Gender, Crime and Justice Flashcards
1
Q
what is the general gender pattern in crime
A
- men commit more crime than women
2
Q
name 2 statistics showing the gender difference of criminality
A
- 3 out of 4 convicted offenders in England and Wales are male
- by the age of 40, 9% of females have a criminal record, compared to 32% of males
3
Q
what are some significant gender differences in crime stats
A
- there are more female than male offenders of property offences (except burglary), whilst more men are convicted of violent + sexual offences
- men are more likely to be repeat offenders, to have longer criminal careers and to commit more serious crimes
4
Q
men are _ times more likely to be convicted of _
A
- men are 15 times more likely to be convicted of homicide
5
Q
outline the debate of if women commit more crime than official statistics say
A
- some sociologists argue that the statistics underestimate the amount of female crime, there are 2 arguments for this;
1) typically ‘female’ crimes are less likely to be reported - e.g. prostitution + shoplifting is less likely to be noticed/ reported than the violent/ sexual crimes committed by men
2) even when women’s crimes are detected/ reported, they’re less likely to be prosecuted, or if prosecuted, let off relatively lightly (chivalry thesis)
6
Q
outline self-report studies in relation to the chivalry thesis
A
- evidence from many self report studies suggests that female offenders are treated more leniently + confirms chivalry thesis
- Graham + Bowling’s study shows this
6
Q
outline the chivalry thesis
A
- the chivalry thesis argues that most criminal justice agents are men, who are socialised to act in a ‘chivalrous’ manner towards women
- Pollak: men have a protective attitude towards women + hate to accuse/ prosecute/ arrest W
- the CJS is thus more lenient with W so their crime appears less in official crime stats - giving an invalid picture
7
Q
outline Farrington + Morris’ study
A
- Farrington + Morris’ study contradicts the chivalry thesis
- they studied 408 offences of theft in a magistrates court + found that W were not sentenced more leniently
8
Q
outline Graham and Bowling’s study
A
- they used a research sample of 1,721 14-25 year olds
- through a self-report study, they found that although males were more likely to offend, the difference was smaller than that recorded in official stats
- males were 2x more likely to admit to committing an offence in the last year, whereas official stats show males as 4x more likely
8
Q
outline official statistics in relation to the chivalry thesis
A
- court stats appear to support the chivalry thesis, for example;
- W more likely than M to be released on bail rather than given a custodial sentence
- W are more likely to receive a fine or community sentence + less likely to be given a prison sentence - W on avg receive shorter prison sentences
- only 1 in 9 female offenders receive a prison sentence for shoplifting compared to 1 in 5 males
9
Q
outline Farrington + Buckle’s study
A
- from their observational study of shoplifting in a department store, they witnessed 2x as many men shoplifting as women
- this was despite the fact that the numbers of M + F shoplifters in official stats are almost equal
- this shows that women shoplifters may be more likely to be prosecuted than their male counterparts
9
Q
outline self-report studies against the chivalry thesis
A
- self report studies also provide evidence that men commit more crime
- e.g. young men are more likely to report binge drinking, taking illegal drugs or engaging in disorderly conduct
- Hales: men were significantly more likely to offend in all major crime categories
9
Q
outline the under-reporting of male crimes against women + crimes of the powerful
A
- the Chivalry Thesis also ignores how many male crimes don’t get reported
- Yearnshire: a woman typically suffers 35 assaults before reporting domestic violence
- also, crimes of the powerful are also under represented in self-report + victim surveys and are also more likely to be committed by men
9
Q
in _, only _% of women who had been victims of a serious sexual assault reported it to the police
A
- in 2012, only 8% of women who had been victims of a serious sexual assault reported it to the police
10
Q
outline bias against women from the CJS
A
- many feminists argue that the CJS is biased against women
- Heidensohn: courts treat W more harshly when they deviate from gender norms, for example;
- double standard: courts punish girls but not boys for premature/ promiscuous sexual activity
- women who don’t conform to standards of monogamous heterosexuality + motherhood are punished harsher
- these double standards exists becase the CJS is patriarchal
