affecting disease patterns?
Climate change is causing a poleward shift in the distribution of pests and pathogens, which leads to an increase in disease cases. This shift results in expanded geographical ranges for disease vectors, such as mosquitoes that transmit malaria or dengue. Additionally, rising temperatures enhance the reproduction and survival rates of these vectors and extend the geographical range and season for allergenic pollen.
What are some indirect impacts of climate change on human health?
Indirect impacts of climate change on human health often stem from extreme weather events such as floods. These events can damage infrastructure, leading to a lack of access to safe drinking water as supply pipes may be destroyed or contaminated. Furthermore, toxic chemicals from flooded chemical stores can mix with floodwaters, causing serious health problems. Poor sanitation due to ruptured sewage pipes can also result in diseases like cholera and typhoid. Climate change affects resource availability by destroying crops, depleting water supplies, and degrading ecosystems that provide essential services.
How does climate change affect migration patterns?
Climate change is leading to an increase in environmental refugees as more frequent and severe extreme weather events destroy homes and livelihoods. The IPCC estimates that by 2050 there could be approximately 150 million environmental refugees due to factors such as coastal flooding, coastal erosion, and agricultural disruption. This situation is complex, making it difficult to attribute displacement solely to global climate change.
How is climate change impacting ocean transport?
Ocean transport is being significantly affected by climate change. The shrinking ice caps around the North Pole are opening up new shipping routes that could facilitate trade between north-west Europe and countries like China, Japan, and Korea. This shift is expected to increase trade by about 10% while reducing shipping distances by as much as 37% to Japan. Additionally, ports along the Siberian coast are opening to accommodate these changes. However, this new route primarily benefits northern countries while southern nations continue to rely on traditional routes like the Suez Canal. The reduction in traffic through the canal could negatively impact Egypt’s economy due to decreased revenue from shipping fees.
How do climate change impacts vary across different populations?
The impacts of climate change are not felt equally across populations. Individuals living in low-lying areas face greater consequences due to more frequent flooding from storm surges and sea level rise. Areas with poor air quality are likely to experience more severe health effects from temperature extremes. Vulnerable groups such as young children and the elderly are particularly susceptible to these extremes as well as diseases like malaria and respiratory infections. High-income countries generally have more resources available for adaptation and recovery compared to low-income countries, where populations may have poorer-quality housing, limited access to healthcare, and lower availability of nutritious food.
What specific impacts did the 2008 central Indian drought have, and how was it linked to climate change?
The 2008 drought in southern India was directly linked to climate change in a 2010 study. Abnormally high surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean caused a shift in monsoon rains. Central India experienced a 50% reduction in monsoon rains, while the rest of India received over 90% of expected rainfall. This shift may force changes in cropping patterns throughout India, potentially affecting agricultural practices across the country.
How might climate change impact crop quality beyond yield?
Climate change can affect crop quality as well as yield. Studies have shown that higher carbon dioxide levels can reduce the quality of alfalfa, negatively impacting its protein and nitrogen content. This demonstrates that even when crop yields are maintained, the nutritional value of crops may be compromised by changing atmospheric conditions.
What specific challenges do small island states face due to climate change?
Small island states like Tuvalu, Kiribati, and the Maldives face existential threats from sea level rise. As flood defense becomes economically unviable, these nations may need to evacuate permanently. For instance, Tuvalu has an informal agreement with New Zealand for phased relocation. This situation threatens to leave islanders stateless, presenting unique challenges for international law and human rights.
Define risk
The potential that the variables associated with climate change will reach such extreme levels that they have an adverse impact on human life (e.g. storms, flooding and drought).
Define vulnerability
The sensitivity and susceptibility to the adverse effects of climate change and the ability (or otherwise) to cope with them.
What is the definition of risk in the context of climate change?
Risk refers to the potential that variables associated with climate change, such as storms, flooding, and drought, will reach extreme levels and have adverse impacts on human life.
What is the definition of vulnerability in the context of climate change?
Vulnerability is the sensitivity and susceptibility of individuals, communities, or nations to the adverse effects of climate change, as well as their ability to cope with these effects. It depends on cultural, demographic, economic, environmental, geographic, institutional, social, and political factors.
How does adaptive capacity influence vulnerability to climate change?
Adaptive capacity refers to the ability to adjust to actual or expected climatic variability and change. It includes behavioral changes and access to resources and technology. Adaptive capacity relies on factors like education and income but also depends on institutions and technology for large-scale adaptations. It allows individuals and nations to take advantage of opportunities presented by climate change, such as longer growing seasons.
How is risk assessed in the context of climate change?
