Global resource consumption and security

Question 1

Define absolute poverty

Answer 1

Is the lack of money for basic needs: food, shelter and clothing.

Question 2

Define relative poverty

Answer 2

Is when people have inadequate financial resources and thus fall below the prevailing standards of living in a particular society.

Question 3

Define income poverty

Answer 3

Is when family income is below the nationally established poverty line (threshold).

Question 4

What is poverty and how is it generally assessed?

Answer 4

Poverty is a broad, multifaceted concept that includes economic, social, political, and cultural elements. It is generally assessed on a family level, not an individual level. Poverty can be categorized as absolute poverty, which focuses solely on the economic component, or relative poverty, which incorporates social, political, and cultural elements.

Question 5

How does the income poverty threshold differ between countries?

Answer 5

The income poverty threshold is significantly higher in High-Income Countries (HICs) than in Low-Income Countries (LICs) due to the higher cost of living in HICs. To account for these differences, the World Bank sets a global poverty line based on purchasing power parity (PPP).

Question 6

What is the World Bank’s global poverty line and how has it changed?

Answer 6

The World Bank’s global poverty line is used to define extreme poverty. In 2008, it was set at US$1.25 per day. In 2015, it was raised to US$1.90 per day. Anyone living below this line is considered to be in extreme poverty.

Question 7

Describe the distribution of extreme poverty in 2000-2007.

Answer 7

Most High-Income Countries (HICs) had a very low percentage (under 2%) of their population living in extreme poverty. In contrast, much of Africa had very high proportions, with most of East Africa having 61-80% of their population living in extreme poverty.

Question 8

What progress has been made in global poverty reduction?

Answer 8

Significant progress has been made through the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The proportion of people living in extreme poverty halved between 1990 and 2010. However, over 80% of the global population still lives in countries where the income gap is widening.

Question 9

What were the key achievements of the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) regarding poverty reduction between 1990 and 2015?

Answer 9

• The proportion of people in LICs living in extreme poverty fell from nearly 50% to 14%, exceeding the target.
• The actual number of people in extreme poverty fell from 1.9 billion to 836 million.
• The number of people with access to over US$4 per day increased from 18% to 50%, indicating the growth of a new ‘global middle class’.

Question 10

What is the main goal of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) regarding poverty?

Answer 10

Goal 1 of the SDGs aims to “End poverty in all its forms everywhere” by 2030. This goal includes several targets such as eradicating extreme poverty, halving the number of people living in poverty, and implementing social protection systems.

Question 11

What were some key poverty statistics when the SDGs took over from the MDGs in 2016?

Answer 11

• 836 million people were still living in extreme poverty
• One in five people in LICs lived on less than US$1.25 a day
• Sub-Saharan Africa and southern Asia were at highest risk
• Around 10% of the world’s families were living on less than US$1.90 a day
• 18,000 children died every day from poverty-related causes

Question 12

What are the main characteristics of the global middle class?

Answer 12

The global middle class typically consists of non-manual workers, middle management, and small business owners. They earn more than the working class but less than the upper middle and upper classes. A key characteristic is having approximately 33% of their income as discretionary, available for consumer goods or improving health care and education opportunities.

Question 13

How does the growth of the middle class vary globally, and what factors contribute to this growth in emerging economies?

Answer 13

Growth is uneven globally. Emerging economies, especially in Asia, are witnessing an explosion of the middle class, while North America has seen a contraction. Growth in emerging economies is largely due to:
- Cheap labor producing cheap goods
- Decreased reliance on subsistence agriculture
- Rapid urbanization and industrialization
- These factors lead to rapid productivity increases when benefiting from international trade.

Question 14

How does the middle class contribute to economic and social change?

Answer 14

The middle class is considered critical for economic and social development:
- It can drive growth by increasing consumption and domestic demand for goods
- It tends to be educated, leading to more participation in the political process
- It pushes for inclusive growth and social change
- In countries like South Korea, a large middle class (over 50% of the population) allowed a shift from export-driven growth to domestic consumption

Question 15

Define resource/natural resources/natural capital

Answer 15

Anything that the Earth provides that is useful to humans (e.g. fossil fuels or plants).

Question 16

Define non-renewable

Answer 16

The natural resources that humans are using at a rate that exceeds their replacement (e.g. fossil fuels).

Question 17

Define renewable

Answer 17

The natural resources that humans are using at a rate that allows for their replacement (e.g. plants and animals).

Question 18

Define ecological footprint

Answer 18

The area of land and water required to support a given human population at a particular standard of living. It takes into account the area of land and water required to provide all the resources needed by the population, and assimilate all waste.

Question 19

Define biocapacity

Answer 19

The biological capacity of an area/region/country to generate the resources and absorb the waste of a given population.

Question 20

What is resource consumption?

Answer 20

Resource consumption generally refers to the use of non-renewable resources such as fossil fuels, metal ores, and stone. It may also include renewable resources like water, soil, and biomass, which can become non-renewable if poorly managed. Resource consumption can be measured for individual resources or groups of resources, but a more comprehensive measure is the ecological footprint.

Question 21

What is the ecological footprint (EF) and what does it measure?

Answer 21

The ecological footprint is a model used to estimate the demands that a human population places on the environment. It can be measured at any scale, from global to individual. The EF considers two aspects:
- Biocapacity: the Earth’s bioproductive land and sea, including forests, cropland, pastures, and fisheries.
- Demand: the amount of bioproductive land needed to provide resources, space for infrastructure, and absorb waste.

