Socialpsykologi Flashcards
zCentral traits
Egenskaper som är avgörande för ens intryck av en person. Varm/Kall.
Peripheral traits
Egenskaper som inte är avgörande för ens intryck av en person.
Primacy effect
Det vi lär oss först om en person påverkar vårt intryck mycket.
Recency effect
Inte lika stor effekt på intryck av en person om infon kommer senare, nyligen.
Personliga konstruktioner
Vårt intryck av en person beror på det vi själv värderar högt, det märker vi mer.
Implicita personlighetsteorier
Tillskriver egenskaper till en personlighetstyp, pga associationer från tidigare. Beror på kulturella attityder samt egen erfarenhet.
Utseende och dess påverkan på intryck av en person
Ens utseende påverkar intrycket man avger. Snygga är mer positivt uppfattade.
Person-schema
Kunskap om specifika personer.
Roll-schema
Kunskap om olika sociala roller.
Script(manus)
Kunskap om beteendesekvenser, hur man gör när man går på bio eller restaurang.
Social encoding
Saliency, vividness och accessibility. Det som sticker ut är ofta det som kodas in socialt, det är det som vår uppmärksamhet drags till. Vividness är hur tydligt det är. Accessibility, hur tillgängligt ett schema är i vårt huvud avgör hur vi kategoriserar en person.
Illusory correlation
Man ser variation där den inte egentligen finns. Pga tidigare upplevelser och fördomar?
Affect Infusion Model
The affect infusion model is a theoretical framework in social psychology that proposes that our emotions or affective states can influence how we process and interpret information about others and the world around us.
Motiverat processande
Processing info in a way that is motivated by our affective state.
xHeuristikprocessande
Fast, intuitive and effortless processing.
Substantivprocessande
Systematic processing.
Direkt access
Affektiva upplevelser kan påverka beteende utan att gå igenom kognitivt processande.
Stereotyp-kongruenta intryck
Intryck som stämmer överrens med stereotypen kodas in lättare.
Stereotype content model
Bedömning utifrån värme och kompetens.
Ambivalenta utgruppsstereotyper:
- Paternalistiska fördomar
- Välvillig sexism
- Avundsjuka fördomar
Cognitive algebra och averaging
Our overall impression of a person is based on our cognitive algebra where we weigh different attributes and their scores on each other and then sum them together, or multiply them, whatever really.
Korrespondsinferens
Inferrerar en persons beteende till dispositionella attribut.
5 informationskällorna för att attribuera?
- Viljestyrda beteenden är mer indikativa - ger oss bättre grund att attribuera beteende på.
- Non-common effects: Det beteende vi väljer av A och B beror på de konsekvenser som vi önskar, baserade på våra avsikter. Detta säger mycket om en persons disposition/personlighet/avsiktet.
- Socialt önskvärda beteenden - säger inte mycket om en persons disposition.
- Hedonisk relevans - Om andras beteende har direkta konsekvenser för mig som observatör kommer den emotionella relevansen att göra att jag attribuerar beteendet dispositionellt och avsiktligt.
- Personalism - För mycket fokus på personlighet….
Covariation model - Harold Kelly
Consistency - Samvarians mellan beteende och stimuli
Distinctiveness - Beteendets samvariation andras stimuli
Consensus - Andras beteendes samvariation med samma stimuli
Schachter och Singer
Arousal & Cognitions.
Olika emotioner beroende på hur vi attribuerar vår arousal.
Klinisk användning men svårt att om-etikettera arousal.
Weiner Prestations-attribution
Locus:Interna eller externa orsaker.
Stability - Orsakens stabilitet
Controllability - Aktörens kontroll över framtida prestationer.
Correspondence bias/fundamentala attributionsfelet
Attribuerar beteende till stabila underliggande personliga attribut.
Förklaringar:
1. Focus of attention- Vi fokuserar inte på situationen utan på personen som agerar.
2. Differential forgetting - Vi minns egenskaper mer än situationella egenskaper.
3. Linguistic facilitation - Språket gör det lättare att beskriva person och handling lättare än vad det är att beskriva en situation. Därför kommer man att fokusera på personens koppling till handlingne.
Ultimata attributionsfelet
Man attribuerar utgruppens beteende dispositionellt när det är negativt beteende och situationellt när det är negativt.
Tvärtom för ingruppen.
Outcome bias
Man attribuerar en persons avsikter utifrån handlingens konsekvenser.
Actor-Observer bias
Actor - aktör. Extern attribution för man menar att ens agerade berodde på situationella faktorer.