Risk assessment involves analyzing past climate and weather data to quantify risks at individual, community, or national levels. Factors considered include the probability and severity of events, uncertainty due to complex climate modeling, economic costs (both direct and indirect), and time scales for when events may occur and how long they will last.
What are some types of risks associated with global climate change?
Risks include direct physical risks such as damage from extreme weather events; regulatory risks from emissions controls under agreements like the Kyoto Protocol; production risks due to disrupted raw material supply or reduced human productivity; and economic risks from infrastructure damage or loss of productivity.
What is risk perception in relation to climate change?
Risk perception is a subjective judgment about a particular risk’s severity or possible impacts. It varies based on factors like education level, gender, culture, prior knowledge, media coverage, perceived immediacy of threat, predictability of events, and trust in figures of authority such as scientists or politicians.
How does prior knowledge affect risk perception of climate change?
Prior knowledge often comes from scientific communities or media but may feel remote from an individual’s experience. This can lessen fear and reduce the perceived scale of the problem. Conversely, media coverage can either raise awareness or be dismissed as exaggerated.
How do gender and culture influence risk perception?
Studies suggest that females are generally more concerned about the impacts of climate change than males. Cultural beliefs also shape perceptions; for example, fatalistic worldviews may lead people to accept risks as inevitable, while those with a strong sense of responsibility toward others may perceive greater concern.
How does personal experience with extreme weather events affect risk perception?
Individuals who have experienced extreme weather events like storms or flooding tend to have a higher level of concern about climate change compared to those who have not been directly affected. This personal experience makes the risks feel more immediate and real.
What does global data show about awareness of climate change?
Global data shows that over 50% of people in many countries are aware of climate change. However, awareness is lower in regions like Africa and South Asia. Of those who are aware, not all view it as a serious threat. For example, Figure 2b highlights significant variation in how seriously different populations perceive the risks posed by climate change.
What factors contribute to disparities in vulnerability to climate change?
Disparities in vulnerability to climate change are influenced by several factors, including population densities relative to natural resources, reliance on climate-sensitive economic activities such as agriculture, the level of development of a country which affects health, education, wealth, and infrastructure, wealth itself which allows for better preparation and recovery strategies, baseline health status that determines resilience to extreme events, and education levels that enable better preparedness and adaptive strategies.
How does the Climate Change Vulnerability Index assess risk?
The Climate Change Vulnerability Index evaluates 42 economic, environmental, and social factors linked to human sensitivity, natural resource availability, and adaptive capacity. The index highlights spatial variations in vulnerability, indicating that while climate change is a global issue, its impacts are not uniformly distributed.
Which countries ranked highest in vulnerability according to the Climate Change Vulnerability Index from 2011 to 2015?
According to the Climate Change Vulnerability Index, Bangladesh consistently ranked as the most vulnerable country from 2011 to 2015. Other countries in the top rankings included Guinea Bissau, Sierra Leone, Haiti, and South Sudan. The number of African countries in the top ten doubled between these years.
What specific risks does Bangladesh face due to climate change?
Bangladesh is highly vulnerable due to its low-lying geography on the Ganges delta. Risks include rising sea levels that could reduce land area by 10%, increased rainfall and cyclones, soil degradation and erosion, deforestation leading to increased earthquake risks, and diminished food and water security.
What challenges does Guinea Bissau face related to climate change?
Guinea Bissau faces challenges such as irregular and unpredictable rainfall patterns, increased tidal ranges due to thermal expansion leading to flooding, destruction of infrastructure from coastal flooding, loss of fishing grounds on coral reefs, and reduced food availability caused by soil degradation. A significant portion of its population lives below the poverty line and relies heavily on foreign aid.
How is Sierra Leone affected by climate change?
Sierra Leone experiences disruptions from heatwaves and changing rainfall patterns that cause droughts, storms, floods, and landslides. Crop production suffers due to prolonged droughts followed by heavy rainfall. The country’s reliance on subsistence agriculture exacerbates food and water security issues.
What are the climate change-related risks faced by Haiti?
Haiti is at risk from heavier rainfall during the wet season and more frequent hurricanes. Predictions indicate higher temperatures coupled with lower precipitation levels. These changes lead to agricultural instability and crop failures affecting over half of the population employed in agriculture.
What vulnerabilities does South Sudan face due to climate change?
South Sudan faces a shortened rainy season with increasing concerns about drought. The rivers are becoming seasonal, compromising water security for 50% of the population. The unpredictability of rainfall timing poses challenges for planting schedules and food security.
How does wealth influence vulnerability to climate change?
