Global risks and resilience Flashcards
What is hacking?
Hacking refers to the process in which individuals with knowledge of computer coding use software to help break into computer security systems.
What are some threats to individuals and businesses related to hacking?
Threats include unauthorized access to private emails, alteration of school records, and ransomware attacks that lock computer systems until a payment is made.
What was the WannaCry cyber attack?
WannaCry was a cyber worm attack in May 2017 that affected 200,000 computers in 99 countries, locking users out of their systems until they paid a ransom.
What is black hat hacking?
Black hat hacking refers to people who try to break into systems to damage them or exploit them using ‘ransomware’ that locks a person’s computer until they pay a fine.
How has cybercrime grown in recent years?
Cybercrime has increased significantly, with estimates suggesting it will cost 2 trillion dollars by 2019. It has become a major problem for individual governments to address, often requiring international cooperation.
What is identity theft?
Identity theft occurs when a hacker steals another person’s identity, generally online, to use for their own profit. It may involve the theft of bank and/or credit card details.
How prevalent is identity theft?
According to C6 Intelligence, over 300,000 identities are being sold daily on the Dark Web.
What is stalking in the context of online security?
Stalking occurs when a person observes, follows and tracks another person and this attention is unwanted and often obsessive. In the online context, it can involve using stolen identities on social media or dating sites.
What is surveillance?
Surveillance is the monitoring of the behavior of individuals and groups. Different groups and national governments see this as a way of defining risks to national security and also of detecting criminal behavior.
What are some examples of everyday surveillance?
Examples include CCTV cameras in urban centers, traffic cameras on major roads, and location tracking through mobile phones.
What controversy surrounds government surveillance?
Government agencies have been accused of collecting excessive information on citizens, including phone tapping and email monitoring, which may infringe on individual rights and international law.
What is a whistle-blower?
A whistle-blower is a person who reveals secrets because of what he or she believes is illegal behavior. Examples include Edward Snowden and Chelsea Manning.
What is WikiLeaks?
WikiLeaks is an organization founded by Julian Assange in 2006 that collates information from other sources and releases them on the internet, often revealing classified or sensitive information.
What are the benefits and risks of computer technology?
Enables communication with groups worldwide and access to information. But makes us vulnerable to security hackers who want to access our information. Governments storing large amounts of information are also vulnerable to hacker threats.
What happened during the 2016 US presidential election regarding Russian hackers?
Russian hackers accessed the email of the Democratic National Committee and Hillary Clinton’s private emails. They had access to Clinton’s emails since 2013, particularly her correspondence with adviser Sidney Blumenthal.
What are some consequences of email hacking?
Hackers gain insight into a person’s intimate thoughts and transactions. Victims are often unaware it has happened. In some cases, students or parents have hacked school records to alter grades illegally.
Describe the WannaCry cyber attack of May 2017.
WannaCry was a cyber worm that locked Microsoft Windows computers, affecting 200,000 computers in 99 countries. It impacted global users like FedEx, Nissan, Russia’s Rail and Interior ministry, Britain’s NHS, Deutsche Bahn, and Spain’s Telefónica. Users couldn’t access their material until paying a ransom. The virus likely originated from North Korea.
What is the estimated cost of cybercrime by 2019?
Cybercrime is estimated to cost 2 trillion dollars by 2019.
Why do governments struggle with cybercrime?
Crimes are often committed beyond their borders, requiring increased cooperation between authorities in different countries and coordination by organizations like Interpol.
How do criminals obtain information for identity theft?
Criminals gain information from stolen or mislaid cards, or by hacking email accounts. They then sell this information, allowing others to apply for credit cards or make purchases using the stolen identity.
What is the Dark Web’s role in identity theft?
C6 Intelligence estimates that over 300,000 identities are being sold daily on the Dark Web.
How can using the same password for multiple accounts increase risk?
It makes all accounts vulnerable if one is hacked. Hackers can send bogus emails requesting money transfers in the person’s name to their entire address book.
How is stalking related to identity theft?
Hackers use stolen identities on social media and dating sites to make contacts and gain more information about people, sometimes leading to stalking activities.
How do banks and finance companies contribute to surveillance?
They sell information about their clients, helping companies target their marketing activities. Financial transactions reveal consumer behavior.
How do urban centers use surveillance?
CCTV cameras record activities of citizens throughout day and night. Police use these for security checks of locations and businesses.
How do mobile phones contribute to surveillance?
When turned on, they transmit location information to satellites, allowing authorities to know a person’s exact location at any time.
What did Edward Snowden reveal about government surveillance?
Snowden exposed illegal information collection by US intelligence agencies, the UK, Germany, and others. This included phone tapping, bugging of UN agencies, and collection of emails and phone records of millions of ordinary citizens.
What does Article 17 of the UN’s International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights state?
“No one shall be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his [or her] privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to unlawful attacks on his [or her] honour and reputation.”
Who is Julian Assange and what is WikiLeaks?
Julian Assange is an Australian computer programmer who founded WikiLeaks in 2006. WikiLeaks collates and releases information from various sources on the internet, often revealing classified or sensitive information.
Who is Chelsea Manning and what did she do?
Chelsea Manning, a US soldier, released diplomatic information to WikiLeaks in 2010, including details of a US helicopter attack in Baghdad in 2007. She was tried and convicted of treason in 2013.
What is a supply chain for natural gas?
A supply chain for natural gas is the series of links between producers and consumers, including extraction, processing, transportation, and distribution. It involves gathering from wells, processing to remove impurities, transportation via pipelines or as LNG, and final distribution to end-users.