10
Q
what did Sharpe find in her work on youth worker records
A
- in Sharpe’s work on youth worker records, she found that 7/11 girls were referred for support because they were sexually active - but none out of the 44 boys
- this supports Heidensohn’s idea that the CJS is biased against W - esp when they deviate form gender norms (e.g. being sexually promiscuous)
11
Q
what does Carlen say about custodial sentences for women
A
- Carlen: when women are jailed, it is less for the seriousness of their crimes and more so according to the court’s assessment of them as wives, mothers and daughters
- she found that Scottish judges were significantly more likely to jail women whose children were in care than women who they saw as good mothers
11
Q
outline the CJS + their dealings with rape
A
- the patriarchal nature of the CJS is most evident in their dealing with rape cases
- many male judges making sexist + victim blaming remarks
- Walklate: in rape cases it isn’t the defendant who is on trial but the victim, since they have to prove their respectability in order to be taken seriously + believed
12
Q
outline early explanations of gender differences in crime
A
- early explanations of gender differences in criminality were biological - e.g. Lombroso + Ferrero: criminality is innate, but there are few born female criminals
- psychological research shows how higher levels of testosterone in males account for gender differences in volent offences
- however, sociologists take the view that social rather than biological factors are the main cause
13
Q
outline sociologists explanations of gender differences in criminality
A
- sociologists take the view that social rather than biological factors are the main cause of gender differences in offending
- there are 3 main sociological explanations: sex role theory, control theory and the liberation thesis
14
Q
outline the functionalist sex role theory as an explanation of lack of female crime
A
- early sociological explanations of gender differences in crime focused on the socialisation of males + females - e.g. boys are encouraged to be tough, aggressive, so they may be more disposed to commit violent acts
- Parsons: relates this to the gender roles performed in the nuclear family
- M take the instrumental role external to the home and W perform the expressive role in the home, where they mostly socialise the children
- while this gives girls access to an adult role model, it means boys reject feminine models of behaviour that express tenderness + emotion and engage in ‘compensatory compulsory masculinity’ through aggressive + anti-social behaviour - leading to delinquency
15
Q
outline Cohen’s + New Right’s contribution to Parsons sex role theory
A
- because men have much less of a socialising role in the conventional nuclear fam, socialisation can be more difficult for boys
- Cohen: this lack of an adult role model leads to boys turning to all-male street gangs as a source of masculine identity from which status is gained through delinquency + toughness
- New Right theorists support this in that the absence of a male role model in matrifocal lone parent fams leads to boys turning to criminal street gangs as a source of status + identity
16
Q
outline AO3 evaluations of Parsons sex role theory
A
- Walklate: Parsons biological assumptions that W have the biological capacity to bear children + are best suited to the expressive role makes the theory bases on untested bio assumptions - not behaviour learned through socialisation
- Feminists say the main reason isnt socialisation, but the patriarchal nature of society + women’s subordination
17
Q
what are the 2 main feminist approaches to explaining female crime
A
- control theory
- the liberation thesis
18
(explaining lack of female crime) outline Heidensohn's patriarchal control explanation
- Heidensohn: W commit fewer + less serious crimes due to their conformist behaviour
- W's conformist behaviour is a result of the patriarchal control of society which reduces their opportunities to offend
- this control occurs in the home, in public spaces and at work
19
(explaining lack of female crime) outline control at home in terms of patriarchal control of women as mothers + wives
- W's domestic role significantly restricts W's time + movements by confining them to the house for long periods of time - reducing their opportunities to offend
- W who try to reject their domestic role may be forced into it by their partners - e.g. through domestic violence
- Dobash + Dobash: many violent attacks result from men's dissatisfaction with their wives' performance of domestic duties
- men also exercise control through financial power - e.g. denying W funds for leisure activities - thus restricting time outside the home