Question 22

What was the global ecological footprint in 2010 according to WWF’s Living Planet Report 2014?

Answer 22

In 2010, the global ecological footprint was 18.1 billion global hectares (gha), which translates to 2.6 gha per person. However, the Earth’s biocapacity was only 1.7 gha per person, resulting in a shortfall of 0.9 gha per person.

Question 23

What are the main aspects of the ecological footprint?

Answer 23

The main aspects of the ecological footprint include:
- Energy
- Travel
- Goods
- Settlements and infrastructure
- Food and fibre
- Forests
- Seafood

Question 24

How do energy, travel, and goods impact the ecological footprint?

Answer 24

• Energy impact: Source of electricity generation, emissions controls, energy-efficient devices, and energy-saving measures.
• Travel impact: Public vs. private transport, fuel type, emissions controls, and air travel.
• Goods impact: Number of gadgets, built-in obsolescence, frequency of device replacement.
• Lower EF: Renewable energy, limited car ownership, alternative fuels, strict emissions policies, energy-efficient products, recycled goods.
• Higher EF: Fossil fuels, high car ownership, petrol vehicles, limited emissions policies, excessive air travel, non-energy-efficient products.

Question 25

How do settlements and infrastructure affect the ecological footprint?

Answer 25

Settlements and infrastructure impact the ecological footprint by:
- Reducing space for crops, pasture, and forests
- Limiting the natural environment’s ability to deal with waste products
- Negatively impacting natural ecosystems and biodiversity
- High-density living (e.g., high-rise apartments or extended families in one house) generally has a lower ecological footprint compared to low-density living (e.g., single-family detached houses).

Question 26

How does food and fibre production impact the ecological footprint?

Answer 26

Food and fibre production affects the ecological footprint through:
- Use of cropland and pastures for food and non-food items (e.g., biofuels, textiles, pharmaceuticals)
- Dietary choices (plant-based vs. meat-based diets)
Calorie intake
- Food miles (locally grown vs. imported produce)
- Lower EF: Plant-based protein, low calorie intake, locally grown produce
- Higher EF: Meat- and dairy-based diet, high calorie intake, imported food

Question 27

How do forests contribute to the ecological footprint?

Answer 27

Forests impact the ecological footprint by:
- Providing timber and paper
- Sequestering carbon dioxide, which slows global climate change
- Affecting the EF through deforestation or reforestation rates
- Influencing the EF based on paper and timber usage rates
- Countries with high deforestation rates tend to have an increased EF, while those engaged in reforestation can decrease their EF.

Question 28

What is the role of seafood in the ecological footprint?

Answer 28

Seafood contributes to the ecological footprint through:
- Wild catches from seas and fresh water (many facing serious problems)
- Farmed fish production
There is ongoing debate about the relative benefits of wild catch versus farmed fish in terms of their impact on the ecological footprint.

Question 29

What are the different types of footprints within the overall ecological footprint?

Answer 29

The main types of footprints within the overall ecological footprint are:
- Carbon footprint: Total amount of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual, city, event, flight, or country
- Water footprint: Amount of water in your EF, including direct and indirect water use
- Food footprint: Measure of how food intake impacts the EF, considering land use for food production, carbon emissions from food production, and sea area needed for fishing

Question 30

What is the carbon footprint and how does it vary globally?

Answer 30

The carbon footprint is the total greenhouse gas emissions caused by an entity. In specific contexts, the United States produces approximately 15.5 metric tons of CO2 per capita annually, compared to India’s 1.9 metric tons. China, as the world’s largest emitter, produces around 7.1 metric tons per capita. The carbon footprint varies dramatically between High-Income Countries (HICs) like the United States and Low-Income Countries (LICs) like Bangladesh, reflecting differences in industrial development, energy infrastructure, and consumption patterns.

Question 31

How does the water footprint differ between countries?

Answer 31

The water footprint varies significantly globally. For instance, the United States has an average water footprint of 2,842 cubic meters per person annually, while India’s is 1,089 cubic meters. A specific case study is California, where agriculture consumes approximately 80% of the state’s water resources. In contrast, countries like Israel have developed advanced water-efficient agricultural technologies, reducing their water footprint through drip irrigation and water recycling techniques.

Question 32

What is the water footprint?

Answer 32

The water footprint represents the amount of water in your ecological footprint. This includes both direct water use, such as for drinking and washing, and indirect water use, such as the water required to produce food and other goods you consume.

Question 33

What is the food footprint?

Answer 33

The food footprint measures how food intake impacts the ecological footprint. It takes into account the land use for food production, carbon emissions from food production, and the sea area needed for fishing. The food and fibre component has more than doubled in 52 years, largely due to population growth and shifts towards meat- and dairy-based diets.

Question 34

How has the carbon component of the ecological footprint changed over time?

Answer 34

The carbon component of the ecological footprint has shown the most dramatic increase, quadrupling over a 52-year period. It now takes up the largest proportion of the overall ecological footprint. This significant increase is due to various factors related to energy production, transport, manufacturing, agriculture, and deforestation.

Question 35

What trends are observed in the food and fibre component of the ecological footprint?

Answer 35

The food and fibre component of the ecological footprint has shown a significant increase, more than doubling over a 52-year period. This increase is attributed to global population growth and changing dietary patterns, particularly the shift towards more meat- and dairy-based diets in many parts of the world.