What is fracking and what are its implications?
Fracking is a method of extracting oil or gas by injecting large amounts of water, chemicals, and sand under high pressure to release the resources from rock formations. While effective for increasing production, it carries significant environmental risks that need to be carefully managed
Who are the top producers of natural gas and how much do they produce?
The major producers of natural gas are the USA, Russia, Canada, Iran, and Qatar. Specific production volumes are not provided in the search results, but these countries lead global natural gas production
What are the main uses of natural gas?
Natural gas is primarily used for:
- Electricity generation
- Industrial processes
- Residential and commercial heating and cooking
- Transportation fuel
How is natural gas primarily transported?
Natural gas is primarily transported through extensive pipeline networks. In the USA alone, there are over 300,000 km of pipelines. These networks include gathering pipelines from wells, interstate/intrastate transmission pipelines, and local distribution pipelines.
What are the components of LNG transportation?
LNG transportation involves:
- LNG storage tanks: Store liquefied gas at very low temperatures
- LNG transport ships: Special cryogenic vessels for long-distance transport
- Liquefaction facilities: Convert gas to LNG through cooling and purification
- Valve stations: Control LNG flow and pressure during various stages
What are the stages in the natural gas value chain?
The natural gas value chain consists of:
- Upstream: Exploration and production (E&P)
- Midstream: Storage, marketing, and transportation
- Downstream: Processing of raw gas and distribution to end-users
How is natural gas prepared for transportation?
Extraction from underground reservoirs
- Removal of impurities (water, sulfur, CO2, etc.)
- Processing to create ‘pipeline quality’ or ‘dry natural gas’
- Compression to increase pressure for pipeline transport
- Liquefaction for LNG transport where applicable
What are the main methods of transporting natural gas?
The first one is pipelines, for land-based transport, including gathering, transmission, and distribution systems. The second one is LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) used for long-distance transport, especially across oceans, using specialized ships and facilities
What is the LNG process and why is it used?
LNG involves cooling natural gas to about -260°F (-162°C), reducing its volume to 1/600th of its original size. This process is used for long-distance transport where pipelines are not feasible, allowing countries without domestic sources to import natural gas.
What are the key components of the LNG value chain?
The LNG value chain includes:
- Natural gas extraction and processing
- Transportation to liquefaction plant
- Liquefaction of natural gas
- LNG storage and loading onto tankers
- Ocean transport in specialized vessels
- Unloading and regasification at receiving terminals
- Distribution through local gas networks
How do compressor stations function in gas transportation?
Compressor stations are placed at intervals along pipelines to ensure the gas remains pressurized. They use turbines, motors, or engines to compress the gas, maintaining its flow through the pipeline system
What are the main challenges in offshore gas production?
Offshore gas wells present unique challenges in drilling and production. Gathering systems for offshore wells are often placed on the seabed and consist of highly engineered equipment that must be operated by remote control.
How is natural gas stored?
Natural gas can be stored in underground facilities or as LNG in cryogenic tanks. Storage is crucial for managing peak demand periods and ensuring a stable supply.
What are the environmental considerations in natural gas transportation?
Environmental considerations include potential leaks, pipeline corrosion, and the energy required for compression and liquefaction. LNG tankers and terminals also have sophisticated safety and environmental protection systems.
What is a transnational corporation (TNC)?
A transnational corporation is a company that operates in several countries at one time. It may have its production in several countries but market globally.
How do TNCs like Nike structure their global operations?
Nike’s operations span multiple countries. They have their headquarters in the USA, production plants in countries like the Philippines and China, clothing manufacturing in West Asia (Pakistan and India under license), research centers in the USA, and distribution networks on every continent.
How do TNCs minimize their tax obligations?
TNCs minimize taxes by locating in countries with lower tax rates, claiming losses from subsidiaries in lower-tax countries, leaving money in lower-tax countries, and using complex accounting schemes to obscure profits.
What was revealed about Starbucks’ tax practices in the UK?
Despite £3 billion in sales since 1998, Starbucks paid only £8.6 million in corporation tax over 14 years in the UK. After a parliamentary hearing in 2012, they voluntarily paid significant corporation tax over 2 years.
How did Google justify its tax minimization practices?
Google’s Vice President argued that the company operates from Ireland and Bermuda where tax rates are lower, stating it’s his job to minimize tax and maximize profits. He also claimed the UK benefits from free products created by employees in California.
What are some ways wealthy individuals minimize taxes?
Wealthy individuals minimize taxes by investing in tax relief schemes, starting companies that can make initial losses, making tax-deductible charitable donations, using property for charity to gain tax benefits, and investing money offshore in shell companies or secret bank accounts.
What is a shell company?
A shell company is set up by lawyers and registered in a tax haven. It doesn’t produce anything but serves as a place for people to hide money from tax authorities.
What is a tax haven?
A tax haven is a country where companies and individuals pay little tax. Its legal and financial setup can be used for minimizing tax through avoidance or evasion.
Name five top tax havens according to the 2015 Tax Secrecy Index.
The top five tax havens according to the 2015 Tax Secrecy Index are Switzerland, Hong Kong, USA, Singapore, and the Cayman Islands.
What are the characteristics of Switzerland as a tax haven?
Switzerland has bank secrecy as part of its constitution, allowing international business people to have secret bank accounts.
How does Hong Kong function as a tax haven?
Hong Kong has considerable secrecy about its banking laws and is a convenient place for Chinese industrialists and businesses dealing with China to operate.
Why is the USA considered a tax haven?
