Sociology and Science Flashcards
1
Q
what do positivists believe in terms of sociology as a science
A
- positivists believe it’s desirable to scientific apply logic + methods to sociology in order to observe empirical (factual) patterns/ regularities
- doing so will bring objective, true knowledge
- this will be the basis of solving social problems + progress
2
Q
what is a key feature of the positivist approach
A
- reality exists outside and independently of the human mind
- nature is made up of physical observable facts such as cells and stars which are external to our minds and exist
- similarly, society is an objective factual reality made up of social facts that exists independently from inds
3
Q
what is reality for positivists
A
- reality isn’t random but is patterned and we can observe these empirical (factual) patterns through science
4
Q
outline the inductive apparoach
A
- induction involves accumulating data through careful observation
- through this we can find patterns
5
Q
outline verificationism
A
- verificationism = the idea of verifying a theory
- after several verifications / confirmations of the theory, we can claim to have found the truth in the form of a ‘general law’
6
Q
what do positivists favour in research
A
- Positivists favour finding patterns, producing a general law, value free research and macro/structural explanations
7
Q
outline Positivists use of quantitative data
A
- Ps use quant data to uncover + measure behavioural patterns and their cause + effect
- this allows them to produce precise statements
7
Q
why do Positivists favour value free research
A
- researchers shouldn’t let their own subjective prejudices influence conduct of research/ analysis
8
Q
which methods do Positivists favour
A
- Ps employ methods that allow for maximum objectivity – e.g. quant methods like questionnaires, structured interviews + official stats
- these methods also produce reliable data that can be repeated
9
Q
outline Durkheim’s study of suicide
A
- he used quant data from official stats and observed there were patterns in the suicide rate
- e.g. rates for Protestants were higher than for Catholics
- these were social facts, not the product of motives from individuals. thus, suicide is caused by other social facts; forces acting upon members of society to determine their behaviour
- D claims that social facts can be explained scientifically and so is scientific
9
Q
outline natural science
A
- studies matter, which has no consciousness
- behaviour can be explained by an external stimulus
10
Q
what do interpretivist sociologists think
A
- Interpretivist sociologists critique Positivist’s scientific approach as irrelevant to the study of human beings
- sociology CANNOT and SHOULD NOT be scientific
11
Q
why do Interpretivists say sociology cant/ shouldn’t be scientific
A
- Weber: sociology isn’t a science as it studies the meaning in social actions + requires Verstehen - e.g. W’s study of Calvinism
- we can only understand meaning by immersing ourselves into social situations (Verstehen) to understand ind’s actions
- Phenomethodologists: all social life is socially constructed - thus not a science
- micro theories believe the world is socially constructed + cant be scientifically measures
11
Q
outline sociology
A
- studies people, who have consciousness
- people make sense of the world by attaching meaning to it
12
Q
outline Int’s view of individuals
A
- individuals are not puppets on a string, manipulated by external ‘social facts’ (as Ps think), but are autonomous (independent) beings who construct their world through meanings they attach
- the job of a sociologist is to uncover these meanings
13
Q
(Interpretivists) outline verstehen and qualitative research
A
- ints argue that to discover the meanings people give to their actions, we need to take their view (verstehen/ empathetic understanding)
- thus, ints prefer qualitative methods – e.g. participant obs, personal documents + unstructured interviews, which produce valid, more personal data
14
Q
list the 2 types of interpretivism
A
- interactionists
- phenomenologists + ethnomethodologists
15
Q
outline interactionists as a type of interpretivism
A
- the believe we can have casual explanations
- rejects the P view that we should enter research with a fixed hypothesis and favours a bottom up approach of a developing hypothesis throughout observations
16
Q
outline phenomenologists + ethnomethodologists as a type of interpretivism
A
- society isn’t a real thing determining our behaviour, but social reality is simply the shared meanings/ knowledge of its members and thus exists only in people’s consciousness
- therefore, the subject matter of sociology can only be of interpretive procedure that people use to make sense of the world
17
Q
outline Douglas’ study of suicide
A
- Douglas, an interactionist, rejects the positivist idea of external social facts determining behaviour. Inds have free will and choose how to act through meaning
- to understand suicide, we must uncover its meanings for people involved, instead of imposing our meaning
- D prefers the use of qual data from suicide case studies to reveal the meanings + give a better idea of meanings behind suicide
18
Q
outline Atkinsons view of suicide
A
- like Douglas, Atkinson, a ethnomethodologist, rejects the idea that external social facts determine behaviour
- however, A argues that we can never know the real rate of suicide, since we can never know what meanings the deceased held
- the only thing we can study in suicide is the way that the living makes sense of deaths (the interpretive methods coroners use to classify deaths)
18
Q
what is the postmodernist view of scientific sociology
A
- PMs argue against the idea of sociology as a science, as science is a meta narrative – just another big story – the scientific account of the world is no more valid than others and so there is no reason to adopt science as a model for sociology
- due to the several views within society, a scientific approach is dangerous as it excludes other views. Thus, scientific sociology makes false claims about the truth + is a form of domination
19
Q
what is the poststructuralist feminist view of scientific sociology
A
- PSFs agree with PMs in that scientific sociology in its quest for a single feminist theory is a form of domination as it covertly excludes different types of women
19
Q
outline Popper’s fallacy of induction
A
- we should reject verificationism due to ‘the fallacy (error) of induction’
- induction is the process of moving from the observation of something to arrive at a general statement/ law
