Solving Problems & Making Decisions

Question 1

Normative Decision-Making

Answer 1

Choices a rational person makes under ideal circumstances. Our actual decisions often deviate from this.

Question 2

Descriptive Decision-Making

Answer 2

Choices a typical person makes under typical circumstances.

Question 3

Problem Space

Answer 3

Contains the initial state of the problem, the goal state, and all the possible states in between, as well as the operations required to move from one state to another.

Question 4

Forward Chaining

Answer 4

Evaluates all possible actions and selects the best option to achieve a goal.

Question 5

Backward Chaining

Answer 5

Starts with the goal and works backward to the initial state.

Question 6

Means-end Analysis

Answer 6

Identify the difference between the current state and the goal state and try to reduce it.

Question 7

Analogies

Answer 7

Useful heuristic. Make a comparison between the current problem and a similar, familiar problem. Can be used to explain a process.

Question 8

Context

Answer 8

Add context for logic and reasoning deduction. Critical for problem solving.

Question 9

Categorical Reasoning-Deduction

Answer 9

Influenced by the context, interpretation of the premises and confirmation bias.
(ex: Some pilots are men. Some men drink beer. Therefore, some pilots drink beer…OR…Some pilots are men. Some men are older than 100 years. Therefore, some pilots are older than 100 years).

Question 10

Utility

Answer 10

Normative decision making. How much a choice’s outcomes are worth to the decision maker. Good outcomes are [worth + utility], bad outcomes are [worth - utility].

Question 11

Expected-Utility Theory

Answer 11

Optimal decision. Gambling preference determined by outcomes, probability of happening, risk aversion, and individual differences.

Question 12

Framing

Answer 12

Descriptive decision making. Context changes decisions even when the context does not change the expected utility.

Question 13

Bounded Rationality

Answer 13

Descriptive decision making. A decision maker bases his decisions on a simplified model of the world.

Question 14

Heuristics

Answer 14

Mental shortcuts. Narrows down the potential actions and increase probability of finding correct solution. Can lead to biases.

Question 15

Satisficing Heuristic

Answer 15

Searching through possible alternatives until you reach a threshold of acceptability. Pick the first acceptable solution, not necessarily the best. (ex: Grocery shopping picking out apples).

Question 16

Elimination-by-aspects Heuristic

Answer 16

People only focus on features that are the most personally important. (ex: buying car, price important followed by size, followed by color, etc.), More stress person has, more likely to narrow down features.

Question 17

Availability Heuristic

Answer 17

Involves the ease with which events can be retrieved from memory. Events that are easy to remember are judged as more likely than events that are harder to remember. Causes people to overestimate certain probabilities. (ex: school shooting)

Question 18

Representativeness Heuristic

Answer 18

Based on the degree of to which an event is similar to its parent population, and to which it reflects salient features. More representative outcomes are judged more likely to occur.

Question 19

Improving Decisions

Answer 19

1. Training- improving performance in specific task environments
2. Decision Aids- notes, computer based decision system, rules for doctors to diagnose sickness, help patients with cholesterol chart
3. Improve Design of Task Environments