Question 36

How has the forest component of the ecological footprint changed?

Answer 36

The forest component of the ecological footprint shows the lowest percentage increase, at approximately 50% over the observed period. This relatively lower increase is likely due to reforestation programs in many High-Income Countries (HICs), which help to counteract increases in paper and timber product consumption.

Question 37

What trends are seen in the fishing grounds component of the ecological footprint?

Answer 37

The ecological footprint of fishing grounds has increased by over 100%. This substantial increase is due to changing diets, population growth, and increased demand for fish. Additionally, the rise of fish farming, seen as a way to improve protein intake in Middle-Income Countries (MICs) such as the Philippines and India, has contributed to this trend.

Question 38

What does the built-up land component of the ecological footprint include?

Answer 38

The built-up land component of the ecological footprint includes actual buildings as well as infrastructure such as communication networks and power-generation plants. This component represents the direct land use for human settlements and supporting structures.

Question 39

How does the food footprint vary between developed and developing countries, and what specific examples illustrate this?

Answer 39

The food footprint varies significantly between developed and developing countries. For instance, the average American has a food footprint of about 1.1 global hectares, while in India it’s around 0.4 global hectares. A specific case study is Brazil, where the expansion of soybean cultivation for global markets has led to deforestation in the Amazon, increasing the country’s food footprint. In contrast, countries like the Netherlands have developed innovative vertical farming techniques, reducing land use and transportation emissions, thus lowering their food footprint despite high population density.

Question 40

How has the carbon component of the ecological footprint changed over time, and what specific regions show the most dramatic changes?

Answer 40

The carbon component of the ecological footprint has quadrupled over a 52-year period. China exemplifies this trend, with its carbon footprint increasing by about 400% between 1990 and 2016 due to rapid industrialization. In contrast, the United Kingdom has reduced its carbon footprint by about 40% since 1990, largely due to a shift from coal to natural gas and renewable energy sources. The city of Shenzhen in China presents an interesting case study, having transitioned its entire public bus fleet to electric vehicles, significantly reducing its local carbon footprint.

Question 41

What trends are observed in the food and fibre component of the ecological footprint, and how do these manifest in specific countries?

Answer 41

The food and fibre component has more than doubled over 52 years. In the United States, the average meat consumption is about 124 kg per person annually, contributing significantly to its food footprint. Conversely, India, with its largely vegetarian population, has a much lower meat-related footprint at about 4 kg per person. Brazil presents a unique case, where the expansion of cattle ranching in the Amazon rainforest has led to significant deforestation, increasing both the country’s carbon and food footprints simultaneously.

Question 42

How has the forest component of the ecological footprint changed, and what specific countries demonstrate contrasting trends?

Answer 42

The forest component shows the lowest increase at approximately 50%. Costa Rica provides a positive example, increasing its forest cover from 21% to 52% between 1987 and 2013 through successful reforestation programs. In contrast, Indonesia lost about 15.8 million hectares of forest between 2000 and 2012, primarily due to palm oil plantation expansion. Finland presents an interesting case study, maintaining 75% forest cover while supporting a significant forestry industry through sustainable management practices.

Question 43

What trends are seen in the fishing grounds component of the ecological footprint, and how do these manifest in specific regions?

Answer 43

The fishing grounds component has increased by over 100%. Japan, with its high seafood consumption (about 46 kg per capita annually), has a significant fishing footprint. In contrast, landlocked countries like Ethiopia have much lower fishing footprints. The South China Sea presents a complex case study, where overfishing and territorial disputes have led to depleted fish stocks, affecting the ecological footprints of multiple Southeast Asian countries. Meanwhile, Norway has developed one of the world’s most sustainable fishing industries through strict quota systems and advanced aquaculture techniques.

Question 44

How does the built-up land component of the ecological footprint vary across different urban areas globally?

Answer 44

The built-up land component includes buildings and infrastructure. Hong Kong, with its dense urban development, has a high built-up land footprint relative to its size, with 25% of its land developed. In contrast, Brasília, the planned capital of Brazil, was designed with large green spaces, resulting in a lower built-up land footprint. Singapore presents an innovative case study, implementing vertical gardens and green roofs to offset its built-up land footprint, with a goal to make 80% of its buildings green-certified by 2030.

Question 45

What is Peru’s ecological footprint and biocapacity as of 2013?

Answer 45

Peru’s ecological footprint in 2013 was 2.3 gha/person, with a biocapacity of 3.9 gha/person. This resulted in an ecological surplus of 1.6 gha/person. However, Peru’s biocapacity has been steadily declining since 1961, indicating potential unsustainable practices and environmental damage.

Question 46

What are the key demographic facts about Peru?

Answer 46

Peru’s demographic facts include:
- Crude Birth Rate: 18 births/1000 people
- Crude Death Rate: 6 deaths/1000 people
- Population growth rate: 1.2%
- Population doubling time: 58 years
- Urban population: 78.6% with 1.7% urbanization rate
- Population without access to clean water: 13.3%
- Population without access to sanitation: 23.8%
- Population below poverty line: 25.8%

Question 47

What natural resources contribute to Peru’s ecological capacity?

Answer 47

Peru has abundant natural resources, including:
- Minerals: copper, silver, gold, iron ore, coal, phosphate, potash
- Energy sources: petroleum, natural gas, hydro-power
- Biological resources: timber, fish
- Natural vegetation: tropical rainforest providing ample water supply

Question 48

How does Peru maintain a low ecological footprint?

