Sociology-theory and methods-action theories Flashcards
Who is Weber?
Weber was one of the ‘founding fathers’ of sociology. He saw both structural and action approaches as necessary for a full understanding of human behaviour. He argue that an adequate sociological explanation involves two levels. Unless we account for both of these levels, our explanation will be incomplete or false
What two levels does Weber argue a sociological explanation should have?
The level of cause (explaining the objective structural factors that shape people’s behaviour) and the level of meaning (understanding the subjective meanings that individuals attach to their actions)
How can Weber’s point of levels of explanation be illustrated?
It can be illustrated by referring to his study, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, originally published in 1905. At the level of structural cause, the Protestant Reformation introduced a new belief system, Calvinism. This changed people’s worldview which led to changes in their behaviour, eg Calvinism promotes a work ethic that brought about the rise of capitalism. At the level of subjective meaning, work took on a religious meaning for calvinists, as a calling by God to glorify his name through their labours. This motivated them to work systematically. As a result they accumulated wealth and became the first modern capitalists
How does Weber attempt to classify actions?
Into four types based on their meaning for the actor: instrumentally rational action, value-rational action, traditional action, and affectual action
What is instrumentally rational action?
It is where the actor calculates the most efficient means of achieving a given goal. Eg a capitalist may calculate that the most efficient way of maximising profit is to pay low wages. This action is not about whether the goal itself is desirable - eg, the goal could be distributing charity or committing genocide. Rational action is simply about the most efficient way of reaching that goal, whatever it may be
What is value-rational action?
It involves action towards a goal that the actor regards as desirable for its own sake - eg. a believer worshipping their god in order to get to heaven. Unlike instrumental rationality, there is no way of calculating whether the means of achieving the goal are effective, Eg, the believer has no way of knowing whether performing a particular ritual will gain him salvation
What is traditional action?
It involves customary, routine or habitual actions. Weber does not see this type of action as rational, because no conscious thought or choice has gone into it. Rather, the actor does it because ‘we have always done it’
What is affectual action?
It is action that expresses emotion, eg, crying out of grief, or violence sparked by anger. Weber sees affectual action as important in religious and political movements with charismatic leaders who attract a following based on their emotional appeal
What is a strength of Weber’s ideas?
They are a valuable corrective to the over-emphasis on structural factors that we see in functionalism and many forms of marxism, and an affirmation that we must also understand actors’ subjective meanings if we want to explain their actions adequately
How does Schutz criticise Weber?
He argues that Weber’s view of action is too individualistic and cannot explain the shared nature of meanings, eg when a person at an auction raises their arm, they mean they are making a bid - but Weber doesn’t explain how everyone else present also comes to give this gesture the same meaning
How has Weber been criticised for the application of his ideas?
Weber’s typology of action is difficult to apply. Eg, among the Trobriand Islanders, individuals exchange ritual gifts called ‘Kula’ with others on neighbouring islands. This could either be seen as traditional action (it has been practiced in the same way for generations) or it could be seen as instrumentally rational action (because it is a good way of cementing trading links between Kula partners)
Why has Weber been criticised for his use of verstehen?
Weber advocated the use of verstehen, or empathetic understanding, of the actor’s subjective meaning - where we put ourselves in the actor’s place to understand their motives and meanings. However, as we cannot actually be the other person, we can never be sure we have truly understood their motives
What is symbolic interactionism?
It first developed at the University of Chicago in the first half of the 20th century. Like other action theories, it focuses on our ability to create the social world through our actions and interactions, and it sees these interactions as based on the meanings we give to situations. We convey these meanings through symbols, especially language
Whose work forms the basis for many later interactions?
Mead
What did Mead observe?
Mead observed that, unlike animals, our behaviour is not shaped by fixed, pre-programmed instincts. Instead, we respond to the world by giving meanings to the things that are significant to us. In effect, we create and inhabit a world of meanings. We do this by attaching symbols to the world
What is a symbol?
A symbol is something that stands for or represents something else
How are we different to animals?
Unlike animals we do not simply respond to a stimulus in an automatic, pre-determined way. Instead, an interpretive phase comes between the stimulus and our response to it-before we know how to respond to the stimulus, we have to interpret its meaning. Once we have done this, we can then choose an appropriate response
How does Mead illustrate the difference between humans and animals?
Mead illustrates it with an example. When one dog snarls at another, the snarl acts as a direct stimulus, to which the second dog responds instinctively, automatically adopting a defensive posture. There is no conscious interpretation by the dog of the other’s actions. By contrast if a person shakes their fist at someone, they are using a symbol - one which has a variety of possible meanings. To understand what is going on, the person must interpret the meaning of the symbol - is it anger or a joke? Once the interpretation is decided, a choice of response can be made
How do we manage to interpret other people’s meanings?
In Mead’s view, we do so by taking the role of the other - putting ourselves in the place of the other person and seeing ourselves as they see us. Our ability to take the role of the other develops through social interaction. We first do this as young children: through imitative play and when we take on the role of significant others such as parents, and learn to see ourselves as they see us. Later, we come to see ourselves from the point of view of the wider community - the generalised other
For Mead, how do members of society function?