Observer - Intern attribution, om man observerar ett beteende hos någon annan fokuserar man på personlighet hos den som agerar och att det är personligheten som orsakar beteende. Beror även på att man tror att andras personlighet och beteende är stabilt och statiskt.
Perceptual focus : Fokus på bakgrunden av situationen eller fokus på aktören påverkar hur vi attribuerar.
Informational differences : Tillgång till information påverkar hur vi tillskriver orsaker.
Etnocentrism
Ingruppen/egen etnicitet är överlägsen andra och därför begår man tankefel som ultimate attribution error och fördomar uppstår och därmed konflikter osv osv.
Social representation
Hur vi genom socialisering via kommunikation, utbildning och media skapar oss förståelse för olika koncept inom vår sociala grupp.
Spreading attitude effect
Our attitude for one person bleeds onto others they are associated with.
Effektiv ledare
Definerar kollektiva mål och uppnår dem.
The great person theory
Ledare förtjänar att leda för att de besitter egenskaper som gör de till bättre ledare än andra.
Contingency theories - Fiedler
Skiljer på uppgiftsorienterade/relationsorienterade ledare. Vad som är mest effektivt beror på situationskontroll. Situationskontroll är den grad av påverkan som ledaren kan uppnå på faktorer som är viktiga för framgång.
Contingency theories - Normative decision theory
Tre beslutsfattande strategier - autokratisk/konsultativ/gruppsbeslutsfattande.
Path-goal theory
Ledaren är central i att välja rätt beslut. Skiljer på relations-/uppgiftsorienterade ledare. Den roll som är bäst beror på uppgiften.
Transaktionellt ledarskap
Växelverkan som sker mellan ledare och följare. Ledaren etablerar krav och förväntningar och följer upp med feedback via belöningar eller straff.
Transformativt ledarskap
Inspirerar till att uppnå meningsfulla mål utöver deras individuella behov. Målet är att utveckla en gemensam vision i gruppen. Social rättvisa, jämlikhet och mångfald viktigt här.
3 viktiga komponenter:
1. Omtanke för enskilda individers behov.
2. Intellektuell stimulans: utmanar och uppmuntrar gruppens intellektuella förmågor.
3. Karismatiskt ledarskap - skapar motivation.
Gruppolarisering
Gruppbeslut mer extrema än genomsnitt av åsikter hos medlemmar innan diskussion.
Förklaras av:
Persuasive arguments theory: Nya övertygande argument stärker vår åsikt.
Social comparison theory/cultural values theory:
Vi ändrar oss i gruppens riktning för att få socialt godkännande.
Bandwagon effect: Man vill vara mest extrem i gruppen gällande socialt önskvärt beteende. Man gör som andra gör.
Pluralistic ignorance: Man tror att andra i gruppen har olika åsikter än en själv.
Folk uttrycker sina sanna åsikter snarare än att åsikterna förändras.
Social decision schemas
Explicita eller implicita regler för hur man ska fatta beslut. Baseras på mentala genvägar som stereotyper, scripts och heurustik.
Transactive memory
The distributed memory/knowledge among group members, where each member is an expert on their own field.
Risky shift
Tendens att fatta mer riskabla beslut när de fattas i grupp än av individer.
Cultural values theory
Olika kulturer värderar olika saker och därför kommer vi individer formas av vår kultur och utveckla värderingar därefter. Tänk individualism/kollektivism.
Distributive justice
Fair distribution of resources, burdens and benefits within a social group.
Group mind
A loss of individuality amongst group members, leading to loss of creativity and different perspectives.
Groupthink
Focusing on group cohesion and conformity to the extent that decision-making deteriorates.
Idiosyncrasy credit
The freedom a group memeber has earned to deviate from group norms based on their previous positive contributions to the group.
Leader categorization theory
The way in which we categorize leaders to be prototypical or not. This is based on gender, ethnicity, age and background. This affects whether a group will follow the leader or not.
Persuasive arguments theory
Persuasive arguments theory is a social influence theory that proposes that people are most likely to be persuaded by arguments that are strong, compelling, and relevant to their interests and beliefs.
Role congruity theory
How our prejudices and stereotypes of leadership characteristics affect how we view leaders that are incongruent with our stereotypical idea of a leader.
Stereotype threat
Being aware of the fact that one is subject to stereotypes might cognitively load them, distracting them from the task at hand and thus impair performance.
Accentuation effect
The tendency for differences between individuals or groups to become more pronouced and similiarities within groups to become more pronounced.