Wealth is closely linked to education and health; greater wealth leads to better education and access to healthcare. These factors improve risk management capabilities and reduce vulnerability. Wealthier individuals have better infrastructure and support networks while poorer populations lack these advantages.
What role does education play in responding to climate change?
Education is crucial for improving responses to climate change. UNESCO has programs aimed at educating younger generations about climate impacts. An educated population is more likely to implement effective strategies for adaptation and resilience against climate-related challenges.
How does gender affect vulnerability to climate change?
Gender indirectly influences responses to climate change; women often face higher risks due to greater poverty levels in many low-income countries. They typically have less participation in decision-making processes and limited access to employment opportunities, which hinders their ability to prepare for or respond effectively to climate impacts.
How does age affect an individual’s ability to cope with climate change impacts?
Age significantly influences coping abilities; older adults and young children are particularly vulnerable to extreme temperatures. The elderly often lack financial resources for heating or cooling their homes and may struggle with relocation after extreme events. Both age groups have sensitive immune systems that make them less able to cope with food or water shortages and disease exposure.
Define adaptation
Management of the risks posed by global climate change in order to moderate the harm (or take advantage of the opportunities).
Define mitigation
Any actions taken to eliminate or reduce the long-term impacts of climate change through reducing the sources of, or increasing the sinks of, GHGs.
Define geopolitics
The interrelationship between geography and international politics and relations.
What are the two main approaches to addressing climate change?
Climate change must be approached through two main angles: adaptation and mitigation. Adaptation refers to managing the risks posed by climate change to moderate harm or take advantage of opportunities, while mitigation involves actions taken to eliminate or reduce the long-term impacts of climate change by reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) sources or increasing sinks.
How is climate change a geopolitical problem?
Climate change is a geopolitical problem due to its complex nature, which involves uneven greenhouse gas emissions across countries and varying impacts on different regions. While GHGs mix evenly in the atmosphere, some countries experience more severe effects than others, highlighting the need for international collaboration in addressing climate change.
What is the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)?
The UNFCCC was adopted at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 and signed by 154 countries. It aims to stabilize atmospheric greenhouse gas levels by providing a framework for protocol agreements. Parties meet annually to discuss progress and set targets for climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies.
What were the key features of the Kyoto Protocol?
The Kyoto Protocol, established in 1997, introduced legally binding emissions targets for developed countries, aiming for a global reduction of about 5% in carbon dioxide emissions from 1990 levels by 2012. The Protocol allowed for mechanisms like emission trading, where countries could buy or sell emission allowances. However, it faced criticism for allowing developing countries to be exempt from targets and for not achieving stringent enough reductions.
What is the Paris Agreement and how does it differ from the Kyoto Protocol?
The Paris Agreement was negotiated at COP 21 in 2015 and emphasizes a bottom-up structure where nations set their own targets for GHG reductions. Unlike the Kyoto Protocol, it acknowledges differences in nations’ abilities to take action and requires all countries to submit emission-reduction plans. Key goals include keeping global temperature increases below 2°C and providing financial support to low-income countries for climate adaptation and mitigation.
What are some key points outlined in the Paris Agreement?
Key points of the Paris Agreement include the goal to keep average global temperature increases below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, establishing financial mechanisms like the Green Climate Fund to support low-income countries with US$100 billion per year, recognizing that high-income countries should lead GHG reductions while low-income countries increase efforts, and implementing a review cycle every five years to set more ambitious targets.
What challenges does the Paris Agreement face regarding implementation?
The implementation of the Paris Agreement faces challenges such as the non-binding nature of country pledges, meaning commitments are voluntary without strict enforcement. Additionally, financial support remains inadequate compared to global military spending. For existing pledges to be effective, significant investments in energy efficiency and renewable power are necessary.
What is the role of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)?
The IPCC was established by the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 1988. Its aim is to provide a scientific assessment of current knowledge about climate change and its impacts. The IPCC involves scientists and governments worldwide, which helps influence national policies related to climate adaptation and mitigation strategies.
Why is climate change considered a geopolitical problem?
Climate change is a geopolitical problem because it requires global cooperation and is influenced by national policies and international agreements. Mechanisms like the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement establish national targets for climate change mitigation, necessitating government-led initiatives to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
What is the difference between adaptation and mitigation in the context of climate change?
Adaptation involves managing the risks posed by climate change to moderate harm or exploit opportunities, while mitigation refers to actions taken to eliminate or reduce long-term climate impacts by decreasing GHG sources or increasing sinks.
What are some strategies for reducing greenhouse gases in the atmosphere?