The USA has state laws in Wyoming, Delaware, and Nevada that allow companies to avoid paying large amounts of tax, despite being persistent in taxing its own citizens globally.
What are the key features of the Cayman Islands as a tax haven?
The Cayman Islands have no income tax, capital gains tax, or company tax. They have strict secrecy laws covering financial transactions and many banks located there despite a small population.
How has Luxembourg’s status as a tax haven changed?
Luxembourg ended its bank secrecy laws in 2015 but still offers tax deductions to companies that do business through it. US companies reportedly have $1.25 trillion stored there.
Why is tax avoidance by TNCs and wealthy individuals a concern for countries?
Tax avoidance results in less tax revenue for countries where operations are based, potentially insufficient funds for social services like pensions, healthcare, and education, and economic challenges for countries like Portugal, Italy, and Greece.
What is a drone and how can it be a threat to states?
A drone is an unmanned aircraft, formally known as an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) or unmanned aircraft system (UAS). It’s essentially a flying robot that can be remotely controlled or fly autonomously.
Drones can infringe on personal privacy by taking unauthorized photos/videos, and when equipped with facial recognition, speakers, and infrared technology, they become highly intrusive. They’re also used for government and police surveillance.
How are military drones used and what concerns do they raise?
Military drones are used for attacks, surveillance, and intelligence gathering in hostile areas. They can listen to mobile phone conversations, locate roadside bombs, and provide real-time data about militant groups.
While praised for precision strikes, drones have caused significant collateral damage. Estimates suggest 80-90% of victims are innocent civilians. There are also legal concerns about using drones in countries not officially at war with the attacking nation.
What are some benefits of drones mentioned in the text?
- Unicef uses drones to deliver medicines to remote regions in Rwanda and Malawi, reducing delivery time from hours/days to minutes.
- Drones can help in search and rescue operations, finding people in a much shorter period.
- They can improve the quality of maps and help geologists identify potential mineral sources.
What is a 3D printer and how does it pose a threat to states?
3D printers are devices that let people print three-dimensional objects such as phone cases, jewelry, board game pieces, and even tools.
3D printers challenge intellectual property rights by making it easy to copy and reproduce patented products, copyrighted designs, and trademarked items. This threatens the revenue of companies and countries relying on intellectual property protection.
What are intellectual property rights and how are they threatened by 3D printing?
Intellectual property rights are the rights individuals or companies have over their original ideas, processes, patents, trade secrets, or trademarks.
3D printers make it easy to breach copyright, reproduce patented items, and copy trademarked designs at home, making infringement difficult to detect and enforce.
How is China positioning itself in the 3D printing industry?
China aims to become the world’s design capital by heavily investing in 3D printing technology. The Chinese government is supporting this initiative with grants, such as US$15 million to the Kangshuo Group for a 3D printing center. It was estimated that the sale of 3D printers would be greater in China than in the USA by 2016.
What is copyright and how is it threatened by 3D printing?
Copyright normally covers literary work such as books or articles, giving the right to reproduce them to the publisher/author.
3D printers make it easy to copy copyrighted designs at home, similar to how music and movies are illegally downloaded, making detection of infringement nearly impossible.
What is a patent and how is it affected by 3D printing?
A patent relates to an invention, giving the inventor the right to exclude others from making, using, or selling it for a certain period.
3D printers can easily reproduce patented items, especially those with simple designs like prostheses and hearing aids. This becomes problematic if these reproduced items are sold.
What are trademarks and how are they impacted by 3D printing?
Trademarks are symbols linked to a particular company or organization, like Adidas’ three stripes or McDonald’s big M.
3D printers can reproduce items with trademarks. This becomes an issue if these items are sold, infringing on the company’s trademark rights.
What are some key points about technological threats to states?
Drones and 3D printers have useful applications but also pose threats to privacy and intellectual property.
- Private use of drones threatens individuals’ right to privacy and peace.
- Military drones raise legal and ethical concerns about warfare.
- 3D printers challenge copyright, patent, and trademark laws.
- Enforcing intellectual property rights globally is increasingly difficult.
- Both drones and 3D printers potentially threaten individual rights of states.
What is tribalisation and how does it manifest?
Tribalisation is the increasing desire of regional groups and entities to have political power and split up from the state or groups of states they belong to. It often manifests as a wish to return to old ideas or a belief that independence will lead back to a glorious past. Examples include the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991, East Timor’s independence from Indonesia in 1999, Donald Trump’s “America First” policy, and Brexit (UK leaving the European Union).
Why was Ukraine strategically important to Russia?
Ukraine was crucial to Russia for several reasons: it served as the main avenue for Russian gas transportation to Europe, with the natural gas pipeline being essential for Gazprom’s control of gas supplies to Western Europe. Additionally, the discovery of natural gas in Western Ukraine by Shell and ExxonMobil posed a potential threat to Russian dominance of the European gas market. Russia was also keen to prevent Ukraine from joining the EU, seeing it as a provocation and a threat to its influence in the region.
Describe the events leading to the annexation of Crimea by Russia.
In March 2014, pro-Russian forces seized control of government buildings in Crimea and held a referendum to reunite the area with Russia. The referendum passed, though its legitimacy was questioned by most EU members. Russian naval forces then reoccupied Crimean ports and armed forces occupied Crimea. This action was preceded by the ousting of Ukrainian president Yanukovych, who had reneged on an agreement to join the EU and instead sought closer ties with Russia, leading to mass protests in Kiev.
What sanctions were imposed on Russia by the USA and EU, and what was their impact?