Answer 48

Peru maintains a low ecological footprint through:
- An Environment Minister utilizing international aid to reduce deforestation and pollution
- Abundant natural resources and reasonable equity levels maintaining basic development
- Various organizations working towards sustainability
- Signing international agreements like the Kyoto Protocol and Ozone Layer Protection
- Government assessment of development in relation to biocapacity and ecological footprint
- Dedicating funds to monitor the country’s demand on planetary biocapacity

Question 49

What major environmental problems is Peru facing?

Answer 49

Peru faces several environmental challenges:
- Deforestation due to illegal logging
- Overgrazing leading to soil erosion and desertification
- Air pollution, particularly in Lima
- River and coastal water pollution from municipal and mining wastes
- Depletion of fisheries due to overfishing
- Declining biocapacity since 1961, indicating unsustainable practices
- Natural hazards: earthquakes, tsunamis, flooding, and landslides

Question 50

What is the significance of Peru’s Environment Vice Minister Ana María González del Valle Begazo’s statement?

Answer 50

Ana María González del Valle Begazo emphasized the importance of having information and indicators that account for Peru’s growing demand on the planet’s biocapacity to meet their needs. This statement highlights Peru’s commitment to monitoring and potentially managing its ecological impact.

Question 51

How does Peru’s GDP compare to its ecological footprint?

Answer 51

Peru’s GDP was around US$13,000 in 2015, while its ecological footprint was 2.3 gha/person in 2013. This comparison suggests that Peru has managed to maintain a relatively low ecological footprint despite economic growth, though challenges remain in sustaining this balance.

Question 52

Define physical water scarcity

Answer 52

Occurs when there is a lack of water supply from the natural sources: groundwater and surface water (e.g. deserts).

Question 53

Define economic water scarcity

Answer 53

Results from lack of investment in water infrastructure such as pipes and water treatment plants (e.g. many LICs).

Question 54

What percentage of Earth’s water is available for human consumption?

Answer 54

Only 0.007% of Earth’s water is available for human consumption. The vast majority (97.3%) is in oceans and other saline bodies. Of the freshwater, 68.9% is locked in glaciers and ice caps, while the rest is groundwater (30%), soil moisture, and surface water.

Question 55

What are the main sources of water for human use?

Answer 55

The main sources of water for human use are:
- Groundwater: Found in aquifers up to 600 m below the Earth’s surface.
- Surface water: Streams, rivers, lakes, and reservoirs.
- Desalination: Some countries, like Saudi Arabia, remove salts from seawater for human use.

Question 56

How is water classified in terms of renewability?

Answer 56

Water is classified as:
- Renewable: Water that can be drawn from rivers and groundwater without exceeding replacement rates from precipitation and meltwater.
- Non-renewable: Water from deep fossil aquifers no longer recharged by precipitation, or when extraction rates exceed recharge rates, or when water bodies are polluted.

Question 57

How has the availability of renewable water per person changed between 1962 and 2007?

Answer 57

The availability of renewable water per person decreased significantly from just over 190,000 m³ per year in 1962 to approximately 96,000 m³ per year in 2007. This represents a drop of over 1% per person each year, primarily due to population growth dividing a finite water supply among more people.

Question 58

How does deforestation impact water availability?

Answer 58

Large-scale deforestation is changing the water cycle in many areas and contributing to the spread of desertification. This alters local and regional precipitation patterns, reduces water retention in soils, and can lead to increased runoff and erosion, ultimately affecting water availability and quality.

Question 59

How does climate change affect snowpack and water supplies?

Answer 59

Warmer temperatures cause earlier snowmelt and reduced snowpack, affecting water supplies that rely on meltwater. In California, declining snowpack has contributed to long-term drought conditions.

Question 60

What factors contribute to physical and economic water scarcity?

Answer 60

Factors contributing to water scarcity include:
- Unfavorable meteorological conditions
- Population growth
- Climate change
- Large-scale deforestation
- Water pollution
- Lack of infrastructure to distribute available water

Physical scarcity shows a latitudinal pattern linked to tropical deserts, while economic scarcity is severe in sub-Saharan Africa and parts of South Asia and South America.

Question 61

What characteristics define areas with good water supply?

Answer 61

Areas with good water supply are generally in mid to high latitudes with:
- Moderate to high precipitation levels
- Moderate to low evaporation levels
- Annual precipitation distribution delivering more rainfall/snow in cooler months

These conditions favor the formation and retention of surface water and, if geological conditions are favorable, the development of aquifers.

Question 62

Define embedded water

Answer 62

The water that is used to produce the products we use. For instance, it takes on average 200 litres of water to produce one glass of milk.

Question 63

What are the three main categories of water consumption and their global averages?

Answer 63

• Agricultural: 69% (irrigation, livestock, aquaculture)
• Industrial: 22% (cooling in electricity generation, oil refineries, manufacturing)
• Domestic/Municipal: 9% (household uses like washing, cooking, cleaning)
• In Low-Income Countries (LICs), agricultural consumption is very high at 76%, while in High-Income Countries (HICs) it’s lower at 43%.

Question 64

How does water consumption vary between HICs and LICs?

