Sociology-beliefs-Religion In Global Context

Question 1

What is religious fundamentalism in a global context?

Answer 1

In a global context, the issue of religious fundamentalism has emerged as a major area of media and political concern in recent decades, notably in relation to international Islamist terrorism. However, the term ‘fundamentalist’ has also been applied to followers of other religions, including Protestant Christians. In this section, we examine explanations of fundamentalism and its relationship to globalisation and modernity

Question 2

What appeals to fundamentalists?

Answer 2

Fundamentalists appeal to tradition and often look back to a supposed golden age in the past. They seek to return to the basics or fundamentals of their faith. But religious fundamentalism is quite different from traditional religion

Question 3

When does religious fundamentalism arise?

Answer 3

Only when traditional beliefs and values are threatened or challenged by modern society and especially by the impact of an increasingly globalised economy. The threat to beliefs can come from outside (through capitalist globalisation, the penetration of Western culture, or military invasion). Or can come from within (when sections of society adopt new secular ideas, such as liberal attitudes to sexuality and gender)

Question 4

What are key features of fundamentalism that sociologists have identified?

Answer 4

Authoritative sacred text, ‘us and them’ mentality, aggressive reaction, use of modern technology, patriarchy, prophecy, and conspiracy theories

Question 5

Explain ‘authoritative sacred text’ as a key feature of fundamentalism?

Answer 5

For Christian fundamentalists every word of the bible is literally true/valid for all eternity/answers all life’s important questions from politics to family life. It is without error and not open to questioning. Eg they require belief in the Virgin Birth of Christ and his bodily resurrection etc. Only those who accept these as historical facts are true Christians. Fundamentalists are intolerant of all other views and refuse to engage in rational argument with them

Question 6

What does Aldridge argue about authoritative sacred texts and fundamentalism?

Answer 6

Notes that no text speaks for itself; it has to be interpreted, so in reality what fundamentalists hold to be true is not the text itself but their interpretation of its meaning. They interpret the Bible solely as a set of historical facts and prophecies about the future, ignoring other interpretations of it as poetry, symbolism or metaphor

Question 7

Explain ‘an ‘us against them’ mentality’ as a key feature of fundamentalism?

Answer 7

Fundamentalists separate themselves from the rest of the world and refuse to compromise with it. David notes that they seek to establish islands of certainty against what they see as social and cultural chaos

Question 8

Explain ‘aggressive reaction’ as a key feature of fundamentalism?

Answer 8

Fundamentalist movements aim to draw attention to the threat to their beliefs and values, and their reactions are therefore aggressive and intended to shock, intimidate or cause harm. Authoritative leaders such as clergy or elders who interpret the sacred texts are important in giving direction to the reactions

Question 9

Explain ‘use of modern technology’ as a key feature of fundamentalism?

Answer 9

Although fundamentalists oppose modern culture, which they see as corrupted by secularism, liberalism, materialism, permissiveness and promiscuity, they are keen to use modern technology to achieve their aims-from computers and the internet to televangelism and military weaponry

Question 10

Explain ‘patriarchy’ as a key feature of fundamentalism?

Answer 10

Hawley notes that fundamentalists favour a world in which control over women’s sexuality, reproductive powers, and their social and economic roles, is fixed for all time by divine decree

Question 11

Explain ‘prophecy’ as a key feature of fundamentalism?

Answer 11

Christian fundamentalists proclaim the relevance of biblical prophecies to contemporary events. They believe that the ‘last days’ will soon be upon us, when the faithful dead will be resurrected and transported to heaven with the faithful living, before the seven year rule of the Antichrist and ultimately the final defeat of Satan in the War of Armageddon

Question 12

Explain ‘conspiracy theories’ as a key feature of fundamentalism?

Answer 12

Fundamentalists are often attracted to conspiracy theories: the idea that powerful, hidden, evil forces and organisations and in control of human destiny. Many Christian and Islamic fundamentalists hold anti-Semitic co spinach theories that believe Jews are conspiring to secure world domination

Question 13

What does Davie argue about fundamentalism?

Answer 13

Fundamentalism occurs where those who hold traditional orthodox beliefs and values are threatened by modernity and feel the need to defend themselves against it. In this sense, ‘fundamentalists are themselves products of modernity, in so far as they are born out of the clash between modernity and traditional cultures’

Question 14

What does Giddens argue about fundamentalism?