Sanctions included exclusion of Russian banks from Western finance sources, restrictions on technology exports, travel restrictions for Putin’s elite, freezing of Western assets, and prohibition of providing new equipment for Russian oil and gas exploration. These sanctions contributed to an economic recession in Russia, made it harder to obtain capital for projects and finance business, and reduced cash flow from oil and gas sales due to a global market glut and reduced prices.
How did NATO respond to Russia’s actions in Ukraine, and why?
NATO deployed armed forces to the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania) and Poland as a deterrent to Russian ambitions. This response was prompted by concerns in these countries about potential Russian aggression, especially given the large numbers of ethnic Russians who had migrated to the Baltic States in the 1970s and 1980s, changing their ethnic composition.
Describe the Malaysia Airlines incident in 2014 and its significance.
In July 2014, a Malaysia Airlines plane flying from Amsterdam to Kuala Lumpur was shot down over eastern Ukraine by a Russian Buk missile provided to separatists, killing all 298 people on board. This tragic event provided evidence of Russian support for the rebels in eastern Ukraine and heightened international tensions surrounding the conflict.
How does the concept of hard power apply to Russia’s actions in Ukraine?
Hard power in this context refers to Russia’s use of military force to exert control, as seen in the annexation of Crimea and support for separatists in eastern Ukraine. This included the occupation of Crimea by Russian armed forces and the provision of military equipment and personnel to pro-Russian separatists in eastern Ukraine.
How was soft power employed by the international community in response to Russia’s actions?
Soft power was employed through the imposition of economic sanctions on Russia by the USA, EU, and other countries. This approach aimed to create change without the use of military force by targeting Russia’s economy, restricting access to Western financial markets, and limiting technology transfers, particularly in the military and energy sectors.
What were the main areas of conflict in Ukraine, and how did the situation evolve?
The main areas of conflict were Crimea and eastern Ukraine. After the annexation of Crimea, pro-Russian separatists, with support from the Russian military, took over areas in eastern Ukraine closest to the Russian border. The Ukrainian army defended against these attacks, resulting in ongoing conflict. Despite several attempts at ceasefires, none have had long-term success, and fighting has continued in the region.
How did the Ukraine conflict affect global geopolitics and international relations?
The conflict in Ukraine significantly strained relations between Russia and the West, leading to economic sanctions and increased military tensions. It prompted NATO to strengthen its presence in Eastern Europe and raised concerns about Russian expansionism. The situation also highlighted the complexities of ethnic and national identities in post-Soviet states and challenged the established norms of territorial integrity in international law.
What is Yemen’s political situation since 1990?
Yemen has had a weak central government and suffered from civil war since its most recent reunification in 1990. It is one of the poorest and least developed countries in the world, with a human development index of 0.482 and ranked 168th globally in 2015.
Define tribalisation in the context of Yemen.
Tribalisation in Yemen refers to people having a stronger sense of loyalty to their tribe and region rather than to the national entity. This has contributed to the country’s internal conflicts and divisions.
What are the main religious groups in Yemen?
The northern part of Yemen has a large Shiite Muslim minority, while people in the south are mostly Sunni Muslims. This religious divide has contributed to tensions and conflicts within the country.
How did Yemen’s history reflect the Cold War?
Yemen was divided during the Cold War, with North Yemen being identified with the USA and South Yemen (a Marxist state) allied with the USSR. This division lasted until reunification in 1990.
What led to the rise of al-Qaeda in Yemen?
The harsh treatment of people in the South by President Ali Abdullah Saleh’s government led to disillusionment, creating fertile ground for al-Qaeda to form. Osama bin Laden’s family originally came from Yemen.
Define “scorched earth policy” and how was it used in Yemen?
A scorched earth policy is a military strategy of burning or destroying crops and other useful resources. In 2009, the Yemeni government, with support from Saudi troops, launched such a policy against Houthi rebels in the north, including air and missile strikes.
How is the conflict in Yemen considered a proxy war?
The conflict in Yemen is seen as a proxy war between Saudi Arabia (supporting the government) and Iran (supporting the Houthi rebels). This reflects the broader regional power struggle between these two major Islamic powers.
What role has the United States played in Yemen’s conflicts?
The US has supported the Yemeni government with money and resources to eliminate al-Qaeda. However, US drone attacks have alienated many people in the South due to civilian casualties.
Who are the Houthis and what is their role in Yemen’s conflict?
The Houthis are members of the Shia Zaidiyyah sect led by Hussein Badreddin al-Houthi. They began a rebellion against the government in 2004 in northern Yemen and have received support from Iran.
How has Yemen’s geopolitical situation affected its development?
Yemen’s involvement in regional and global conflicts has devastated its population, resulting in many deaths from military strikes and widespread famine. This has contributed to its low level of development compared to other countries in the region.
What is trans-boundary pollution?
Trans-boundary pollution occurs when air, water or land is polluted in one country but the pollution also affects other countries nearby. Types include acid rain, smoke haze, pollution of the sea by plastics, oil deposits and waste, and pollution of lakes and rivers by industry and agriculture.
What is the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO)?
The RSPO is a collective that aims to certify sustainable palm oil growing methods. It certifies more than 20 percent of the global palm oil supply. Companies like Unilever, L’Oréal, and some UK supermarket chains source palm oil this way.
What are the main areas of palm oil production?
The main areas are in Sumatra (Riau Province) and Kalimantan in Indonesia, and Sabah and Sarawak in Malaysia. Indonesia and Malaysia produced 85% of the world’s palm oil in 2015.
How does palm oil plantation establishment affect the environment?