Strategies for reducing GHGs include improving energy efficiency and conservation, replacing fossil fuels with low-emission energy sources such as renewables and nuclear power, reducing emissions from transportation, decreasing emissions from agricultural activities, and employing geo-engineering methods to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
How can governments reduce energy use?
Governments can reduce energy use through education campaigns that promote energy conservation, installing electric vehicle charging stations, increasing renewable energy sources in electricity generation, and introducing legislation requiring emission-control technologies on vehicles.
What economic incentives can governments implement to reduce emissions?
Economic incentives may include imposing taxes on companies that emit pollution, implementing cap-and-trade schemes, providing subsidies for new technologies that reduce GHG emissions, promoting renewable energy through tax credits, subsidizing public transport, and using road tolls to discourage car use.
What technologies can replace fossil fuels in electricity production?
Technologies that can replace fossil fuels include solar power using thermal panels or photovoltaic cells, wind power generated by wind turbines, hydropower produced from flowing water driving turbines, and geothermal energy harnessing heat from the Earth’s interior.
How can emissions from transport be reduced?
Emissions from transport can be reduced by promoting electric or hybrid vehicles, substituting fossil fuels with biofuels like biodiesel and bioethanol, setting stringent emission standards for vehicles through legislation, and incorporating planning regulations that encourage alternatives to private car use such as cycle paths.
What agricultural practices can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions?
Agricultural practices that can mitigate GHG emissions include using less fertilizer to minimize nitrous oxide emissions, adding nitrification inhibitors to fertilizers, selectively breeding livestock to produce less methane, changing feedstock for livestock, collecting methane from animal waste for energy, and cultivating drought-resistant rice varieties.
What are the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) related to climate change?
The Sustainable Development Goals related to climate change include Goal 7 (affordable and clean energy), Goal 12 (responsible production and consumption), and Goal 13 (climate action). These goals connect to various strategies aimed at mitigating climate change impacts.
What was established at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992?
The Rio Earth Summit led to the adoption of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which aims to stabilize atmospheric greenhouse gas levels by providing a framework for international cooperation on climate mitigation and adaptation strategies.
What is geo-engineering, and what does it aim to achieve?
Geo-engineering involves the deliberate manipulation of Earth’s environmental systems to counteract the impacts of climate change. It does not address the root causes of climate change but can complement strategies to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Geo-engineering is divided into two main approaches: carbon dioxide removal (CDR) and solar radiation management (SRM).
What is carbon dioxide removal (CDR), and how does it work?
Carbon dioxide removal involves extracting CO2 from the atmosphere and storing it in carbon sinks. Techniques include land use management (e.g., reforestation, reduced deforestation), carbon capture and storage (CCS), absorption by oceans through phytoplankton, and the use of biomass for biofuels. While effective in theory, CDR is a slow process that could take decades to stabilize atmospheric CO2 levels.
How can land use management help remove carbon dioxide?
Land use management can reduce atmospheric CO2 by revegetating land, restoring degraded forests, reducing deforestation, and adopting farming practices that retain carbon in soils. For example, leaving land fallow reduces soil disturbance and minimizes CO2 loss. The UN-REDD program supports developing countries in managing forests as carbon sinks and investing in low-carbon energy sources.
What is carbon capture and storage (CCS), and what are its challenges?
Carbon capture and storage involves removing CO2 from the atmosphere through chemical processing or filtration, followed by compression and storage in underground sites like geological formations or old oil reservoirs. CCS is still under investigation and is likely to be very expensive, with uncertainties about its large-scale feasibility.
How do oceans act as carbon sinks, and how might this be enhanced?
Oceans absorb CO2 through photosynthetic phytoplankton, which transfer carbon into sediments when they die—a process known as the biological pump. This process could be enhanced by fertilizing oceans with nutrients like nitrates or iron to stimulate phytoplankton growth or using mechanical pumps to bring nutrient-rich waters to the surface. However, the consequences of such interventions are unknown.
What role does biomass play in removing carbon dioxide?
Biomass refers to plants that naturally remove CO2 from the atmosphere through photosynthesis. Plants are increasingly grown for biofuels, which are considered “carbon-neutral” because they absorb as much CO2 during growth as they release when burned as fuel.
What is solar radiation management (SRM), and how does it work?
Solar radiation management aims to reflect sunlight back into space to reduce Earth’s absorbed solar radiation. Techniques include painting rooftops white, growing reflective crops, covering deserts with reflective materials, using aerosols to increase cloud albedo, enhancing cloud reflectivity with water-attracting particles, or deploying solar deflectors in space. These methods remain theoretical with uncertain environmental consequences.
How does technology contribute to climate change mitigation?