19
(explaining lack of female crime) outline control at home in terms of patriarchal control of women as daughters
- daughters, like mothers/ wives, are also subject to patriarchal control
- girls are less likely to be allowed to stay out late - resulting in 'bedroom culture', in which they socialise with friends in the home instead of in public spaces
- daughters are also expected to do more housework than sons
- as a result, they have less opportunity to engage in deviant behaviour on the streets
20
(explaining lack of female crime) outline control in public in terms of patriarchal control of women
- W are controlled in public spaces by the threat/ fear of male violence - esp sexual violence
- Heidensohn: sensationalist media reporting of rapes adds to W's fear of going out
- W are also controlled in public through the expectations of their appearance; dress, make up, demeanour are controlled to appear as respectable
20
what did the Islington Crime Survey find
- the Islington Crime Survey found that 54% of women avoided going out after dark for fear of being victims of crime
- this is compared to only 14% of men
20
(explaining lack of female crime) outline control at work in terms of patriarchal control of women
- W's behaviour at work is controlled by male supervisors + managers
- sexual harassment is widespread + helps keep women subordinated under the 'glass ceiling' which reduces their opportunities to engage in corporate crime
- however, Heidensohn; recognises that patriarchal control can push some W into crime - e.g. W are more likely to be poor so may turn to theft/ prostitution to gain a decent standard of living
20
(explaining lack of female crime) outline the background of Carlen's idea of class and gender deals
- using unstructured interviews, Carlen studied 39 15-46yr old WC women who had been convicted of a range of crimes
- Carlen argues that most seriously convicted female criminals are WC
- Carlen uses Hirschi's control theory to argue that humans act rationally + are controlled by the offer of 'deals' - which reward in return for conforming to social norms
- people will turn to crime if they don't believe the rewards will come or if the rewards of the crime are greater than the risks
21
(explaining lack of female crime) outline Carlen's idea of class and gender deals
- Carlen argues that WC W are led to conform through the promise of 2 types of deals/ rewards;
1) the class deal: W who work will be offered material rewards, with a decent standard of living + leisure opportunities
2) the gender deal: patriarchal ideology promises W material + emotional rewards from family life by conforming to the norms of a conventional domestic role
- if these deals are unavailable or not worth the effort, crime becomes more likely - this is reflected in Carlen's study
21
(explaining lack of female crime) outline Carlen's class deal in her study
- from Carlen's study, W had failed to find a legitimate way of earning, leaving them powerless, oppressed;
- 32/39 of the participants had always been in poverty
- qualifications earned in jail hadn't helped in gaining work
- many experienced problems trying to claim benefits
- as they had gained no rewards from the class deal, they used crime as a last resort to escape poverty
22
(explaining lack of female crime) outline Carlen's gender deal in her study
- most of the women in Carlen's study had either not had the opportunity to make the deal, or saw few rewards in a domestic life;
- some had been physically/ sexually abused by partners
- over 1/2 had spent time in care, which broke the bonds with family + friends
22
outline 2 AO3 evaluations of Heidensohn + Carlen's explanations of lack of female crime
- both H + C's theories combine feminism and the control theory which can be accused of seeing W's behaviour as determined by external forces (patriarchal controls/ class + gender deals)
- Carlen's sample was small + unrepresentative as it only consisted of WC + serious offenders
22
outline Adler's Liberation Thesis
- Adler says as W become liberated from patriarchal control, they commit more + more serious crimes
- structural changes such as inc opportunities for W in education/ employment have led to W adopting traditionally male roles in both legitimate + illegitimate activities - e.g. in work + crime
- thus, W commit less traditionally female crimes such as prostitution/ shoplifting, and now commit more male crimes of violence or white collar crime
23
outline evidence that supports Adler's Liberation Thesis
- the rise of 'girl gangs' shows how girls are increasingly adopting more 'male' stances - such as the desire to be in control/ appear 'hard'