Establishing plantations requires clearing large areas of rainforest, often in peatland areas. This process involves draining peatland, clearing trees, and burning unsold timber. It has a disastrous impact on biodiversity and releases greenhouse gases as peatland forests act as carbon ‘sinks’.
What are the impacts of forest fires from palm oil production?
Forest fires cause smoke and haze that affect neighboring countries like Malaysia, Singapore, and sometimes Thailand. This leads to reduced visibility, airport closures, and various health hazards including respiratory problems and increased risk of heart attacks.
What is the Pollutant Standards Index (PSI)?
The PSI is used in Singapore to measure air quality. It measures levels of particulate matter, fine particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, and sulphur dioxide. A PSI value over 101 over 24 hours is considered unhealthy.
What steps have been taken to address the haze problem?
In September 2014, Indonesia accepted an ASEAN agreement to reduce illegal clearing and burning of forests to prevent transboundary haze pollution. However, the Indonesian President acknowledged that solving the problem would take time, estimating three years for a solution.
How does palm oil production impact global climate?
The clearing and burning of peatland forests for palm oil plantations releases greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, contributing to global temperature increases.
What are some health effects of the haze from forest fires?
Short-term exposure can lead to sore throats, increased asthma attacks, bronchitis, skin irritations, and allergies. People with heart conditions may be vulnerable to heart attacks and arrhythmia.
How has the palm oil industry affected Indonesia’s economy?
In 2016, the palm oil industry was worth $18.6 billion to Indonesia, making it a significant contributor to the country’s economic growth.
What is ocean pollution?
Ocean pollution is the deposition of oil, chemicals, plastic, agricultural waste and human waste into the ocean. About 80% of sea pollution comes from land-based activities, while ships also contribute to pollution.
What is ballast water?
Ballast water is fresh water or seawater held in tanks or compartments in ships to increase stability and maneuverability. It sometimes contains sediments and organisms, which can introduce invasive species to new environments.
What is grey water?
Grey water is water released from cleaning utensils or doing laundry on a boat. It often contains microbes harmful to ocean life.
What is black water?
Black water, or sewage pollution, comes from human waste and may contain pathogens that can affect ocean life.
What are the main types of ship-based pollution?
Ship-based pollution includes ballast water, grey water, black water, chemical waste (including heavy metals and materials from batteries), and oil spills.
What was the Deepwater Horizon oil spill?
The Deepwater Horizon oil spill occurred in April 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico. It lasted 87 days, spewing 3.19 million barrels of oil, affecting shorelines of five US states and damaging marine species at all levels of the food chain.
How does plastic pollution affect marine life?
Plastic waste shreds into small pieces coated with toxic substances. Marine animals ingest these particles, passing toxins up the food chain. Animals can also become entangled in larger debris.
What is the Pacific Gyre?
The Pacific Gyre is an area where ocean currents converge, creating a large pool of garbage that circulates and negatively affects the marine ecosystem. It’s often referred to as a “dead zone” in the Pacific Ocean.
What are some examples of land-based ocean pollution?
Land-based pollution includes toxic chemicals and fertilizers deposited into rivers that lead to the sea. This can cause algal blooms, deprive marine areas of oxygen, and accumulate in the fatty tissue of marine animals.
How do beach cleanups help combat ocean pollution?
Beach cleanups, like those in Massachusetts, engage community volunteers to remove debris from coastlines. These efforts help reduce pollution and raise awareness about the issue of ocean pollution.
What is the carbon footprint of food?
The carbon footprint of food refers to the main greenhouse gases (in kilogrammes of carbon dioxide equivalent) emitted during the production, transport and consumption of food. This includes emissions from cooking and food wastage.
What percentage of global greenhouse gas emissions does agriculture produce?
Agriculture globally produces approximately 14% of the world’s greenhouse gases.
Why is the concept of “food miles” not the most accurate measure of a food’s carbon footprint?
While food miles contribute to emissions, they are not the major factor. Other aspects like production methods (e.g., greenhouse heating) can have a larger impact on overall emissions than transportation distance.
Which foods tend to have the highest carbon footprints?
Animal products such as meat, cheese, and eggs result in the highest emissions during production. For example:
- Lamb: 20.4 kg CO2e
- Beef: 15.2 kg CO2e
- Cheese: 9.8 kg CO2e
How does organic farming impact carbon emissions?
Organic farming generally reduces the level of emissions as it uses natural fertilizers and dung, avoiding the emissions associated with producing artificial fertilizers used in conventional farming.
What role does food packaging play in carbon emissions?
Food packaging contributes to emissions through the production of materials like plastic and polystyrene, which use oil in their manufacturing process. Additionally, some foods require energy-intensive preservation methods, such as cooling for apples or gas treatment for bananas.
How does cooking method affect a food’s carbon footprint?
Different cooking methods have varying levels of energy efficiency. For example, gas ovens are relatively inefficient compared to microwaves. Consuming uncooked foods like salads can reduce the carbon footprint associated with cooking.
What is the impact of food waste on carbon footprints?
Food waste contributes significantly to carbon footprints. Both retailers and consumers are responsible for food waste, with meat and vegetables being areas of particular concern.
How do different diets compare in terms of carbon footprint?
Based on a UK study for a 2000 calorie/day intake, average greenhouse gas emissions in kg CO2e/day were:
- High meat eaters: 7.19
- Average meat eaters: 5.63
- Vegetarians: 3.81
- Vegans: 2.89
What factors are considered in calculating personal carbon footprints?
Personal carbon footprints consider:
- Consumed goods (including raw materials, processing, packaging, and transport)
- Transportation choices (e.g., flying, driving, public transport, cycling)
- Housing (size, construction, insulation, glazing, and fuel used for heating and cooking)
What was the Green Revolution’s impact on greenhouse gas emissions?
