Gender, Crime and Justice Flashcards
1
Q
what is the general gender pattern in crime
A
- men commit more crime than women
2
Q
name 2 statistics showing the gender difference of criminality
A
- 3 out of 4 convicted offenders in England and Wales are male
- by the age of 40, 9% of females have a criminal record, compared to 32% of males
3
Q
what are some significant gender differences in crime stats
A
- there are more female than male offenders of property offences (except burglary), whilst more men are convicted of violent + sexual offences
- men are more likely to be repeat offenders, to have longer criminal careers and to commit more serious crimes
4
Q
men are _ times more likely to be convicted of _
A
- men are 15 times more likely to be convicted of homicide
5
Q
outline the debate of if women commit more crime than official statistics say
A
- some sociologists argue that the statistics underestimate the amount of female crime, there are 2 arguments for this;
1) typically ‘female’ crimes are less likely to be reported - e.g. prostitution + shoplifting is less likely to be noticed/ reported than the violent/ sexual crimes committed by men
2) even when women’s crimes are detected/ reported, they’re less likely to be prosecuted, or if prosecuted, let off relatively lightly (chivalry thesis)
6
Q
outline self-report studies in relation to the chivalry thesis
A
- evidence from many self report studies suggests that female offenders are treated more leniently + confirms chivalry thesis
- Graham + Bowling’s study shows this
6
Q
outline the chivalry thesis
A
- the chivalry thesis argues that most criminal justice agents are men, who are socialised to act in a ‘chivalrous’ manner towards women
- Pollak: men have a protective attitude towards women + hate to accuse/ prosecute/ arrest W
- the CJS is thus more lenient with W so their crime appears less in official crime stats - giving an invalid picture
7
Q
outline Farrington + Morris’ study
A
- Farrington + Morris’ study contradicts the chivalry thesis
- they studied 408 offences of theft in a magistrates court + found that W were not sentenced more leniently
8
Q
outline Graham and Bowling’s study
A
- they used a research sample of 1,721 14-25 year olds
- through a self-report study, they found that although males were more likely to offend, the difference was smaller than that recorded in official stats
- males were 2x more likely to admit to committing an offence in the last year, whereas official stats show males as 4x more likely
8
Q
outline official statistics in relation to the chivalry thesis
A
- court stats appear to support the chivalry thesis, for example;
- W more likely than M to be released on bail rather than given a custodial sentence
- W are more likely to receive a fine or community sentence + less likely to be given a prison sentence - W on avg receive shorter prison sentences
- only 1 in 9 female offenders receive a prison sentence for shoplifting compared to 1 in 5 males
9
Q
outline Farrington + Buckle’s study
A
- from their observational study of shoplifting in a department store, they witnessed 2x as many men shoplifting as women
- this was despite the fact that the numbers of M + F shoplifters in official stats are almost equal
- this shows that women shoplifters may be more likely to be prosecuted than their male counterparts
9
Q
outline self-report studies against the chivalry thesis
A
- self report studies also provide evidence that men commit more crime
- e.g. young men are more likely to report binge drinking, taking illegal drugs or engaging in disorderly conduct
- Hales: men were significantly more likely to offend in all major crime categories
9
Q
outline the under-reporting of male crimes against women + crimes of the powerful
A
- the Chivalry Thesis also ignores how many male crimes don’t get reported
- Yearnshire: a woman typically suffers 35 assaults before reporting domestic violence
- also, crimes of the powerful are also under represented in self-report + victim surveys and are also more likely to be committed by men
9
Q
in _, only _% of women who had been victims of a serious sexual assault reported it to the police
A
- in 2012, only 8% of women who had been victims of a serious sexual assault reported it to the police
10
Q
outline bias against women from the CJS
A
- many feminists argue that the CJS is biased against women
- Heidensohn: courts treat W more harshly when they deviate from gender norms, for example;
- double standard: courts punish girls but not boys for premature/ promiscuous sexual activity
- women who don’t conform to standards of monogamous heterosexuality + motherhood are punished harsher
- these double standards exists becase the CJS is patriarchal
10
Q
what did Sharpe find in her work on youth worker records
A
- in Sharpe’s work on youth worker records, she found that 7/11 girls were referred for support because they were sexually active - but none out of the 44 boys
- this supports Heidensohn’s idea that the CJS is biased against W - esp when they deviate form gender norms (e.g. being sexually promiscuous)
11
Q
what does Carlen say about custodial sentences for women
A
- Carlen: when women are jailed, it is less for the seriousness of their crimes and more so according to the court’s assessment of them as wives, mothers and daughters