To function as members of society, we need the ability to see ourselves as others see us. Through shared symbols, especially language, we become conscious of the ways of acting that others require of us
What happened after Mead’s death?
Blumer did much to systemise his ideas and identified three key principles
What three principles did Blumer identify?
- Our actions are based on the meanings we give to situations, events, people etc. Unlike animals, our actions are not based on automatic responses to stimuli. 2. These meanings arise from the interaction process. They are not fixed at the outset of the interaction, but are negotiable ad changeable to some extent. 3. The meanings we give to situations are the result of the interpretive procedures we use-especially taking the role of the other
How does Blumer contrast with structural theories?
Blumer’s view of human conduct contrasts strongly with structural theories such as functionalism. Functionalists see the individual as a puppet, passively responding to the system’s needs. Socialisation and social control ensure that individuals conform to society’s norms and perform their roles in fixed and predictable ways. By contrast, Blumer argues although our action is partly predictable because we internalise expectations of others, it is not completely fixed. There is always some room for negotiation and choice in how we perform our roles - even where very strict rules prevail, as in ‘total institutions’ such as prisons
What is the best-known application of interactionist ideas?
Labelling theory. labelling theorists use interactionist concepts in the study of many areas such as education, health, and crime and deviance
What are three key interactionist concepts that underpin labelling theory?
The definition of the situation, the looking glass self, and career
What is the definition of the situation?
A definition of something is a label for that thing. Thomas argued that if people define a situation as real, then it will have real consequences. If we believe something to be true, this belief will affect how we act and this may have consequences for those involved. Eg if a teacher labels a boy as ‘troublesome’ (whether he is or isn’t) the teacher will likely act differently towards him eg by punishing him more harshly
What is the looking glass self?
Cooley uses this idea to describe how we develop our self-concept. Argues our self-concept arises out of our ability to take the role of the other. In interactions, by taking role of other we come to see ourselves as they see us. Through this process, a self-fulfilling prophecy occurs - become what others see us as. Labelling theorists use definition of situation and the looking glass self to understand effects of labelling. Through the looking glass self, the label becomes part of the individual’s self concept, and a self-fulfilling prophecy occurs. Even if the initial definition was false, it becomes true and may have real consequences
What is career?
In normal use, a career is stages through which an individual progresses in their occupation, each with own status, title, problems etc. However, labelling theorists such as Becker and Lemert extend the concept to apply it to groups such as medical students, marijuana smokers and those suffering from paranoia. Eg in relation to mental illness, individuals have career running from ‘pre-patient’ with certain symptoms, through labelling by a psychiatrist, to hospital in-patient, to discharge. Each stage has own status and problems eg ex-patient may find it hard to reintegrate into society. ‘Mental patient’ may become their master status in the eyes of society
How are interactionism and labelling theory viewed as theories?
Interactionism is generally regarded as a voluntaristic theory that emphasises free will and choice in how we act. However, labelling theory has been accused of determinism-of seeing our actions and identities as shaped by the way others label them
How does labelling theory normally describe individuals?
As passive victims of other peoples labels, however, the interactionist, Goffman, describes how we actively construct our ‘self’ by manipulating other people’s impressions of us
How is Goffman’s approach described?
It is often described as dramaturgical because he uses analogies with drama as a framework for analysing social interaction. We are all ‘actors’, acting out our ‘scripts’, using ‘props’, resting ‘backstage’ between ‘performances’ we present to our ‘audiences’ etc. Our aim is to carry off a convincing performance of the role we have adopted
What are two key dramaturgical concepts?
Presentation of self, and impression management
What is presentation of self and impression management?
For Goffman, we seek to present a particular image of ourselves to our audiences. To do so, we must control the impression our performance gives. This involves constantly studying our audience to see how they are responding, and monitoring or adjusting our performance to present a convincing image
What are techniques for impression management?
We may use language, tone of voice, gestures and facial expressions, as well as props and settings, such as dress, makeup, equipment, furniture, décor and premises. By using these techniques skilfully, we can ‘pass’ for the kind of person we want our audience to believe we are
What does Goffman use the dramaturgical analogy to describe?
The different settings of interactions. As in theatre, there is a ‘front’ stage where we act out our roles, while backstage, we can step out of our role and ‘be ourselves’. Eg the classroom is a front region where students must put on convincing role-performance for the teacher, while the common room is a back region where they can ‘drop the act’. However, the common room may become another front region where students may have to carry off a different performance in front of their friends
How does Goffman view ‘roles’ in relation to functionalism?
Goffman’s view of roles differs sharply from that of functionalism. Functionalists see roles as tightly ‘scripted’ by society and see us as fully internalising our scrips through socialisation. As a result, they become part of our identity and society determines exactly how we will perform them
What is Goffman’s view of ‘roles’?
He rejects the functionalist view and instead argues there is a ‘gap’ or role distance between our real self and our roles. We are not really the roles we play. In his view, roles are only loosely scripted by society and we have a good deal of freedom in how we play the, eg some teachers are strict and others are easy-going