20
outline Popper's view of falsification as an AO3 evaluation of the Positivist view
- Popper: any subject that wants to be called a 'science' should be subjected to 'falsification', which is impossible for sociology due to conflicting views
- instead of verificationism, P thinks we should try to prove an idea wrong + constantly critique it/ try to disprove it
- thus, in P's view, sociology isnt a science
21
what 2 features should a good theory have in Popper’s opinion
- it is falsifiable in principle, but when tested, it stands all attempts to disprove it
- it is bold and makes big generalisations that can be possibly falsified
21
outline Popper’s view of truth
- Popper: all knowledge is provisional, temporary + capable of refutation at any moment
- there can never be absolute proof that any knowledge is true
- a good theory isn't necessarily a true theory, but one that has withstood attempts to falsify it so far
22
outline Popper's concept of criticism and the open society
- for a theory to be falsifiable, it must be open to criticism by other theorists
- P views science as a public activity which is why scientific knowledge grows so rapidly
- science thrives in open societies - ones that believe in free speech + the right to challenge accepted ideas
- in contrast, closed societies are dominated by an official belief system which stifles the growth of science as they cant be falsified
23
outline Popper's implications for sociology
- Popper believes that sociology is unscientific because its theories cannot be falsified
- e.g. Marxism predicts a revolution, and that it hasn't happened yet bc of the false class consciousness. this prediction cant be falsified - Marxism is correct whether a revolution happens or not
- however, P believes sociology can be scientific because it produces hypotheses that in principle can be falsified
24
outline kuhn's concept of paradigms
- Kuhn: science is a closed system which operates within paradigms - it provides a basic framework of assumptions, principles, methods and techniques
- scientists' conformity to the paradigms is rewarded with publication of their research/ career success, whilst non- conformity may result in a lack of career success
- Kuhn believes science cannot exist without shared paradigms
25
outline Kuhn’s concept of normal science
- most of the time, paradigms go unquestioned + scientists do ‘normal science’
- in normal science, scientists do puzzle solving (filling in the missing details from the paradigms defined broad terms)
- scientists know what the end point should be + their job is to obtain the known to fit the narrative
26
outline scientific revolutions
- not all puzzle solving is successful and occasionally, scientists discover things that go against the accepted narrative of paradigms
- as these anomalies grow, confidence in paradigms decreases, leading to a crisis – previous foundations are now in question
- scientists begin to form rival paradigms (the start of a scientific revolution). Eventually one adapted paradigm becomes the most accepted by the science community, allowing normal science to resume
- in Kuhns view, scientists are conformists who unquestionably accept paradigms – apart from during scientific revolutions
27
outline the implications for sociology in terms of paradigms
- sociology is pre-paradigmatic/ pre-scientific as its divided into competing perspectives; there is no shared paradigm
- Kuhn believes sociology can only be a science if they resolve disagreements; although many argue this would be impossible for sociology
28
what do Postmodernists think about paradigms in sociology
- PMs argue a paradigm wouldn't be desirable in sociology as its very similar to a meta-narrative which silences minority voices
29
outline the realist view of science
- realists like Keat and Urry stress the similarities between sociology and kinds of science in terms of the degree of control the researcher has over the variables
- because science is an open + closed system, sociology is also a science as its like that
30
outline the realist concept of a closed system
- a system where the researcher can control/ measure all relevant variables and so can make precise predictions
- the typical research method for this is lab experiments
30
outline the realist concept of a closed system
- systems where the researcher cant control + measure all relevant variables and so cant make precise predictions
- realists argue sociologists study open systems where the processes are too complex to completely predict. E.g. we cant predict crime rates as there are too many variables involved
31
outline the realist concept of underlying structures
- realists reject the positivist view that science is only concerned with observable phenomena
- it also means interpretivists are incorrect in assuming that sociology cant be scientific as Rs think sociology can be studied scientifically – which interpretivists think is the barrier to scientific sociology
- Rs think both natural + social science attempt to explain the causes of events in terms of underlying structures + processes, thus realists believe sociology is scientific
32
(positivists) name 5 steps of the inductive approach (scientific approach of sociology)
1) identifying social 'facts'
2) measuring them
3) recording them
4) then analysing the results and patterns of cause and effect
5) coming up with theories
33
why do positivists believe sociology CAN and SHOULD be a science
- sociology CAN be a science through the inductive approach from which we can explain its observations
- sociology SHOULD be a science in order to observe empirical patterns objectively
34
outline the case of Dr Velikovsky
- in 1950, Dr Velikovsky published 'Worlds in Collision' in which he put forward a new theory on the origins of the earth
- his theory challenged fundamental beliefs about geology, astronomy, biology etc
- the response from the science community wasn't open, as Popper would claim - scientists rejected it without reading the book + boycotted V's publisher + some supporters of the book even lost their jobs
- they did not test the new findings
35
outline Kuhn’s concept of pre science + revolutionary science
- pre science: lots of competing paradigms with no agreement
- revolutionary science: if anomalies build up which dispute the paradigm - it leads to a period of crisis - rival paradigms form + old ideas die out
36
does Kuhn think sociology is a science
- no
- BUT; it could be if sociology worked within 1 agreed paradigm