- she found that Scottish judges were significantly more likely to jail women whose children were in care than women who they saw as good mothers
11
Q
outline the CJS + their dealings with rape
A
- the patriarchal nature of the CJS is most evident in their dealing with rape cases
- many male judges making sexist + victim blaming remarks
- Walklate: in rape cases it isn’t the defendant who is on trial but the victim, since she has to prove her respectability in order to be taken seriously + believed
12
Q
outline early explanations of gender differences in crime
A
- early explanations of gender differences in criminality were biological - e.g. Lombroso + Ferrero: criminality is innate, but there are few born female criminals
- psychological research shows how higher levels of testosterone in males account for gender differences in volent offences
- however, sociologists take the view that social rather than biological factors are the main cause
13
Q
outline sociologists explanations of gender differences in criminality
A
- sociologists take the view that social rather than biological factors are the main cause of gender differences in offending
- there are 3 main sociological explanations: sex role theory, control theory and the liberation thesis
14
Q
outline the functionalist sex role theory as an explanation of female crime
A
- early sociological explanations of gender differences in crime focused on the socialisation of males + females - e.g. boys are encouraged to be tough, aggressive, so they may be more disposed to commit violent acts
- Parsons: relates this to the gender roles performed in the nuclear family
- M take the instrumental role external to the home and W perform the expressive role in the home, where they mostly socialise the children
- while this gives girls access to an adult role model, it means boys reject feminine models of behaviour that express tenderness + emotion and engage in ‘compensatory compulsory masculinity’ through aggressive + anti-social behaviour - leading to delinquency
15
Q
outline Cohen’s + New Right’s contribution to Parsons sex role theory
A
- because men have much less of a socialising role in the conventional nuclear fam, socialisation can be more difficult for boys
- Cohen: this lack of an adult role model leads to boys turning to all-male street gangs as a source of masculine identity from which status is gained through delinquency + toughness
- New Right theorists support this in that the absence of a male role model in matrifocal lone parent fams leads to boys turning to criminal street gangs as a source of status + identity
16
Q
outline AO3 evaluations of Parsons sex role theory
A
- Walklate: Parsons biological assumptions that W have the biological capacity to bear children + are best suited to the expressive role makes the theory bases on untested bio assumptions - not behaviour learned through socialisation
- Feminists say the main reason isnt socialisation, but the patriarchal nature of society + women’s subordination
17
Q
what are the 2 main feminist approaches to explaining female crime
A
- control theory
- the liberation thesis
18
Q
(explaining female crime) outline Heidensohn’s patriarchal control explanation
A
- Heidensohn: W commit fewer + less serious crimes due to their conformist behaviour
- W’s conformist behaviour is a result of the patriarchal control of society which reduces their opportunities to offend
- this control occurs in the home, in public spaces and at work
19
Q
(explaining female crime) outline control at home in terms of patriarchal control of women as mothers + wives
A
- W’s domestic role significantly restricts W’s time + movements by confining them to the house for long periods of time - reducing their opportunities to offend
- W who try to reject their domestic role may be forced into it by their partners - e.g. through domestic violence
- Dobash + Dobash: many violent attacks result from men’s dissatisfaction with their wives’ performance of domestic duties
- men also exercise control through financial power - e.g. denying W funds for leisure activities - thus restricting time outside the home
19
Q
(explaining female crime) outline control at home in terms of patriarchal control of women as daughters
A
- daughters, like mothers/ wives, are also subject to patriarchal control
- girls are less likely to be allowed to stay out late - resulting in ‘bedroom culture’, in which they socialise with friends in the home instead of in public spaces
- daughters are also expected to do more housework than sons
- as a result, they have less opportunity to engage in deviant behaviour on the streets
20
Q
(explaining female crime) outline control in public in terms of patriarchal control of women
A
- W are controlled in public spaces by the threat/ fear of male violence - esp sexual violence
- Heidensohn: sensationalist media reporting of rapes adds to W’s fear of going out
- W are also controlled in public through the expectations of their appearance; dress, make up, demeanour are controlled to appear as respectable
20
Q
what did the Islington Crime Survey find
A
- the Islington Crime Survey found that 54% of women avoided going out after dark for fear of being victims of crime
- this is compared to only 14% of men
20
Q