Answer 64

• HICs: Agricultural 43%, Industrial 39%, Domestic 18%
• LICs: Agricultural 76%, Industrial 10%, Domestic 14%
  Key difference: HICs have much higher industrial water consumption, while LICs use significantly more for agriculture.

Question 65

What factors contribute to the dramatic increase in global water withdrawal?

Answer 65

• Increasing population (more domestic and agricultural use)
• Increased affluence and living standards
• Dietary changes towards meat-based diets
• Industrialization in poorer countries
• Urbanization requiring water infrastructure development
• Meat production consumes more water than fruits and vegetables.

Question 66

What is embedded (hidden/virtual) water consumption?

Answer 66

• Water used in the production of goods and services we consume, beyond direct usage.
• Food: 1 kg of chocolate requires 17,196 liters of water
• Clothing: 1 cotton t-shirt needs 2,700 liters of water
• Technology: Computers and mobile phones also have significant embedded water

Question 67

How does the global per-capita water footprint correlate with water scarcity?

Answer 67

Areas with low water consumption (under 1200 m³/person/year) often coincide with economic water scarcity. However, some regions with physical water scarcity, like Nevada and California, still have high consumption (2500-3000 m³/person/year).
This indicates that water consumption patterns don’t always align with water availability.

Question 68

How does population growth impact food production and land use?

Answer 68

As global population grows, more food must be produced through land expansion or intensive farming. However, urban expansion often takes prime agricultural land, necessitating farming intensification. This can lead to land degradation, especially in Low-Income Countries (LICs) facing rapid population growth. For example, in LICs, high use of fertilizers and pesticides can pollute land and ecosystems, while irrigation may cause soil salinization.

Question 69

What are the global trends in agricultural land use and cereal production from 1961 to 2014?

Answer 69

• LICs: Agricultural land increased from 41% to 50%, with a 67% increase in production.
• MICs: 14% increase in agricultural land, but a 161% increase in production.
• HICs: 20% decrease in agricultural land, yet a 140% increase in productivity.
• This shows that higher production doesn’t necessarily correlate with more land use, particularly in HICs and MICs.

Question 70

What was the Green Revolution and its impact on agricultural productivity?

Answer 70

The Green Revolution, led by agricultural scientist Norman Borlaug in the 1940s, was a period of significant agricultural transformation. It combined the development of high-yield cereals with synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation systems, and mechanization to substantially increase food yields. Borlaug is often referred to as the “father of the Green Revolution” for his work in developing agricultural technologies that dramatically improved crop production, particularly in developing countries, helping to address global food security challenges.

Question 71

How do agricultural practices in LICs, MICs, and HICs differ in terms of land use and productivity?

Answer 71

LICs use the highest proportion of land for agriculture but show the lowest increase in production (67% from 1961-2014). MICs demonstrate a moderate increase in land use but the highest production increase (161%). HICs reduced agricultural land by 20% yet increased productivity by 140%. This highlights the disparity in agricultural efficiency between developed and developing nations.

Question 72

What factors determine the amount of calories a person needs?

Answer 72

The amount of calories a person needs varies based on several factors. Age is significant because individuals require more calories during growth phases to maintain health. Gender also plays a role, as women generally need fewer calories than men. Activity level is another determinant; those with physically demanding jobs or who engage in regular exercise require a higher calorie intake. Additionally, climate affects calorie needs, with people living in colder climates burning more energy to maintain body temperature, thus necessitating a higher calorie intake.

Question 73

What are the recommended mean calorie requirements for sedentary and active lifestyles?

Answer 73

According to guidelines, sedentary men typically require about 2,500 kilocalories per day, while active men may need around 3,000 kilocalories daily. Sedentary women generally need about 2,000 kilocalories per day, whereas active women require approximately 2,400 kilocalories. These values reflect the energy needs based on lifestyle and activity levels.

Question 74

What is the recommended balance of macronutrients for a healthy diet?

Answer 74

A healthy diet should consist of approximately equal portions of fruits and vegetables and starchy carbohydrates such as potatoes, pasta, and rice. Adults should aim for about 50 grams of protein daily; this can come from meat or fish, while vegetarians can obtain protein from beans and pulses. Additionally, small amounts of sugars, fats, oils, and dairy products are recommended. Very small amounts of vitamins and minerals are also necessary for the healthy functioning of the body, alongside an intake of around 2 liters of water each day.

Question 75

What are the main reasons for hunger in sub-Saharan Africa?

Answer 75

Hunger in sub-Saharan Africa is primarily driven by several interrelated factors. Poverty severely restricts people’s ability to afford food, while poor infrastructure limits access to and distribution of available food resources. Extreme weather events such as droughts and floods further exacerbate food insecurity. Additionally, conflicts and wars lead to the displacement of populations, making it difficult for them to secure adequate nutrition. Food waste is another significant issue; the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that approximately 33% of food produced globally is lost or wasted each year.

Question 76

How has global calorie consumption changed since the mid-1980s?

Answer 76

Since the mid-1980s, global calorie consumption has increased across all regions. However, sub-Saharan Africa fell behind in calorie intake beginning in the 1970s and has struggled to catch up due to population growth outpacing agricultural developments. It is projected that Middle-Income Countries (MICs) and Low-Income Countries (LICs), excluding sub-Saharan Africa, will see an increase in calorie intake by over 40% by 2030. In contrast, High-Income Countries (HICs) are expected to experience only half that increase in calorie consumption due to already high levels of intake and growing concerns about obesity as a health issue.