Answer 14

It is a product of and reaction to globalisation, which undermines traditional social norms concerning the nuclear family, gender and sexuality eg abortion, homosexuality etc. In today’s late modern society, individuals are constantly faced with choice, uncertainty and risk. Fundamentalism offers rigidity and certainty in an uncertain world. It is a retreat into faith-based answers and away from risks/uncertainties of globalising world

Question 15

What religions does Giddens identify as having fundamentalist versions?

Answer 15

He identifies fundamentalist versions of several major religions, including Islam, Christianity and Hinduism

Question 16

What does Giddens contrast fundamentalism with?

Answer 16

Cosmopolitanism

Question 17

What is cosmopolitanism?

Answer 17

A way of thinking that embraces modernity and is in keeping with today’s globalising world

Question 18

How does cosmopolitanism contrast with fundamentalism?

Answer 18

It is tolerant of views of others, open to new ideas, constantly reflecting on/modifying beliefs in light of new ideas (Giddens calls this ‘reflexive’ thinking). Requires people to justify views by use of rational arguments & evidence rather than by appealing to sacred texts. Lifestyle is a personal choice rather than prescribed by external religious (or other) authority. It emphasises pursuit of personal meaning & self improvement rather than submission to authority

Question 19

What is cosmopolitanism similar to?

Answer 19

Very similar to Hervieu-Léger’s ‘pilgrims, who explore New Age spirituality

Question 20

Who puts forward a similar argument to Giddens?

Answer 20

Bauman, who sees fundamentalism as a response to living in postmodernity. Postmodern society brings freedom of choice, uncertainty and a heightened awareness of risk, undermining the old certainties about how to live that were grounded in tradition. In this situation, while some embrace the new freedom, others are attracted to fundamentalism by its claims of absolute truth and certainty

Question 21

What does Castells distinguish between?

Answer 21

Two responses to postmodernity. Resistance identity and project identity

Question 22

What is resistance identity?

Answer 22

A defensive reaction to those who feel threatened and retreat into fundamentalist communities

Question 23

What is project identity?

Answer 23

The response of those who are forward-looking and engage with social movements such as feminism and environmentalism

Question 24

Who criticises Giddens, Bauman and Castells?

Answer 24

Beckford

Question 25

How does Beckford criticise Giddens, Bauman and Castells?

Answer 25

Distinguish too sharply between cosmopolitanism and fundamentalism (ignoring hybrid movements). They are ‘fixed on fundamentalism’ ignoring other important developments such as how globalisation is also affecting non-fundamentalist religions such as Catholicism. Giddens lumps all types of fundamentalism together ignoring important differences between them. Giddens’ description of fundamentalism as a defensive reaction to modernity ignores the fact that reinventing tradition is also a modern ‘reflexive’ activity

Question 26

What does Haynes argue about fundamentalism?

Answer 26

We should not focus narrowly on idea Islamic fundamentalism is a reaction against globalisation, eg in the Middle East, conflicts caused by failure of local elites to deliver on their promises to improve the standard of living are often the fuel that drives fundamentalism

Question 27

What does Bruce see as the main cause of fundamentalism?

Answer 27

the perception of religious traditionalists that today’s globalising world threatens their beliefs. However, Bruce regards fundamentalism as being confined to monotheistic religions-those believing in a single almighty God-such as Judaism, Islam and Christianity

Question 28

What are polytheistic religions?

Answer 28

Polytheistic religions that believe in the existence of many gods, such as Hinduism, are unlikely to produce fundamentalism

Question 29

Why does Bruce believe fundamentalism is confined to monotheistic religions?

Answer 29

Because monotheistic religions are based on a notion of God’s will as revealed through a single, authoritative sacred text such as the Qur’an or the Bible-believed to contain the actual word of God and it lays down specific rules for believers to follow

Question 30

Why does Bruce believe fundamentalism is less likely to occur in polytheistic religions?

Answer 30

They lack single all-powerful deity and single authoritative text, so much more scope for different interpretations and none has over-riding claim to legitimacy or absolute truth
Eg Hinduism has been described as being more like a collection of religions than just one

Question 31

What does Bruce believe about the differences between fundamentalist movements?

Answer 31

While all fundamentalists share same characteristics such as belief in the literal truth of a sacred text and detestation of modernity, different fundamentalist movements may have different origins. In particular, some are triggered by changes being thrust upon a society from the outside, while some are triggered by changes within own society

Question 32

What two fundamentalisms does Bruce talk about to illustrate the distinction?