(explaining female crime) outline control at work in terms of patriarchal control of women
A
- W’s behaviour at work is controlled by male supervisors + managers
- sexual harassment is widespread + helps keep women subordinated under the ‘glass ceiling’ which reduces their opportunities to engage in corporate crime
- however, Heidensohn; recognises that patriarchal control can push some W into crime - e.g. W are more likely to be poor so may turn to theft/ prostitution to gain a decent standard of living
20
Q
(explaining female crime) outline the background of Carlen’s idea of class and gender deals
A
- using unstructured interviews, Carlen studied 39 15-46yr old WC women who had been convicted of a range of crimes
- Carlen argues that most seriously convicted female criminals are WC
- Carlen uses Hirschi’s control theory to argue that humans act rationally + are controlled by the offer of ‘deals’ - which reward in return for conforming to social norms
- people will turn to crime if they don’t believe the rewards will come or if the rewards of the crime are greater than the risks
21
Q
(explaining female crime) outline Carlen’s idea of class and gender deals
A
- Carlen argues that WC W are led to conform through the promise of 2 types of deals/ rewards;
1) the class deal: W who work will be offered material rewards, with a decent standard of living + leisure opportunities
2) the gender deal: patriarchal ideology promises W material + emotional rewards from family life by conforming to the norms of a conventional domestic role - if these deals are unavailable or not worth the effort, crime becomes more likely - this is reflected in Carlen’s study
21
Q
(explaining female crime) outline Carlen’s class deal in her study
A
- from Carlen’s study, W had failed to find a legitimate way of earning, leaving them powerless, oppressed;
- 32/39 of the participants had always been in poverty
- qualifications earned in jail hadn’t helped in gaining work
- many experienced problems trying to claim benefits
- as they had gained no rewards from the class deal, they used crime as a last resort to escape poverty
22
Q
(explaining female crime) outline Carlen’s gender deal in her study
A
- most of the women in Carlen’s study had either not had the opportunity to make the deal, or saw few rewards in a domestic life;
- some had been physically/ sexually abused by partners
- over 1/2 had spent time in care, which broke the bonds with family + friends
22
Q
outline 2 AO3 evaluations of Heidensohn + Carlen’s explanations of female crime
A
- both H + C’s theories combine feminism and the control theory which can be accused of seeing W’s behaviour as determined by external forces (patriarchal controls/ class + gender deals)
- Carlen’s sample was small + unrepresentative as it only consisted of WC + serious offenders
22
Q
outline Adler’s Liberation Thesis
A
- Adler says as W become liberated from patriarchal control, they commit more + more serious crimes
- structural changes such as inc opportunities for W in education/ employment have led to W adopting traditionally male roles in both legitimate + illegitimate activities - e.g. in work + crime
- thus, W commit less traditionally female crimes such as prostitution/ shoplifting, and now commit more male crimes of violence or white collar crime
23
Q
outline evidence that supports Adler’s Liberation Thesis
A
- the rise of ‘girl gangs’ shows how girls are increasingly adopting more ‘male’ stances - such as the desire to be in control/ appear ‘hard’
- both the overall female offending rate + female offenders of typically ‘male crimes’ (e.g. armed robbery) has increased in recent years
24
Q
outline AO3 evaluations of Adler’s liberation thesis
A
- Adler overestimates the extent to which W have now become liberated + the extent of their participation in serious crimes;
- the female crime rate began rising in the 1950s - long before the women’s liberation movement (began in 60s)
- most female criminals are WC - who are least likely to be influenced by W’s liberation as it benefits MC W more
- there is little evidence that professional crime now includes W - e.g. Laidler + Hunt found that female gang members in the US were expected to conform to the conventional gender roes
25
Q
outline females and violent crime
A
- a trend in official statistics that supports Adler’s Liberation Thesis is the increase in female arrests for violent crimes
- this shows that females are increasingly committing ‘male’ crimes
26
Q
- _ + _: between -, police stats show that the number of females arrested for violence had rose _% per year
A
- Hand + Dodd: between 2000-2008, police stats show that the number of females arrested for violence had rose 17% per year
27
Q
outline the criminalisation of females
A
- the rise of female crime in police statistics wasn’t matched in self-report or victim surveys of which showed no increase trend in females’ violent criminality
28
Q
outline net widening of the criminalisation of females
A
- Steffensmeier + Schwartz: there has been no change in W’s involvement in violent crime but the rise in arrests is just de to the justice system ‘widening the net’ (arresting W for less serious forms of violence than previously)