The Green Revolution, which enhanced food production in Asia in the 1970s and 1980s, introduced artificial fertilizers. These fertilizers produce emissions during their production, contributing to increased greenhouse gas levels.
How does fruit preservation contribute to carbon footprints?
Some fruits require specific preservation methods that increase their carbon footprint. For example, bananas are treated with ethylene gas to begin the ripening process, while apples are stored in cooled conditions to ensure longevity.
What are some examples of food packaging that contribute to emissions?
Common examples include plastic bags or polystyrene containers for fruits, vegetables, and processed foods like oven-ready pizzas or cakes. These packaging materials use oil in their production, releasing greenhouse gases.
How do different types of meat compare in terms of carbon emissions?
According to the data provided:
- Lamb has the highest emissions at 20.4 kg CO2e
- Beef follows at 15.2 kg CO2e
- Chicken has significantly lower emissions at 2.3 kg CO2e
How does air travel compare to car travel in terms of climate impact?
A 2010 study from Austria and Norway found that air travel results in a lower temperature change per passenger-kilometer than car travel in the long run. However, air transport creates about 6-8% greater climate impact than cars per hour.
What are some factors to consider in housing that affect personal carbon footprints?
Important factors include:
- Insulation quality, which affects energy needed for heating or cooling
- Presence of double glazing in windows
- Type of fuel used for heating and cooking
How do fruit, nuts, and vegetables compare to animal products in terms of emissions?
Fruit, nuts, and vegetables result in much lower emissions during production compared to animal products like meat, cheese, and eggs.
What is the relationship between artificial fertilizers and genetically modified crops?
Artificial fertilizers are particularly used with genetically modified crops, contributing to increased emissions during their production.
How does the carbon footprint calculator mentioned in the text work?
The food carbon footprint calculator (available at foodcarbon.co.uk) allows individuals to discover their personal carbon footprint based on their eating habits.
What does the graph on estimated food losses reveal?
The graph shows that fruits and vegetables have the highest percentage of food losses, followed by roots and tubers. Oilseeds and pulses have the lowest percentage of losses among the food groups shown.
What is the global shift of industry?
The movement of heavy and light industries (e.g. iron and steel production, shipbuilding, petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, garments) from Northern Europe and eastern USA to locations in Asia (China, India, Thailand, Singapore, Indonesia) since the 1970s.
Define secondary industry
Manufacturing and production activities that process raw materials into finished goods. In China, it accounts for 44% of GDP.
What are the main reasons for the global shift of industry to South and East Asia?
Cheaper labor costs
- Government allowance of joint ventures
- Increasing quality of labor
- Cheap and plentiful power supplies
- Government desire for modernization
- Liberalization of capital markets
- Liberal interpretation of copyright laws
- Fewer restrictions on safety and emissions regulations
How has air pollution been impacted by industrial shifts to China?
Many Chinese cities suffer from poor air quality. In Beijing, over half the year in 2015 had unhealthy air quality levels. Sources include vehicles, industry, dust storms, and coal use. Pollutants include oxidants, sulfur dioxide, ozone, and fine particulate matter.
What are the trans-boundary effects of air pollution from Chinese industry?
Air pollution from Beijing and Northern China has affected South Korea, Japan, and even the Pacific coast of the USA, leading to calls for China to control industrial environmental impacts.
How has water pollution been affected by industrial growth in China?
40% of surface water in Beijing is severely polluted. In Shanghai, 85% of river water is undrinkable. Causes include lax enforcement of laws against chemical waste dumping and release of untreated wastewater into water bodies.
What is e-waste?
Electronic waste including computers, televisions, washing machines, mobile phones, electronic toys, and refrigerators, often dumped in developing countries due to cheap labor, lax import regulations, and crude recycling methods.
What health hazards are associated with e-waste recycling?
- PC screens contain lead and heavy metals that can damage nervous and cardiovascular systems
- Mobile phones contain mercury that can damage organs including the brain
- Copper wire smelting releases mercury, cadmium, and arsenic
- Flame-resistant plastics may cause cancer
What was the Trafigura incident?
In 2006, Trafigura dumped 500 tonnes of toxic waste in Abidjan, Ivory Coast, causing 17 deaths and injuring 30,000 people. The waste contained hydrogen sulfide and caustic soda, causing burns to lungs and skin.
How has the Chinese government responded to environmental issues?
In 2014, China passed laws to fine companies for chemical dumping and enforce emission controls. Officials risk dismissal for not enforcing laws. China also endorsed the Paris Agreement on climate change. However, local enforcement remains a challenge.
What is agribusiness?
Agribusiness refers to the production of food for profit and involves farm machinery, seeds, fertilizers and pesticides, processing as well as the sale and retail of food.
What is a key characteristic of modern agribusiness in the USA?
In the USA, a few large companies now control most of the food production. For example, the four largest firms in each sector produce 72% of the nation’s beef and 57% of the nation’s chicken.
What are some historical roots of agribusiness?
Agribusiness refers to the production of food for profit and involves farm machinery, seeds, fertilizers and pesticides, processing as well as the sale and retail of food.
How has agribusiness contributed to deforestation in Brazil?
In Brazil, large areas of rainforest have been cleared for cattle ranching and soybean production. Companies like Cargill control soybean production, used for cattle and chicken feed. The construction of highways has also led to increased settlement and illegal forest clearing.
What are some historical roots of agribusiness?