Answer 32

Examples of Christian fundamentalism in the west, and Islamic fundamentalism in the third world

Question 33

What is fundamentalism in the West?

Answer 33

Fundamentalism is most often reaction to change taking place within a society, especially trends towards diversity and choice typical of secular late modern society
Eg New Christian Right in America developed in opposition to family diversity, sexual ‘permissiveness’, gender equality and abortion rights, secular education and the privatisation of religion-aim to reassert ‘true’ religion and restore it to a public role where it can shape laws and morals of wider society

Question 34

What is fundamentalism in the Third World

Answer 34

Fundamentalism is usually reaction to changes being thrust upon society from outside, as in the case of Islamic revolution in Iran-triggered by modernisation and globalisation, in which ‘Western’ values are imposed by foreign capitalism or by local elites supported by the West. Here, fundamentalism involves resistance to state’s attempts to sideline it and confine it to private sphere

Question 35

How does Davie argue fundamentalism has changed?

Answer 35

Argues that recent decades have seen the emergence of secular forms of fundamentalism. She links this to changes in the nature of modern society and distinguishes between two phases of modernity

Question 36

What is the first phase of modernity?

Answer 36

The first phase gave rise to religious fundamentalism. Stretched from time of Enlightenment movement in late 18th century to about the 1960s. Enlightenment philosophy held optimistic secular belief in certainty of progress based on power of science and human reason to improve world. This ‘Enlightenment Project’ dominated European thought and helped to secularise all areas of social life, attacking and undermining religious certainties. Religious fundamentalism is one reaction to this secularisation process

Question 37

What is the second phase of modernity?

Answer 37

The second phase is giving rise to secular fundamentalism. Since 1970s the optimism of Enlightenment project has itself come under attack. Result of growing mood of pessimism and uncertainty, which is the product of insecurity caused by changes such as globalisation, concerns about environment and collapse of communism 1989. This led to loss of faith in major secular Enlightenment ideologies such as liberalism and rationalism, and Marxism, whose claims to truth and belief in progress have been undermined

Question 38

What happened as a result of the two phases of modernity?

Answer 38

Secular ideologies are struggling to survive just like traditional religion. Davie argues they are ‘past their sell-by date’. And as with religion when it came under attack, some supporters of secular ideologies such as nationalism have also been attracted to fundamentalism. Eg, the disintegration of communist Yugoslavia in the early 1990s led to secular nationalist fundamentalism that justified ethnic cleaning of territory to create clear-cut separation between ethnic groups (‘us and them’)

Question 39

What have perceived religious challenges to liberal secular values provoked in Western Europe?

Answer 39

Provoked a secular fundamentalist reaction. Eg in 2004 France banned pupils from wearing religious symbols in school, and in 2010 made it illegal for women to wear the veil in public. In 2015, some French local councils controlled by right-wing political parties stopped serving alternatives to pork in their school meals, on the grounds that all pupils must be treated equally and that religion must be kept out of the public sphere. This discriminates against Muslims and Jews who do not eat pork

Question 40

What does Ansell argue about trends of secular fundamentalism?

Answer 40

Sees such trends as a form of cultural racism that uses the apparently liberal language of universal equality and social integration, while denying racist aims. In reality, however, it is about preserving cultural identity and ‘our’ way of life, and it legitimates the exclusion of religious and cultural minorities

Question 41

In conclusion, what does Davie argue abour fundamentalism?

Answer 41

Both religious and secular movements can become fundamentalist as a result of the greater uncertainties of life in the late modern or postmodern world, in which reasserting truth and certainty is increasingly attractive. As a result, competing fundamentalisms have become a normal feature of today’s society

Question 42

How does Hervieu-Léger see fundamentalism, in conclusion?

Answer 42

Sees fundamentalism as a form of ‘recreated memories’ in late modern societies that have suffered ‘cultural amnesia’ and forgotten their historic religious traditions

Question 43

How has religion recently been at the centre of global conflicts?

Answer 43

9/11 terrorist attacks by fundamentalist Islamists in the US on 11 September 2001. In the view of American neo-conservative Huntington, such conflicts have intensified since the collapse of communism in 1989 and are symptoms of a ‘clash of civilisations’. However, for Huntington the problem is no Islamic Fundamentalism, it is Islam itself

Question 44

What does Huntington identify?