- Sharpe + Gelsthorpe: there is a growing trend towards prosecuting females for low-level physical altercations - most convictions are minor offences not involving weapons
- this is what Young calls ‘defining deviance up’ to involve trivial offences
29
Q
is there a moral panic about female criminality
A
- there is an increasing criminalisation of W even though female participation in violent crime hasn’t increased
- this has resulted from a social construction from a moral panic over young W’s behaviour - e.g. from media depictions of W as ‘drunk, disorderly, looking for a fight’
- Sharpe: professionals (e.g. judges) were influenced by media stereotypes of violent ‘ladettes’ + W’s behaviour rapidly worsening
- this leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy + amplification spiral with the tougher stance taken + more convictions + negative media coverage etc
30
Q
outline the pattern of homicide victims
A
- about 70% of homicide victims are male
- female victims are more likely to know their killer + in 60% of these cases it was their partner/ ex-partner
31
Q
outline the pattern of victims of violence
A
- overall, fewer women than men are victims of violence, however;
- more W are victims of intimate violence (DV, SA, stalking) - 1 in 4 W experience DV in their adult life
- 5x more W than men report SA
- W are more likely to be victimised by an acquaintance, M by a stranger
- only 8% of women who have experienced serious SA reported it - 1/3 of those claiming the police wouldn’t do much
32
Q
outline the mismatch between fear and risk for gender + victimisation
A
- women have a greater fear if crime, but are statistically at a lower risk of victimisation
- however, Lea and Young: found that W are at greater risk than men of being a victim of crime
33
Q
outline Messerschmidt’s concept of masculinity as a cause of male crime
A
- men’s masculinity is seen as a way of explaining men’s higher rate of offending
- Messerschmidt: masculinity is a social construct or ‘accomplishment’ that men have to constantly work to maintain + construct
- Messerschmidt argues hegemonic masculinity is the dominant, prestigious form that most men wish to accomplish
- some men have subordinated masculinities - e.g. gay men, who have no desire to accomplish hegemonic masculinity, as well as WC/ EM men who lack the resources to do so
34
Q
define hegemonic masculinity
A
- hegemonic masculinity = the dominant, culturally idealized form of masculinity that upholds male dominance and reinforces gender hierarchies in society
- it values: subordination of women, work in paid employment, sexual promiscuity
35
Q
outline Messerschmidt’s concept of crime as a resource for different groups of men
A
- Messerschmidt: crime + deviance are a resource that men use to accomplish masculinity
- class + ethnic differences among men lead to diff forms of rule breaking to demonstrate masculinity;
- white MC youth: subordinate themselves to teachers to achieve MC status - leads to an ‘accommodating masculinity’ in school. outside of school, their masculinity takes an oppositional form (drinking, vandalism)
- white WC youth: have less chance for educational success, so their masculinity is oppositional both in + outside of school. constructed on sexist attitudes + opposing teachers’ authority - shown in Willis’ study of Lads
- black WC youth: may have expectations of a reasonable job due to racism + may use gang membership + violence to express masculinity + achieve material success
36
Q
outline 2 AO3 evaluations of Messerschmidt
A
- is masculinity an explanation of male crime, or just a description of it
- Messerschmidt doesn’t explain why all men don’t use crime to accomplish masculinity
37
Q
outline Winlow’s ideas on postmodernity, masculinity and crime
A
- the shift to late modern, postmodern society due to globalisation has led to the loss of traditional manual jobs from which WC men expressed their masculinity through its physical labour + providing for families
- there has also been an expansion of the service sector (e.g. night clubs, bars, casinos) which for young men has provided a combination of legal employment, criminal opportunities + expression of masculinity
- W notes that in modern society there has always been a violent subculture in Sunderland in which ‘hard men’ earn their status through violence
38
Q
outline Winlow’s study of bouncers
A
- Winlow studied bouncers in Sunderland (NE England) which is an area of de-industrialisation + high unemployment
- working as bouncers in pubs/ clubs provided young men with both paid work + opportunity for illegal business ventures - e.g. in drugs + demonstrating masculinity through use of violence
39
Q
outline bodily capital
A
- under Postmodern conditions, an organised professional criminal subculture has emerged due to the new illicit business opportunities in the night-time economy
- in this subculture, violence has become a commodity to earn a living - as well as to display masculinity
- to maintain their reputation + employability, men must use their bodily capital - e.g. bouncers bodybuilding to develop their physical assets
- Winlow: this isn’t just about being able to use violence, but also maintaining the ‘sign value’ of their bodies + ‘looking the part’
- the sign of masculinity become an important commodity, reflecting the PM idea that signs are a reality