Agribusiness has roots in colonial-era companies like the Dutch East India Company (VOC), which controlled European spice supply from Indonesian plantations, and the British East India Company, which grew cotton and tea in India from the 17th to 19th centuries.
How does corn production in the USA impact the environment?
Corn production in the USA often uses genetically modified crops with fertilizers and pesticides. The nitrates from fertilizers wash into groundwater and rivers, contributing to nitrogen pollution and creating a “dead zone” with no marine life in the Gulf of Mexico.
How does beef cattle farming impact the environment?
Beef cattle cause significant environmental damage, releasing five times more greenhouse gases than other animals and requiring 28 times more land. They also require considerable amounts of water.
What is eutrophication?
Eutrophication is when waterways have a high concentration of nutrients (dissolved nitrogen or phosphorus) that leads to the growth of algae that starve the water of oxygen. Fish and other marine animals die from this lack of oxygen.
What environmental issues are associated with chicken production?
Chicken production creates manure high in phosphorus. When washed into streams and rivers, it contributes to algal blooms. For example, poultry farmers in the Delmarva Peninsula produce half a billion kilos of chicken manure annually, affecting the Chesapeake Bay’s oxygen levels.
What are some environmental impacts of palm oil production in Indonesia and Malaysia?
Palm oil production has led to rainforest burning, creating haze and increasing greenhouse gas emissions. It also increases surface run-off and nutrient leaching, leading to higher turbidity and salt levels in rivers, and a major decrease in biodiversity.
How has agribusiness affected waterways in Europe?
Intensive poultry and livestock raising in Europe has led to eutrophication problems, particularly in the Baltic Sea. In France, cereal production in the Loire and Bretagne river basins has raised concerns about pollution levels in the Atlantic where these rivers end.
When and why was Amnesty International formed?
Amnesty International was formed in 1961 by British lawyer Peter Beneson, who was outraged by the arrest and imprisonment of two Portuguese students for raising a toast to freedom. He waged a public campaign for their release.
What are some key issues Amnesty International campaigns for?
Amnesty campaigns against torture and the death penalty, for the right to free speech, to help migrants and political prisoners, and for women’s rights. They use non-violent methods like letter-writing campaigns and making representations to governments.
How has Amnesty International responded to human rights issues in Turkey?
Amnesty has been vocal in protesting against the Turkish government’s actions following a 2016 coup attempt, including mass arrests and restrictions on press freedom. In 2017, Amnesty campaigned for the release of its own staff members arrested in Turkey on terrorism charges.
What is the Melissa women’s refuge center in Athens?
Melissa is a women’s refuge center in Athens, supported by Amnesty International, where refugee women can learn from each other. Amnesty has held workshops there to empower women and make them aware of how to advocate for their needs.
When and by whom was Greenpeace founded?
Greenpeace was founded in 1970 by US Navy veteran Jim Bohlen and Canadians Irving and Dorothy Stowe, along with others. It was founded on Quaker beliefs and concepts.
What is Greenpeace’s mission?
Greenpeace aims to expose global environmental problems and force solutions essential for a green and peaceful future. They seek to protect biodiversity, prevent pollution, end nuclear threats, and promote peace and non-violence.
How did Greenpeace begin its activism?
Greenpeace’s first action was attempting to sail into a US nuclear testing zone in the Aleutian Islands to protest nuclear weapons testing. While unsuccessful in entering the zone, the publicity forced the US to abandon future tests there.
What was Greenpeace’s stance on genetically modified (GM) crops?
Greenpeace has campaigned against GM crops, fearing they would harm natural species and damage soil. They’ve engaged in direct action like occupying fields sown with GM crops and attempting to stop research.
Describe Greenpeace’s action against Arctic oil drilling in 2013.
In September 2013, Greenpeace activists attempted to occupy Gazprom’s Prirazlomnaya drilling platform in the Arctic Ocean. The Russian authorities arrested the activists and crew of Greenpeace’s ship, initially charging them with piracy.
How has Greenpeace campaigned against unsustainable tuna fishing?
Since 2006, Greenpeace has campaigned against factory tuna fishing in the Pacific Ocean. They’ve taken direct action at sea, targeted big companies with public tuna rankings, and in 2017 achieved agreements from the Thai Union Group to alter certain fishing practices for sustainability.
What is reshoring?
Reshoring is when transnational corporations (TNCs) bring their production back to the country where it was originally based. It aims to make countries more self-sufficient and bring jobs back to the home country, thereby reducing high levels of unemployment.
What political pressure has been applied for reshoring in the USA?
President Donald Trump promised to bring manufacturing back to the USA to enhance employment and wealth. He proposed cutting corporate tax from 39.6% to 15% and allowing US companies not to be taxed on profits made overseas as incentives for reshoring.
What challenges do companies face when reshoring to the USA?
Some companies have found it difficult to find reliable, capable workers, with some employees unable to pass drug tests or do basic mathematics required for the job. However, labor costs in places like China are rising, reducing the cost difference.
How has Apple engaged in reshoring?
In 2013, Apple began assembling the Mac Pro in Texas, with components made in Florida, Illinois, Kentucky, and Michigan. This $100 million investment created 200 jobs. Apple also asked iPhone assemblers Foxconn and Pegatron to relocate to the USA.
What is Caterpillar’s reshoring strategy?
Caterpillar decided to relocate production of hydraulic excavators and tractors from Japan to the USA due to rising labor costs in Japan and cheaper energy costs in the USA. This move will create over 1000 jobs in Georgia and Illinois.
How has the fashion industry engaged in reshoring?