Technology plays a critical role in mitigating climate change by improving renewable energy storage and transmission systems, developing mobile apps like Oroeco that track individual carbon footprints, advancing meat substitutes to reduce livestock emissions, and creating catalytic converters for vehicles that lower emissions. It also supports alternative fuels like bioethanol and biodiesel.
What ethical concerns arise from geo-engineering solutions?
Geo-engineering raises ethical concerns about power dynamics, as a few wealthy nations could control climate interventions that impact the entire planet. This creates questions about equity for low-income countries struggling with poverty while lacking resources for costly geo-engineering solutions.
Define cap-and-trade
An economic system used to control carbon emissions. An upper limit or cap sets the maximum emission allowed. It also allows for extra capacity to be traded between organisations.
Define carbon offset
When operators sponsor activities or projects in other countries that will reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The aim being to compensate for their own emissions.
What are carbon emissions trading, carbon offsetting, and carbon taxes?
Carbon emissions trading, carbon offsetting, and carbon taxes are economic mechanisms aimed at mitigating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. While these terms are familiar to many, their implications regarding effectiveness and impact can be less clear.
What is a carbon credit?
A carbon credit is a tradable permit that allows a country, industry, or organization to produce one metric tonne of carbon dioxide. If the permit is not used, it can be traded, sold, or retired. Carbon credits can also refer to other greenhouse gases based on their equivalent mass or warming potential.
How do countries under the Kyoto Protocol manage GHG emissions?
Countries committed to the Kyoto Protocol must limit GHG emissions through national programs. The protocol includes three market-based mechanisms to create a carbon market: emission trading (cap-and-trade), joint implementation, and the Clean Development Mechanism.
What is cap-and-trade?
Cap-and-trade is an economic system used to control carbon emissions by setting a maximum allowable emission level (cap). Countries are allocated assigned amount units (AAUs), each allowing them to emit one metric tonne of CO2. If operators emit less than their allocation, they can trade surplus credits; if they exceed their cap, they must purchase additional credits or face penalties.
What are some pros and cons of the Kyoto Protocol?
Pros of the Kyoto Protocol include setting targets for GHG reductions and allowing emission trading to reduce overall costs of compliance. However, cons include the requirement for consensus in decision-making, exemptions for developing countries like China and India, and criticism that it may hinder industrial development.
What is carbon offsetting?
Carbon offsetting involves operators sponsoring activities or projects in other countries that reduce atmospheric CO2 to compensate for their own emissions. This mechanism allows companies to balance their emissions by funding projects that contribute to emission reductions elsewhere.
How does the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) function?
The Clean Development Mechanism allows industrialized countries to implement emissions-reduction projects in low-income countries. This mechanism promotes sustainable development in poorer nations while helping industrialized countries meet their GHG reduction targets.
What challenges do carbon credits and offsets face?
While carbon trading and offsetting are seen as solutions to climate change, they face challenges such as ensuring actual reductions in emissions rather than merely shifting them elsewhere. There are also concerns about the effectiveness of projects funded by offsets and whether they genuinely contribute to long-term sustainability.
How does technology play a role in carbon emissions reduction?
Technology contributes significantly to reducing carbon emissions through advancements in renewable energy production, improvements in energy efficiency, development of electric vehicles, and innovations in agricultural practices that lower GHG emissions.
How does the IPCC define adaptation in relation to climate change?
The IPCC defines adaptation as the process of adjustment to actual or expected climate and its effects. In human systems, adaptation seeks to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities. In natural systems, human intervention may facilitate adjustment to expected climate impacts.
Why are adaptation strategies necessary despite mitigation efforts?
Adaptation strategies are necessary because greenhouse gases have a long atmospheric lifetime. Even if emissions are dramatically cut now, past emissions will continue to influence climate for decades. Therefore, adaptation is essential to minimize negative effects and take advantage of new favorable conditions.
What are some key differences between mitigation and adaptation?
Mitigation deals with the causes of climate change, while adaptation focuses on its effects. The impacts of mitigation can be observed on a global scale, whereas adaptation effects are often local. Measuring the success of mitigation is relatively straightforward through tracking GHG levels, while assessing the success of adaptation is more complex and difficult.
What types of adaptation strategies can be implemented for water resources?
Adaptation strategies for water resources include implementing water meters and pricing strategies to encourage conservation, setting targets for water recycling, legislating against excessive watering during dry periods, subsidizing efficient irrigation methods like drip irrigation, and promoting wastewater recycling systems. Additionally, educational campaigns can raise awareness about water-saving practices.
How can governments reduce the risk of flooding through adaptation measures?