Answer 44

Seven civilisations: Western, Islamic, Latin American, Confucian (China), Japanese, Hindu, and Slavic-Orthodox (Russia and Eastern Europe). Most civilisations are larger than a single nation. Each has a common cultural background and history, and is closely identified with one of the world’s great religions

Question 45

Why are religious differences between civilisations a major source of conflict in today’s world?

Answer 45

Because globalisation has made nation-states less significant as a source of identity, creating a gap that religion has filled. At the same time, globalisation increases the contacts between civilisations, increasing likelihood of conflict

Question 46

In Huntington’s view, how do religious conflicts between civilisations start?

Answer 46

Religious differences create a set of hostile ‘us and them’ relationships, with increased competition between civilisations for economic and military power, eg in the Middle East. He sees religious differences as harder to resolve than political ones because they are deeply rooted in culture and history. He sees history as a struggle of ‘progress against barbarism’. He believes the West is under threat, especially from Islam, and urges the West to reassert its identity as a liberal-democratic Christian civilisation

Question 47

Who criticises the ‘clash of civilisations’?

Answer 47

Jackson, Casanova, Horrie and Chippindale, and Armstrong

Question 48

How does Jackson criticise the ‘clash of civilisations’?

Answer 48

Sees Huntington’s work as an example of orientalism-a western ideology that stereotypes Eastern nations an people (especially Muslims) as untrustworthy, inferior or fanatical ‘others’ and serves to justify exploitation and human rights abuses by the West

Question 49

How does Casanova criticise the ‘clash of civilisations’?

Answer 49

Argues that Huntington ignores important religious divisions within the ‘civilisations’ he identifies, eg between Sunni and Shi’a Islam

Question 50

How does Horrie and Chippindale criticise the ‘clash of civilisations’?

Answer 50

See the ‘clash of civilisations’ as a grossly misleading neo-conservative ideology that portrays the whole of Islam as an enemy. In reality, only a tiny minority of the world’s 1.5 billion Muslims are remotely interested in a ‘holy war’ against the West

Question 51

How does Armstrong criticise the ‘clash of civilisations’?

Answer 51

Argues that hostility towards the West does not stem from fundamentalist Islam, but is a reaction to Western foreign policy in the Middle East. The West has propped up oppressive regimes and continues to support Israel despite its aggressive treatment of Palestinians

Question 52

What does Huntington’s work suggest?

Answer 52

That the Muslim world holds fundamentally different, anti-democratic values from those of the West, however evidence indicates that this is not the case

Question 53

What do Norris and Inglehart conclude, which does not match up with what Huntington’s work suggests?

Answer 53

Using data from the World Values Survey, they conclude that the issue that divides West from Muslim world is not democracy but gender and sexuality. They find support for democracy is similarly high in both the West and the Muslim world, but there are great differences when it comes to attitudes to divorce, abortion, gender equality and gay rights. While Western attitudes have become more liberal, in the Muslim world they remain traditional. They comment that in last decade, democracy has become political ideology to gain global appeal, but no global agreement about self-expression values, such as tolerance of diversity, gender equality and freedom of speech. In their view, ‘these divergent values constitute the real clash of civilisations between Muslim societies and the West’

Question 54

What is cultural defence?

Answer 54

It is identified by Bruce as one function of religion in today’s world. It is where religion serves to unite a community against an external threat. In such situations, religion has special significance for its followers because it symbolises the group or society’s collective identity. Defending the community against a threat often gives religion a prominent role in politics

Question 55

What are two examples of religion as cultural defence from the late 20th century?

Answer 55

Poland and Iran. They illustrate how religion can be used in defence of national identity in face of political domination by an external power. In Poland, the external power was Soviet communism, while in Iran it was Western culture and capitalism. In both cases, therefore, the role of religion has to be understood in a transnational context

Question 56

How is Poland an example of religion as cultural defence?

Answer 56

1945-1989 Poland under communist rule, imposed from outside by Soviet Union. Catholic church was suppressed but for many Poles, it continued to embody Polish national identity. Church served as popular rallying point for opposition to Soviet Union and Polish communist party. In particular lent active support to Solidarity free trade union movement in 1980s that did much to bring fall of communism. Thereafter, church regained public rule and had significant influence on Polish politics since

Question 57

How is Iran an example of religion as cultural defence?