Question 77

How have global energy consumption patterns changed since 1965?

Answer 77

Global energy consumption has tripled since 1965. In 1965, nearly 95% of global energy came from fossil fuels, with hydro and nuclear power making up the rest. By 2019, fossil fuel use increased in absolute terms but dropped to 85% of total energy consumption. Nuclear, hydro, and renewable energy sources have increased their share. Nuclear power surged until 2006 but has since declined. Renewable energy sources, particularly solar and wind power, have shown rapid growth in recent years.

Question 78

What are the main drawbacks of fossil fuels as an energy source?

Answer 78

Fossil fuels have several significant drawbacks: They are finite, non-renewable resources that will eventually be depleted, making their use unsustainable. Their combustion emits greenhouse gases contributing to global climate change. They release other pollutants harmful to human health and the environment, such as particulate matter. Power plants using fossil fuels require large amounts of water, competing with other uses and potentially harming ecosystems. The extraction and transportation of fossil fuels can cause extensive environmental damage, such as habitat destruction from mining and oil spills.

Question 79

What are the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power?

Answer 79

Advantages of nuclear power include not producing greenhouse gas emissions during operation and providing safer working conditions compared to coal mines or oil rigs. However, nuclear power has significant drawbacks: High initial capital costs for construction, production of long-lasting radioactive waste, potential for nuclear weapons proliferation using waste materials, risk of catastrophic accidents (e.g., Chernobyl in 1986, Fukushima in 2011), and high decommissioning costs when plants are closed.

Question 80

How does hydropower compare to other renewable energy sources?

Answer 80

Hydropower offers advantages such as increased water resources and reduced downstream flooding risk through dam construction. However, it has high set-up costs and can lead to loss of terrestrial habitat. In comparison, wind power has low operational costs but can cause noise and visual pollution. Solar power is useful in remote areas with low running costs but is ineffective at night and faces energy storage challenges. Geothermal energy is sustainable as water used for steam production can be reused, but it’s limited to areas near volcanic activity.

Question 81

How has the use of renewable energy sources changed over time?

Answer 81

Biomass and geothermal energy have been used since the beginning of civilization for heat, cooking, and using hot springs. In recent years, solar and wind power have shown rapid growth. This shift towards renewables is driven by increasing awareness of climate change, technological advancements reducing costs, and government policies promoting clean energy. The change in energy sources is also linked to energy security concerns, with countries diversifying their energy mix to reduce dependence on fossil fuels and enhance sustainability.

Question 82

What are the top three countries in total energy production (Mtoe) and how do they compare?

Answer 82

China, the USA, and the Russian Federation all have energy production levels over 1000 Mtoe. China produces more energy than the USA and the Russian Federation combined. This high production is driven by demand and the presence of large reserves of energy resources such as fossil fuels and uranium.

Question 83

Which regions are not self-sufficient in energy according to overall energy self-sufficiency (%) data?

Answer 83

Most of Europe, south-east Asia, South America, and sub-Saharan Africa are not self-sufficient in energy. This means these regions rely on energy imports to meet their domestic energy needs, which can impact their energy security and economic stability.

Question 84

What does low energy intensity (TPES/GDP) indicate, and which regions demonstrate this?

Answer 84

Low energy intensity values indicate a low cost for converting energy to GDP, suggesting higher energy efficiency. Europe and Australia have very low energy intensity values, meaning they are more efficient in using energy to generate economic output compared to other regions.

Question 85

How does considering Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) affect the Russian Federation’s energy intensity?

Answer 85

The Russian Federation’s energy intensity improves when PPP is taken into account. This suggests that when adjusting for the cost of living and inflation rates, Russia’s energy use relative to its economic output appears more efficient than when measured by standard GDP alone.

Question 86

Which countries have the highest and lowest TPES/population (toe per capita), and what does this indicate?

Answer 86

Qatar and Iceland lead with values of 20.290 and 17.940 toe/person respectively, indicating very high primary energy supply per capita. The bottom five countries in this category are all in Africa, suggesting significantly lower energy consumption per person. This disparity reflects differences in economic development, industrial activity, and energy access between countries.

Question 87

What factors impact energy consumption in different countries?

Answer 87

Energy consumption is influenced by: 1) Type of industrial activity (primary and secondary industries consume more energy than tertiary and quaternary). 2) Climate (extreme climates require more energy for heating or cooling). 3) Level of development and affluence (higher disposable income leads to more energy-consuming devices). 4) Awareness and education (affecting the use of energy-efficient technologies). 5) Population size and growth rate (higher population generally means higher energy demand).

Question 88

How does the availability of renewable energy resources vary by type and geography?

Answer 88

Renewable energy production depends on resource availability: Hydropower is important in countries with high rainfall and suitable topography. Solar energy is less common in higher latitudes with less solar radiation. Geothermal power is only possible in areas with tectonic and volcanic activity. Wind power has a broader distribution globally. This variability highlights the importance of geography and natural conditions in determining the potential for different types of renewable energy production.

Question 89

What is the water-energy-food (WEF) nexus and when did it gain prominence?

Answer 89

The WEF nexus is the concept that water security, energy security, and food security are inextricably linked, with actions in one area impacting the other two. It first appeared in literature in the early 2000s and has since gained increasing attention in business, research, and policy spheres. The nexus emphasizes access to these resources rather than mean availability in a country.