Governments can reduce flooding risks by banning construction on flood plains, building flood barriers and improving drainage systems, modifying infrastructure to withstand floods, introducing flood-warning systems, and increasing spending on flood defenses. Protecting wetlands and natural vegetation also helps slow precipitation runoff.
What adaptations can be made in coastal systems and low-lying areas?
Adaptation measures in coastal areas may include banning new developments in low-lying regions, reinforcing sea walls and coastal defenses, preparing contingency plans for floods, relocating hazardous facilities away from vulnerable areas, and implementing managed retreat strategies where communities may need to relocate due to rising sea levels.
What health-related adaptation strategies can be employed in response to climate change?
Health-related adaptation strategies include establishing monitoring and surveillance systems to alert about health risks, preparing for climate-related events with appropriate treatment plans, implementing vaccination programs against diseases like cholera, and conducting public health education on actions to take during heatwaves or floods.
What is an example of managed retreat in response to climate change?
An example of managed retreat is occurring with the residents of the Carteret Islands off the coast of Papua New Guinea. As these islands are predicted to be submerged by 2020 due to rising sea levels, residents are being relocated to other areas such as Bougainville in Papua New Guinea.
How does international cooperation play a role in addressing health issues related to climate change?
The international community may need to consider different approaches to controlling diseases like malaria if their geographical range expands into high-income countries (HICs) due to climate change. This could involve collaborative efforts in research, prevention measures, and healthcare responses.
What is civil society, and how does it contribute to climate change action?
Civil society encompasses everything outside of government, including NGOs, institutions, individuals, and local groups. It establishes citizens’ interests and is independent and self-governing. Civil society contributes to climate change action by improving information access, advocating for vulnerable groups, promoting responsibility within communities, forming action groups to raise awareness, and encouraging grassroots behavior changes through education campaigns.
How can civil society encourage individuals to reduce their carbon footprint?
Civil society encourages individuals to take actions such as turning off appliances when not in use, using energy-efficient devices, improving home insulation, reducing consumption of non-essential or non-local goods, decreasing car use in favor of walking or public transport, purchasing hybrid or electric vehicles, and installing solar or wind power alternatives.
What role did civil society play after the Copenhagen Climate Conference (2009)?
After the Copenhagen Climate Conference, some NGOs shifted their focus to fossil fuel consumption, particularly coal. Global campaigns led to the abandonment of 900 planned coal-fired power stations. Civil society also participated in protests like the People’s Climate March in 2014 and collaborated with academics to advocate for 5-year reviews of government emissions reductions, equal emphasis on mitigation and adaptation, and financial support for low-income countries.
What is corporate social responsibility (CSR), and how does it relate to climate change?
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) refers to a corporation’s commitment to ethical practices that go beyond legal requirements to improve societal well-being. In the context of climate change, CSR involves reducing greenhouse gas emissions, transitioning to renewable energy sources, optimizing supply chains for sustainability, and supporting community efforts to address environmental challenges.
How have major corporations taken action on climate change?
Many corporations have embraced climate action. For example:
- Amazon is building wind and solar projects to achieve 100% renewable energy use and uses recyclable packaging.
- Google offsets its carbon emissions and aims for 100% renewable power for global operations.
- Apple powers its Cupertino campus entirely with renewable energy while reusing or recycling 95% of materials.
- Facebook works on improving data center efficiency through the Open Compute Platform.
- Microsoft supports low-income countries through carbon-offset programs and uses innovative technologies like biogas.
How does civil society influence policymaking on climate change?
Civil society acts as a bridge between the public and governments by holding governments accountable for their commitments, advocating for vulnerable populations, participating in policy dialogues, and ensuring that national policies reflect citizen needs. NGOs also use tools like petitions, protests, and media campaigns to push for stronger climate policies.
What impact has civil society had on fossil fuel consumption?
Civil society campaigns have significantly reduced fossil fuel consumption. For instance:
- The NGO 350.org campaigned against the Keystone Pipeline in the USA and Canada.
- Avaaz used online petitions and protests to mobilize support before the Paris Climate Conference.
These efforts contributed to the decline in demand for coal globally.
Why are corporations increasingly supporting stronger climate policies?
Corporations are recognizing that stronger climate policies benefit businesses by addressing risks from climate impacts and capitalizing on cost-efficient renewable energy sources. This shift reflects both economic incentives and growing societal pressure for sustainable practices.
What geographic factors make Bangladesh highly vulnerable to climate change?
Bangladesh is located on one of the largest river deltas in the world, with over 60% of its land less than 5 meters above sea level. Its position at the head of the Bay of Bengal makes it prone to cyclones and storm surges funneled over the country. Annual monsoons also cause severe flooding, making it one of the most climate-vulnerable countries globally.