Answer 57

Western capitalist powers and oil companies had influence in Iran, including involvement in illegal overthrow of democratic government in 1950s to install pro-Western regime headed by Shah of Iran. 1960s-70s, his successor embarked on policy of modernisation/westernisation, including banning of veil and replacing Muslim calendar. Modernisation was widening gap between rich and poor and protest was suppressed. Change imposed rapidly from above causing great suffering. Islam became focus for resistance to Shah’s regime, led by clerics such as Ayatollah Khomeini. Revolution of 1979 brought creation of Islamic Republic, which clerics held state power and were able to impose Islamic Sharia law

Question 58

What does Haynes argue about the Iranian revolution?

Answer 58

Argues that the Iranian revolution was not typical of the Middle East, in that it was led by religious leaders. In countries such as Saudi Arabia, the religious leadership is closely tied to the local elite, who in turn are tied to Western imperialism. As such, local religious leaders are opposed by local fundamentalists, who regard them as enemies of Islam

Question 59

What is religion and development?

Answer 59

For secularisation theory, modernisation undermines religion. Importance of science and technology in economic development, and rational worldview on which they depend, are seen as destroying belief in supernatural. On other hand, religion may contribute to development, as Weber argued in the case of Protestant ethic. More recently, sociologists have examined what role religion may play in development in today’s globalising world

Question 60

How has globalisation affected India?

Answer 60

It has brought rapid economic growth and has sen India become a more important player on the world political stage. It has also brought rising prosperity to some-notably India’s new middle class. Nanda’s book ‘God and Globaslization’ examines the role of Hinduism, the religion of 85% of the population, in legitimating both the rise of a new Hindu ‘ultra-nationalism’ and the prosperity of the Indian middle class

Question 61

How has globalisation created a new middle class in India?

Answer 61

It has created a huge and prosperous, scientifically educated, urban middle class in India, working in IT, pharmaceuticals and biotechnology sectors closely tied into the global economy. These are precisely the people whom secularisation theory predicts will be the first to abandon religion in favour of a secular worldview

Question 62

What does Nanda find about whether the new Indian middle class becomes secular?

Answer 62

Nanda observes, a vast majority of this class continue to believe in the supernatural. A survey by the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies found that Indians are becoming more religious. Only 5% said their religiosity had declined in the last five years, while 30% said they had become more religious. Survey also found ‘urban educated Indians are more religious than their rural and illiterate counterparts’. Increased interest in religion has also been reflected in a dramatic growth of religious tourism, such as visits to shrines and temples. Nanda notes that it is becoming fashionable to be religious and to be seen to be so

Question 63

What is another key feature of the middle-class religiosity in India?

Answer 63

They are attracted to what were once low-status village gods and goddesses worshipped by the poor. This is because these deities are seen as being more responsive to people’s needs than the traditional Hindu ‘great gods’

Question 64

What explanations does Nanda look at for what motivates the sophisticated, urban middle class to continue to believe in miracles and supernatural beings?

Answer 64

She rejects poverty and existential security as an explanation because they are not poor. She also rejects the idea that their religiosity is a defensive reaction to modernisation and Westernisation as the Indian middle classes are optimistic about the opportunities that globalisation brings them. Instead, Nanda argues their increasing religiosity is the result of their ambivalence about their newfound wealth

Question 65

Where does the Indian middle class’ ambivalence stem from?

Answer 65

A tension between the traditional Hindu belief in renunciation of materialism and worldly desires, and the new prosperity of the middle classes. This is resolved for them by the modern holy men and tele-gurus to whom they turn, who preach the message that desire is not bad but rather a manifestation of divinity that motivates people to do things. Similarly, they dispense business friendly versions of Hinduism and take the edge off guilt by teaching that middle-class consumerism can be ‘spiritually balanced’ by paying for the performance of appropriate and often extravagant rituals-which also serve as a way of displaying one’s wealth. Modern versions of Hinduism therefore legitimate the position of middle class and allow them to adjust to globalised consumer capitalism

Question 66

What else does Nanda examine, as well as hinduism/consumerism?

Answer 66

Also examines the role of Hinduism in legitimating a triumphalist version of Indian nationalism. Eg the Pew Global Attitude Survey found that 93% of Indians, more than any other country, agreed with the statement that ‘Our people are not perfect, but our culture is superior to others’. Nanda notes that India’s success in the global market is increasingly attributed to the superiority of ‘Hindu values’, a view constantly promotes by the media and politicians, along with the view that Hinduism is the essence of Indian culture and identity

Question 67

What happens in Hindu ultra-nationalism?