- both the overall female offending rate + female offenders of typically 'male crimes' (e.g. armed robbery) has increased in recent years
24
outline AO3 evaluations of Adler's liberation thesis
- Adler overestimates the extent to which W have now become liberated + the extent of their participation in serious crimes;
- the female crime rate began rising in the 1950s - before w's liberation movement (began in 60s)
- most female criminals are WC + EMs - who are least likely to be influenced by W's liberation as it benefits MC White W more
- there is little evidence that professional crime now includes W - e.g. Laidler + Hunt found that female gang members in the US were expected to conform to the conventional gender roes
25
outline females and violent crime
- a trend in official statistics that supports Adler's Liberation Thesis is the increase in female arrests for violent crimes
- this shows that females are increasingly committing 'male' crimes
26
- _ + _: between _-_, police stats show that the number of females arrested for violence had rose _% per year
- Hand + Dodd: between 2000-2008, police stats show that the number of females arrested for violence had rose 17% per year
27
outline the criminalisation of females
- the rise of female crime in police statistics wasn't matched in self-report or victim surveys of which showed no increase trend in females' violent criminality
28
outline net widening of the criminalisation of females
- Steffensmeier + Schwartz: there has been no change in W's involvement in violent crime but the rise in arrests is just de to the justice system 'widening the net' (arresting W for less serious forms of violence than previously)
- Sharpe + Gelsthorpe: there is a growing trend towards prosecuting females for low-level physical altercations - most convictions are minor offences not involving weapons
- this is what Young calls 'defining deviance up' to involve trivial offences
29
is there a moral panic about female criminality
- there is an increasing criminalisation of W even though female participation in violent crime hasn't increased
- this has resulted from a social construction from a moral panic over young W's behaviour - e.g. from media depictions of W as 'drunk, disorderly, looking for a fight'
- Sharpe: professionals (e.g. judges) were influenced by media stereotypes of violent 'ladettes' + W's behaviour rapidly worsening
- this leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy + amplification spiral with the tougher stance taken + more convictions + negative media coverage etc
30
outline the pattern of homicide victims
- about 70% of homicide victims are male
- female victims are more likely to know their killer + in 60% of these cases it was their partner/ ex-partner
31
outline the pattern of victims of violence
- overall, fewer women than men are victims of violence, however;
- more W are victims of intimate violence (DV, SA, stalking) - 1 in 4 W experience DV in their adult life
- 5x more W than men report SA
- W are more likely to be victimised by an acquaintance, M by a stranger
- only 8% of women who have experienced serious SA reported it - 1/3 of those claiming the police wouldn't do much
32
outline the mismatch between fear and risk for gender + victimisation
- women have a greater fear if crime, but are statistically at a lower risk of victimisation
- however, Lea and Young: found that W are at greater risk than men of being a victim of crime
33
outline Messerschmidt's concept of masculinity as a cause of male crime
- men's masculinity is seen as a way of explaining men's higher rate of offending
- Messerschmidt: masculinity is a social construct or 'accomplishment' that men have to constantly work to maintain + construct
- Messerschmidt argues hegemonic masculinity is the dominant, prestigious form that most men wish to accomplish
- some men have subordinated masculinities - e.g. gay men, who have no desire to accomplish hegemonic masculinity, as well as WC/ EM men who lack the resources to do so
34
define hegemonic masculinity
- hegemonic masculinity = the dominant, culturally idealized form of masculinity that upholds male dominance and reinforces gender hierarchies in society
- it values: subordination of women, work in paid employment, sexual promiscuity
35
outline Messerschmidt's concept of crime as a resource for different groups of men
- Messerschmidt: crime + deviance are a resource that men use to accomplish masculinity
- class + ethnic differences among men lead to diff forms of rule breaking to demonstrate masculinity;
- white MC youth: subordinate themselves to teachers to achieve MC status - leads to an 'accommodating masculinity' in school. outside of school, their masculinity takes an oppositional form (drinking, vandalism)