How does climate change impact agriculture in Bangladesh?
Climate change has reduced the amount of land suitable for crop production due to changes in temperature, rainfall, and salt-water intrusion, which penetrates up to 100 km inland. This jeopardizes rice production and increases food insecurity in a country where over 60% of the population relies on agriculture. Fisheries are also affected, as over 250 fish species are sensitive to salinity and temperature changes.
What are the effects of rising sea levels on Bangladesh?
Rising sea levels lead to salt-water intrusion into surface and groundwater resources, causing water shortages for 2.5 million people in coastal areas. A 1-meter rise in sea level could displace 30 million people and inundate 15% of the country’s land, affecting agriculture, industry, infrastructure, and urban areas like schools and hospitals
How does climate change affect public health in Bangladesh?
Climate change exacerbates waterborne diseases due to damaged water and sanitation infrastructure from floods. High population density in urban slums increases vulnerability to disease outbreaks. Rising temperatures also worsen diseases like malaria, dengue fever, and respiratory infections.
What is the significance of the Sundarbans in Bangladesh?
The Sundarbans is a UNESCO World Heritage Site consisting of dense mangrove swamps that provide livelihoods for local communities and serve as a natural barrier against cyclones. Rising sea levels threaten this ecosystem, endangering biodiversity, including the Bengal tiger, and weakening coastal defenses.
What adaptation strategies have been implemented in Goalbari village?
In Goalbari village near Dhaka, a women’s cooperative has introduced strategies such as raising houses 1.2 meters above floodwaters and creating floating gardens using hyacinths as a base for growing vegetables. These measures help mitigate the impacts of annual floods on agriculture and livelihoods.
What role do NGOs play in addressing climate challenges in Bangladesh?
NGOs like the Bangladesh Center for Advanced Studies (BCAS) and Christian Commission for Development in Bangladesh (CCDB) work on projects such as floating gardens, raised homes, and community-based savings programs. They also focus on improving access to education, drinking water, healthcare, and diversifying income sources to reduce dependence on farming
How does climate migration impact Bangladesh?
Rising sea levels and flooding force millions to migrate from rural areas to cities like Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna, and Rajshahi. Urban areas struggle to accommodate these migrants due to poor infrastructure, leading to overcrowding, increased poverty, food insecurity, and public health crises.
What national initiatives has Bangladesh undertaken to address climate change?
Bangladesh has developed plans such as the Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (BCCSAP) and National Adaptation Plan (NAP). These initiatives focus on food security, disaster management, resilient infrastructure, low-carbon development, and capacity building. The government also spends 6-7% of its annual budget on climate resilience projects.
How does international support contribute to Bangladesh’s climate adaptation efforts?
International organizations like the World Bank provide funding for climate resilience projects. External governments support initiatives such as embankment construction, water purification plants, cyclone shelters, and afforestation programs. However, questions remain about whether Bangladesh can sustain these efforts without continued external assistance.
Why are high-income countries (HICs) less vulnerable to climate change compared to low-income countries (LICs)?
HICs are less vulnerable due to higher levels of personal and national wealth, which allow for better risk reduction and damage repair. They also have stronger healthcare systems to speed recovery, higher education levels to understand risks and adapt, and robust infrastructure, including emergency services, to address climate threats effectively.
What were the key impacts of the 2003 European heatwave?
The 2003 European heatwave was the hottest summer in 500 years, with temperatures reaching 40°C, 7°C above the mean. It caused 35,000–50,000 heat-related deaths, severe droughts that reduced agricultural productivity by US$16 billion, wildfires, and water shortages that disrupted power plant cooling systems. Low-income families were disproportionately affected due to poor housing insulation and lack of air conditioning.
How did governments respond to the 2003 European heatwave?
Governments implemented hosepipe bans to address water shortages, ran media campaigns on coping with heat, imposed speed restrictions on trains to avoid track buckling, shifted working hours to cooler parts of the day, increased refuse collection to prevent decomposition in streets, and introduced heat-health surveillance systems like Heat-Health Watch in the UK. France also improved monitoring of elderly citizens living alone.
What are California’s water challenges related to climate change?
California faces water challenges due to reduced snowpacks in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, which act as natural water stores. Snowpacks have declined by up to 75%, with spring melts occurring 15–20 days earlier. This leads to less water availability during dry summer months. Climate change has also shifted precipitation from snow to rain, stressing water supply infrastructure and threatening over 40% of southern California’s water supply by 2020.
How does climate change impact agriculture in California?