Answer 67

The worship of Hindu gods has become the same as worshipping the nation of India, and Hinduism has become a civil religion. However, as Nanda points out, this is creating a widening gulf between Hindus and non-Hindu minorities

Question 68

How has Hinduism entered public life?

Answer 68

It has entered public life, so that the supposedly secular state is increasingly influenced by religion. Eg, ‘Hindu sciences’ such as astrology are being taught as an academic subject in universities and being used supposedly to predict natural disasters. Meanwhile, the Ministry of Defence is sponsoring development of weapons with magical powers mentioned in the ancient Hindu texts

Question 69

How has capitalism developed in East Asia?

Answer 69

In recent decades, ‘East Asian tiger economies’ such as South Korea, Singapore and Taiwan have industrialised and become significant players in the global economy. China is now a major global industrial power

Question 70

What has the success of capitalism in East Asia led to?

Answer 70

It has led some sociologists to argue that religion has played a role similar to the one Calvinism played in development of capitalism in 16th/17th century Europe. Eg Redding describes the spirit of capitalism among Chinese entrepreneurs in the tiger economies. He sees their ‘post-Confucian’ values encouraging hard work, self-discipline, frugality and a commitment to education/self-improvement. The effect of this value system is similar to Protestant ethic, in that it leads to economic productivity and the accumulation of capital

Question 71

What does Berger argue about pentecostalism?

Answer 71

Pentecostalism in Latin America acts as a ‘functional equivalent’ to Weber’s Protestant ethic. It encourages the development of capitalism today in the same way as Calvinism did in the 17th/17th century Europe. Latin American Pentecostalists embrace a work ethic and lifestyle similar to Calvinists. Like Calvinism, Pentecostalism demands an ascetic (self-denying) way of life that emphasises personal discipline, hard work and abstinence from alcohol. In this way, it encourages its members to prosper and become upwardly mobile. Berger concludes Pentecostalism has strong affinity with modern capitalism

Question 72

How is Berger similar to Weber?

Answer 72

Berger agrees with Weber that an ethic like Protestantism is necessary to promote economic development and raise society out of poverty. This process can be led by active minority with ethic of this-worldly asceticism, such as Pentecostalists. Thus in Chile and southern Brazil, there is now growing and prosperous Pentecostalist middle class leading capitalist development. However Berger underlines Weber’s point that religious ideas alone are not enough to produce economic development-natural resources are also needed. Eg while Pentecostalism has frown in northern Brazil, the religion lacks resources and remained backward, but the south, which is developing rapidly, has both a work ethic and necessary resources

Question 73

How has Christianity globalised itself recently?

Answer 73

In the last five centuries, Christianity has globalised itself by expanding out of Europe, first into South America and then Africa. Lehmann distinguishes between two phases in this expansion

Question 74

What is the first phase that Lehmann describes?

Answer 74

In the first phase, Christianity accompanied colonisation and was imposed on indigenous populations by conquest, often forcibly suppressing local religions

Question 75

What is the second phase that Lehmann describes?

Answer 75

In the second phase, over the last century or so, it has spread because it gained a popular following from below. Eg by 2015 there were 25 million Pentecostalists in Brazil alone

Question 76

What does Lehmann attribute the success of Pentecostalism as a global religion to?

Answer 76

Attributes it, in part, to its ability to incorporate local beliefs. Although it preaches a similar message worldwide, it uses imagery and symbolism drawn from local cultures and beliefs, especially spirit possession cults. Pentecostalists attack such cults as the work of the devil, but their ministers conduct exorcisms to rid people of evil spirits. By doing so, Pentecostalism validates local traditional beliefs, while at the same time claiming to give believers access to a greater power, that of the Christian Holy Spirit

Question 77

How does Pentecostalism show considerable local diversity in different parts of the world?

Answer 77

Pentecostalism creates new local religious forms, rather than simply replacing existing local beliefs with an imported one, as the first place of Christianisation has done. In Africa, this has led to the ‘Africanisation’ of Christianity rather than the total disappearance of indigenous religions. Pentecostalism has also been successful in developing countries because it is able to appeal to the poor who make up the majority of the population, and because it uses global media to spread its message