Nike plans to create 10,000 new jobs by moving some manufacturing back to the USA. Brooks Brothers has expanded US production to handle specialized orders more quickly. Burberry plans to open a new factory in Leeds, UK, employing 1000 people.
What are the main reasons for reshoring in the UK?
Reasons include rising costs overseas, quality concerns, reducing the risk of supply chain disruption, and the need to be closer to customers. Both large companies and small to medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are considering reshoring for these reasons.
How has Elite Electronic Systems benefited from reshoring?
Elite reshored its electronic supplies from China to Northern Ireland due to problems with flexibility and logistics. The move improved their ability to change production at short notice and reduced delivery times from up to 20 weeks, helping them manage stock more effectively.
What is crowdsourcing?
Crowdsourcing is the use of the internet and social media platforms to get information from the general public about their needs and wants. Governments and individuals use it to both gauge and influence public opinion through platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and other applications.
How does crowdsourcing blend different production approaches?
Crowdsourcing blends traditional top-down production (where government controls information flow) and bottom-up user production (where ordinary people control information flow, e.g. YouTube and Twitter).
What are the four ways governments use crowdsourcing?
- Discovery and organization of information
- Microtasking the digitalization and analysis of historical documents
- Helping to solve government problems
- Public decision-making on government issues
How has crowdsourcing been used in disaster response?
Police departments have asked the public for video or eyewitness accounts of terrorist acts and other crimes. For example, the Boston Police Department used crowd-sourced video to identify perpetrators of the 2013 Boston Marathon bombing.
What is Amazon’s Mechanical Turk platform?
It’s a platform that breaks down large amounts of information into smaller, more manageable pieces. It can be used by organizations and governments to analyze scanned public documents with public help.
How did NASA use crowdsourcing to solve a scientific problem?
In 2009-2010, NASA used its InnoCentive program to search for a formula to predict solar flares. A retired engineer won a $30,000 prize for finding a winning formula.
What is CrowdJustice?
CrowdJustice is a crowdsourcing platform that enables people to come together around legal issues, raise money, gather support, and increase public awareness for legal cases.
How has crowdsourcing been used in political activism?
Examples include Operation Libero in Switzerland, which used social media to influence a referendum on migrant rights, and the London School of Economics’ project to engage young people in Brexit negotiations.
What is crowdfunding?
Crowdfunding is where the online community funds a start-up company or a charitable cause or organization. Companies like Indiegogo and Kickstarter coordinate crowdfunding efforts.
How has crowdfunding been used in healthcare?
In countries like the USA, individuals use crowdfunding to raise money for expensive healthcare costs, which are the leading cause of bankruptcy. Platforms like Human Tribe Project help people fundraise for medical crises.
What is cybersecurity?
Cybersecurity is the set of technologies used to protect computer networks and organizations from cyberattacks by individuals or rogue nation states.
What is bitcoin?
Bitcoin is a cyber currency that can be purchased online and used like any other currency. It was demanded as payment by users of ransomware in 2017 who froze some people’s computers.
What are the three arms of the US Department of Homeland Security dedicated to cybersecurity?
- The US Secret Service
- US Immigration and Customs Enforcement
- Law Enforcement Cyber Incident Reporting unit
What is the National Cybersecurity Protection System (NCPS)?
NCPS provides intrusion detection, advanced analytics, information sharing and intrusion prevention capabilities that fight cyber threats to the Federal Executive Branch in the USA.
What is Einstein?
Einstein is an early warning system created by the US Department of Homeland Security that outlines threats to US government systems from cyberattacks.
What are some personal cybersecurity tips?
- Install antivirus software
- Ensure online banking URLs start with https://
- Be cautious of emails claiming to be from banks or government
- Know your bank’s official website appearance
- Don’t allow computers to save logins and passwords
What is an E-passport?
An E-passport is a passport that contains a facial image as well as biometric data (such as fingerprints) about the individual. The data are stored on an electronic chip embedded in the passport.
When did Germany introduce e-passports?
Germany became the first European country to introduce e-passports in 2005.
What information is typically required for online visa systems?
Online visa systems often require information about countries visited, activities there, and sometimes indications of financial status.
What was the extent of Starbucks’ tax avoidance in the UK?
Despite £3 billion in sales since 1998, Starbucks paid only £8.6 million in corporation tax in the UK over 14 years.
What tragic event highlighted Russian support for separatists in Ukraine?
In July 2014, a Malaysia Airlines plane was shot down over eastern Ukraine, killing all 298 people on board. Investigations pointed to a Russian Buk missile being used.
What percentage of global palm oil supply does the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) certify?
The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) certifies more than 20 percent of the global palm oil supply.
What action was taken against JBS for environmental pollution?
The Brazilian food company JBS was fined for pollution from its slaughtering plant on the Skipjack River in Pennsylvania.
What was the outcome of Greenpeace’s campaign against the Thai Union Group?
Greenpeace’s campaign resulted in agreements from the Thai Union Group to alter certain fishing practices for sustainability, including reducing devices that aggregate all fish together and preventing ships from being at sea for months on end.
What job creation initiative did Burberry announce?
Burberry announced plans to open a new factory in Leeds, UK, employing 1000 people.
What is the purpose of the US Geological Survey’s “Did you feel it?” website?
The “Did you feel it?” website is used by the US Geological Survey to gather information from the public about earthquake activity, which helps the Survey to more accurately plot information.
What research partnership exists between the USA and the Netherlands for cybersecurity?
The USA agreed to a joint research venture with the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) to improve cybersecurity, including projects on reducing malware on smartphones and developing models for cybersecurity protection for private firms.