Climate change causes unreliable water supplies, increased temperatures, and more pests in California’s crop-producing areas. These factors could cost the state an estimated US$3 billion annually by 2050. The reduction in snowpacks also affects irrigation for agriculture and winter tourism at ski resorts.
What government responses have been implemented in California to address water issues?
The Californian government has adopted strategies such as managing irrigation more efficiently, promoting energy-efficient water recycling, offering pricing incentives for conservation, developing drought-tolerant crops, monitoring drought conditions through tools like the US Drought Monitor, and conducting research on improving soil water-holding capacity.
How does California address agricultural pests and diseases as part of its climate adaptation strategy?
California has implemented inspection stations and statewide detection systems for pests and diseases. It also encourages maintaining bee pastures for pollination and raises awareness through information dissemination campaigns.
What lessons can be learned from HIC responses to climate change?
HICs demonstrate how government legislation can lead to effective adaptation strategies. Their responses highlight the importance of investing in infrastructure, research, public awareness campaigns, and sustainable practices to mitigate and adapt to climate change impacts.
What is the primary focus of climate change mitigation?
Climate change mitigation focuses on reducing or preventing greenhouse gas emissions from human activities. This involves transitioning to renewable energy sources, enhancing energy efficiency, adopting sustainable agricultural practices, and protecting and restoring forests and critical ecosystems.
What are some challenges faced in climate change mitigation efforts?
Challenges include the world’s dependency on fossil fuels, increased demand for new mineral resources, and difficulties in revamping food systems. However, these challenges also present opportunities to improve resilience and contribute to sustainable development
How can carbon pricing initiatives support climate change mitigation?
Carbon pricing initiatives create financial incentives for reducing emissions by putting a price on carbon. This encourages businesses and individuals to lower their carbon footprints and invest in cleaner technologies. Effective policies can stimulate green job creation while reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
What role do local governments play in climate adaptation?
Local governments are at the forefront of climate adaptation efforts. They focus on addressing climate problems specific to their areas by building flood defenses, planning for heat waves, improving water storage systems, and enhancing infrastructure to manage extreme weather events.
How has the European Union approached climate change mitigation?
The European Union has set ambitious goals to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% below 1990 levels by 2030 and aims for climate neutrality by 2050. This involves transitioning from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources, halting deforestation, and restoring natural ecosystems.
What is the significance of the Paris Agreement in global climate cooperation?
The Paris Agreement is crucial for global cooperation on climate change as it establishes a framework for countries to set their own emission reduction targets while acknowledging differences in national capabilities. It aims to limit global temperature rise to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels.
How do adaptation strategies differ from mitigation strategies?
Adaptation strategies focus on adjusting to the effects of climate change to minimize harm or exploit beneficial opportunities. In contrast, mitigation strategies aim to address the root causes of climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Adaptation often involves local actions tailored to specific vulnerabilities.
What is the primary focus of the World Bank Group’s Action Plan on Climate Change Adaptation and Resilience?
The World Bank Group’s Action Plan aims to boost adaptation financing to $50 billion over FY21-25, support a mainstreamed approach to adaptation, and develop a new rating system to incentivize investments in adaptation and resilience.
What are the three main objectives of the World Bank Group’s Action Plan?
The three main objectives are to boost adaptation financing, drive a whole-of-government approach to systematic climate risk management, and develop a rating system for tracking global progress on adaptation and resilience.
How does income level affect adaptation ratios in response to climate change?
Adaptation ratios vary by income level; low- and high-income countries have the lowest ratios, offsetting only 32% and 34% of climate losses, respectively. Middle-income countries can mitigate over 50% of climate damage due to fewer constraints and more opportunities for effective adaptation.
What types of adaptations do households, firms, and farmers implement in response to climate change?
Households may migrate or seek employment in less climate-exposed areas. Firms often adopt cooling technologies during heat waves, while farmers may plant drought- or flood-resistant crop varieties to maintain yields. Public support for adaptation tends to be more effective than private strategies.
What challenges do low-income countries face regarding climate change adaptation?
Low-income countries experience severe constraints to adaptation, making their observed adaptations less effective. These constraints can include limited access to resources, technology, and financial support necessary for implementing effective adaptation measures.
Why is it important for governments to implement systematic climate risk management?
Systematic climate risk management helps identify barriers to adaptation and resilience actions. By addressing these barriers through policy changes and investments, governments can enhance their capacity to cope with climate-related risks effectively.
What role does public support play in effective adaptation strategies?
Public support enhances the effectiveness of adaptation strategies by providing resources, infrastructure, and educational initiatives that facilitate community-level adaptations. Investments in public goods and social transfers can generate dual benefits by building resilience while addressing immediate needs.