Question 90

What are the global statistics for lack of access to water, energy, and food?

Answer 90

According to the provided information, 1 billion people lack access to safe water, 1.4 billion do not have access to modern energy, and almost 1 billion do not have access to adequate food supplies. These numbers indicate large populations lacking security in one or all of these areas.

Question 91

What are the main aims of the WEF nexus approach?

Answer 91

The WEF nexus aims to increase understanding of the interconnectedness between water, energy, and food security. It shows how these sectors influence each other and impact climate and biodiversity. The approach encourages interdisciplinary cooperation across sectors, allowing for development without compromising sustainability. This enables decision-makers to develop policies that maximize investment benefits across all sectors.

Question 92

How does the nexus approach operate and what opportunities does it offer?

Answer 92

The WEF nexus approach operates across all sectors and scales through the integration of management and governance. It offers the opportunity to increase resource use efficiency and move towards a green economy (sustainability). Understanding the connections between key resources can reduce negative externalities and increase efficiency in all areas.

Question 93

Which Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are directly related to the WEF nexus?

Answer 93

The WEF nexus is directly related to three SDGs: Goal 2, which aims to end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture; Goal 6, which ensures access to water and sanitation for all; and Goal 7, which ensures access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all. These goals underscore the importance of water, food, and energy security in global development efforts.

Question 94

Define water security

Answer 94

Access to sufficient, sustainable quantities of clean water and sanitation. Sufficient in this context means enough water to sustain livelihoods, well-being, a food supply and socio-economic development as well protection from contaminated water (polluted water and water-linked diseases).

Question 95

What did Margaret Catley-Carlson identify as the universal security risk underlying global threats?

Answer 95

Margaret Catley-Carlson, Chair of the World Economic Forum (2008-2010), identified fresh water as the universal security risk underlying various global threats including famine, terrorism, inequality, disease, poverty, and climate change.

Question 96

How does water differ from food and energy in the Water-Energy-Food nexus?

Answer 96

Water is available in a known fixed amount that cannot be increased. While food production can be increased to a point and energy production can potentially be increased indefinitely through renewables, both ultimately rely on water. Water supply is impacted by food and energy production, but the total amount of water on the planet remains constant.

Question 97

What are the key aspects of a water-secure world?

Answer 97

A water-secure world combines concern for water’s intrinsic value and all life’s well-being, reduces global disease burden, improves population health and productivity, ensures food and energy security, harnesses water’s productive potential while minimizing destructive forces, addresses environmental protection, recognizes sociopolitical issues surrounding transboundary water bodies, and reduces poverty for vulnerable populations.

Question 98

What percentage of the world’s population lacks access to improved sanitation, and how many children die annually from water-related diseases?

Answer 98

30% of the world’s population does not have access to improved sanitation. Over 3 million children die each year from water-related diseases due to lack of access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation, equivalent to 5.7 children dying every minute from preventable causes.

Question 99

What are the main causes of water insecurity?

Answer 99

Causes of water insecurity include: gap between supply and demand, population growth, increased affluence and changing lifestyles, water pollution, conflict, climate change causing shifts in water availability, poverty limiting access to clean water, and in some areas, women and children having to walk long distances to fetch water.

Question 100

What are the three main types of strategies to improve water security?

Answer 100

The three main types of strategies to improve water security are:
- Increase the supply: through methods like desalination, water-transfer schemes, grey-water recycling, and fog harvesting.
- Increase the storage: using reservoirs, artificial recharge of aquifers, rainfall-harvesting schemes, and artificial glaciers.
- Decrease the demand: through water conservation and raising awareness.

Question 101

What is desalination and where is it commonly used?

Answer 101

Desalination is the removal of salt from seawater to make it suitable for drinking. It’s an energy-intensive and usually expensive process. Historically, it has been used in arid regions with access to cheap energy, like Saudi Arabia. As technology advances, desalination is becoming more accessible globally. The most common method is reverse osmosis.

Question 102

What are water-transfer schemes and what are their potential drawbacks?

Answer 102

Water-transfer schemes use pipes or canals to move water from river basins with surplus to those with deficit. They are typically large-scale, expensive projects. While solving water supply problems in one area, they may adversely affect the donor river basin by lowering water levels, starving wetlands, disrupting flow patterns, and reducing water for local populations.

Question 103

What is grey water and how can it be used?

Answer 103

Grey water is used water clean enough to be reused, coming from baths, showers, wash basins, and washing machines. It can be collected and used for toilet flushing and gardening, but not for drinking due to some pathogens and contaminants. Grey-water recycling reduces wastewater production, water needing treatment, and water abstraction.

Question 104

Define food security

Answer 104

Exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.

Question 105

What are the four dimensions of food security according to the FAO?

Answer 105

The four dimensions of food security are:
- Availability: Food must be physically available, depending on production, stock levels, trade, and aid.
- Access: People must have physical and economic means to get food, controlled by income, food prices, and access to land or shops.
- Utilization: Individuals must be able to make the most of food nutrients, depending on health, feeding practices, food distribution, preparation, and diet diversity.
- Stability: Food must be consistently available, accessible, and usable, threatened by climate change, political instability, unemployment, rising prices, and land loss.

Question 106

What are the key facts about global food insecurity?

Answer 106

Food insecurity affects every ninth person globally (795 million people), impacts 13% of LIC populations, is highest in southern Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, causes 3.1 million child deaths annually, stunts growth in 25% of children, affects education of 66 million primary school children, and is mainly caused by poverty and drought.