- white WC youth: have less chance for educational success, so their masculinity is oppositional both in + outside of school. constructed on sexist attitudes + opposing teachers' authority - shown in Willis' study of Lads
- black WC youth: may have expectations of a reasonable job due to racism + may use gang membership + violence to express masculinity + achieve material success
36
outline 2 AO3 evaluations of Messerschmidt
- is masculinity an explanation of male crime, or just a description of it
- Messerschmidt doesn't explain why all men don't use crime to accomplish masculinity
37
outline Winlow's ideas on postmodernity, masculinity and crime
- the shift to late modern, postmodern society due to globalisation has led to the loss of traditional manual jobs from which WC men expressed their masculinity through its physical labour + providing for families
- there has also been an expansion of the service sector (e.g. night clubs, bars, casinos) which for young men has provided a combination of legal employment, criminal opportunities + expression of masculinity
- W notes that in modern society there has always been a violent subculture in Sunderland in which 'hard men' earn their status through violence
38
outline Winlow's study of bouncers
- Winlow studied bouncers in Sunderland (NE England) which is an area of de-industrialisation + high unemployment
- working as bouncers in pubs/ clubs provided young men with both paid work + opportunity for illegal business ventures - e.g. in drugs + demonstrating masculinity through use of violence
39
outline bodily capital
- under Postmodern conditions, an organised professional criminal subculture has emerged due to the new illicit business opportunities in the night-time economy
- in this subculture, violence has become a commodity to earn a living - as well as to display masculinity
- to maintain their reputation + employability, men must use their bodily capital - e.g. bouncers bodybuilding to develop their physical assets
- Winlow: this isn't just about being able to use violence, but also maintaining the 'sign value' of their bodies + 'looking the part'
- the sign of masculinity become an important commodity, reflecting the PM idea that signs are a reality
40
what are the 2 crimes where men outnumber women the most
- sexual crimes
- burglary
41
by age _, _% of W have criminal records, compared to _% of M
- by age 40, 9% of W have criminal records, compared to 32% of M
42
what does Yearnshire say about male crimes against women
- Yearnshire: male crimes against women often go unreported
- a W typically suffers 35 incidents of domestic abuse before reporting it to the police
43
the Ministry of Justice: _% of W have received a _, compared to _% of men
- the Ministry of Justice: 40% of W have received a caution, compared to 30% of men
- this goes against the chivalry crisis/ supports bias against women
44
outline the AO2 example of the rise of all-girl gangs
- in America's inner cities, 'sister gangs' are on the rise
- in 2014, a 17yr old girl with a respectable grade average + a graduate was murdered - she had a double life as the backbone of a violent South Side Chicago gang
- she had been involved in 20 gang murders since making her 1st revenge killing at age 14
- this phenomenon came out of the shadows - young F gang members are increasingly likely to carry guns + knives to formed established F gangs
45
outline Winlow's study of bouncers in relation to masculinity + crime
- Winlow studied bouncers in north England + explores the link between masculinity, crime, + changing economic conditions
- found that WC M, esp those employed as nightclub bouncers, used violence + toughness to assert their masculine identity in the face of declining traditional jobs + status
- with industrialisation, blue-collar work (e.g. factory work) was disappearing, from which bouncer culture offered an alternative to perform hyper-masculinity through aggression, protection, + sometimes criminal activity (e.g. drug dealing)
- Winlow: crime + violence became symbolic for M seeking status + respect, showing how shifts in gender roles and economic opportunity influence patterns of male crime
46
for every _ White women given custodial sentences for _ offences, _ Black women were jailed
- for every 100 White women given custodial sentences for drug offences, 227 Black women were jailed
47
outline the AO2 case of Lucy Letby
- Lucy Letby, a neonatal nurse, was convicted in 2023 of murdering 7 babies + attempts for 6 others
- the case shocked the nation + as a White woman, Letby received further hate for going against her maternal, caring role