Question 107

What are the main categories of factors causing food insecurity?

Answer 107

The main categories of factors causing food insecurity are:
- Factors linked to agricultural production and practices
- Human factors
- Environmental and climate-related factors

Question 108

How does global climate change impact food security?

Answer 108

Global climate change impacts food security directly by shifting suitable areas for crop production and changing rainfall patterns, temperature ranges, and seasonal shifts. It also indirectly affects food production by increasing the incidence and severity of extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, cyclones, and associated storm surges.

Question 109

What is land grabbing and how does it affect food security?

Answer 109

Land grabbing is the practice of large business investors taking over traditionally owned family farms, typically in LICs. The acquired land is often used to grow food for export, depriving families and local communities of land needed for survival. This leads to poverty and social instability, negatively impacting food security in affected

Question 110

What are the specific food security challenges in Burundi?

Answer 110

Burundi faces severe food insecurity with over 70% of the population undernourished. The country is landlocked, which slows economic growth by 6% due to higher transport costs. Over 50% live below the poverty line, with 35% unemployed. Food insecurity stems from overpopulation, soil degradation, climate change, high food prices, and civil war. The civil conflict has caused internal displacement, preventing people from growing their own food. The country has a trade deficit exceeding US$500 million.

Question 111

What are the key food security issues in Haiti?

Answer 111

Haiti experiences extreme food insecurity with 40% of the population accessing less than 6% of national income, while 2% control 26%. 38% of people are food-insecure, with 77% living below the poverty line in rural areas (rising to 88%). Only 10% of rural populations have electricity, and 8% have access to safe drinking water. The country must import 50% of its food, with global prices rising. Most farms are less than 1 hectare, with 80% unable to produce enough food for their families. The country has been devastated by climate-related disasters, including a magnitude 7 earthquake in 2010 that killed 220,000 people and a subsequent cholera outbreak.

Question 112

What are the food security challenges in Afghanistan?

Answer 112

Afghanistan suffers from extensive food insecurity due to natural disasters and decades of civil war. In 2016, 750,000 people in conflict-stricken areas required humanitarian food assistance. Natural disasters including flooding, earthquakes, avalanches, landslides, and droughts affect 250,000 people annually. 39% of the population lives below the poverty line, with an extremely high infant mortality rate of 113 deaths per 1,000 live births and maternal mortality rate of 396 deaths per 100,000 live births. Over 40% of children under 5 are underdeveloped and underweight, with 10% acutely malnourished. 33% of the population is food-insecure, with a 35% unemployment rate and only 2% economic growth.

Question 113

What global factors contribute to food insecurity?

Answer 113

Food insecurity is caused by multiple interconnected factors. Agricultural production challenges include lack of farmland access, limited education about modern farming techniques, and climate change impacts. Human factors involve increasing population, poverty, and food wastage. Global issues include market domination by multinational agribusinesses, land grabbing, and biofuel production diverting farmland. Conflict and war disrupt food production, while changing diets in Middle and High-Income Countries increase pressure on global food resources. The FAO estimates enough food is produced to feed 10 billion people, yet food insecurity persists due to these complex challenges.

Question 114

What are the global statistics on food insecurity?

Answer 114

Food insecurity impacts approximately 795 million people globally, affecting every ninth person on the planet. It is most prevalent in Low-Income Countries, impacting nearly 13% of their population, with the highest rates in southern Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. The consequences are severe: 3.1 million children under 5 die annually, one in four children suffers from reduced growth, and 66 million primary school-age children have their education negatively impacted. The primary causes are poverty and drought, with the problem mainly stemming from inadequate food distribution and access rather than total global food production.

Question 115

How has Singapore achieved water security despite high water stress?

Answer 115

Singapore has a baseline water stress level of 5 (extremely high), with no freshwater lakes or aquifers. Despite these challenges, the country has achieved water security through strategic investments in technology, international water agreements, and comprehensive management strategies. The government has developed innovative approaches to water management, ensuring stable water supplies for its densely populated urban environment.

Question 116

What is the South-North water transfer project in China?

Answer 116

The South-North water transfer project is one of the world’s largest water redistribution schemes, consisting of over 14,000 km of canals. The project aims to transfer water from the Yangtze River in Southern China to the industrial north through three canal systems: eastern, western, and central routes. The central route specifically carries water to Beijing and Tianjin. This massive infrastructure project has taken more than 12 years to construct and represents a significant effort to address water scarcity in China’s northern industrial regions.

Question 117

What are artificial glaciers and how do they work?

Answer 117

Artificial glaciers are an innovative water storage technique developed in regions like Ladakh, India. These structures store water during winter months for use in dry spring seasons. By creating artificial ice reservoirs, communities can address water scarcity challenges in mountainous regions with extreme seasonal variations. The technique provides a double benefit of water storage and gradual release, helping local communities manage limited water resources in challenging climatic conditions.

Question 118

What is fog harvesting and where is it used?

Answer 118

Fog harvesting is a simple water collection technology using single or double layers of netting supported by two posts. As fog moves across the nets, it condenses into water droplets that flow into catch pipes and storage tanks. This technique is particularly useful in arid coastal regions like Chile, where atmospheric moisture can be captured as a water source. The method provides an innovative solution for water-scarce areas with frequent fog or cloud cover.