Arbitration
A process of conflict resolution in which a neutral third party helps resolve the situation.
Authoritarian personality
A personality type characterized by a preference for obedience, submission to authority and hostility towards those who challenge authority.
Autocraty and punishments leads to this personality type.
Bargaining
A process of negotiation in which parties attempt to reach an agreement on the terms of an exchange.
Cognitive alternatives
Different ways of thinking about a situation or problem.
Collective behavior
The spontaneous and often unstructured actions of a group of people.
Commons dilemma
A situation in which individuals have to decide whether to exploit resources or save them for the common good.
Conciliation
A process of conflict resolution in which parties try to compromise or reconcile.
Contact hypothesis
Prejudice between groups are thought to diminish with increased intergroup contact. This also improves the relation.
Deindividuation
Loss of individual identity and self-awareness that can happen in group situations.
Depersonalisation
Loss of perception of people as individual and persons and rather see them as part of a group. Also loss of sense of personal identity and attachment to others. We see ourselves as the group. Can result in extreme behavior with poor judgement.
Egoistic relative deprivation
The feeling of unfairness or deprivation compared to others in one’s own group.
Emergent norm theory
Idea that norms develop in groups as members interact and negotiate behavior aswell as after big events.
Entitativity
The degree to which a group is seen as unified, coherent and cohesive.
Affected by how attracted the members are to each other as well as similarity, proximity, shared fate, interdependence and coherence.
Personal attraction - liking someone for a specific trait they have
social attraction - liking someone because their membership to a group
Fraternalistic relative deprivation
Sense of unfairness or deprivation relative to similar/close groups.
Intergroup differentiation
Process of distinguishing between groups and accentuating their differences. Happens when comparing in- and outgroups
Intergroup emotions theory
The idea that emotions play a big role in intergroup behavior.
Mediation
A process of conflict resolution in which a third party helps reach a mutually acceptable agreement.
Meta-contrast principle
Tendency to see differences between groups to be bigger than they actually are.
Optimal distictiveness
The notion that individuals strive for balance between fitting in with the group aswell as maintaining a personal distinctiveness/identity.
Prisoner’s dilemma
Where the two involved parties refuse to cooperate and therefore end up in worse individual situations than they would have if they had cooperated.
Realistic conflict theory
The idea that intergroup conflicts arise from competition over limited resources.
Relative deprivation
Feeling of unfairness or deprivation compared to others.
Relative homogenity effect
The tendency to perceive members of outgroups as more similar than they actually are.
Self-categorization theory
Individuals categorize themselves and others into social groups based on similarities and differences.
Social categorization
Process of categorizing individuals into social groups based on shared characteristics.
Social change belief system
The set of beliefs and attitudes that underlie a person’s willingness to engage in social change.
Social competition
The process of competing with others for resources or social status.
Social creativity
The ability to come up with creative solutions to social problems.
Social identity
The part of a person’s self-concept derived from their membership in social groups.
Social mobility belief system
The set of beliefs and attitudes that underlie a person’s willingness to pursue social mobility. Social mobility is a change in a persons socio-economic situation.
Superordinate goals
Goals that can only be achieved through cooperation.
System justification theory
The idea that people have a tendency to justify status quo, existing social systems aswell as economic and political ones.
Weapons effect
Mere presence of weapons causes people to behave more aggressive.
Public goods dilemma
General goods are supplied to everyone in society, and a person might take advantage of the goods without contributing in return.
Resolving social dilemmas
Strukturella lösningar för att få bukt med egoistiskt utnyttjande.
- Begränsa antal personer som har åtkomst till resurs
- Främja gruppidentitet
- Ha effektiv ledare som kan sätta normer
Minska konflikter och fördomar mellan grupper
Personlighetsteori: Uppfostra barn med mindre trångsynta personligheter och perspektiv. Uppmuntra till personlighetsförändring.
Frustrations-aggressionsteori
Fördomar och intergruppkonflikter kan minska genom att förhindra frustration via distraheringar så människor ej blir frustrerade. Frustrationen blir aggression när man ej får katarsis och release, och denna aggression kan riktas mot gruppen som är bättre än en själv men om den är oåtkomlig riktas den orättfärdigt mot en svagare utgrupp som blir scapegoat.
Extended contact
Medvetande om att en ingruppsmedlem har kontakt med utgrupp kan leda till att man hyser mindre fördomar för dem.
Ställföreträdande kontakt
Observera interaktion mellan in- och utgruppsmedlem.
Anchoring and adjustment
The tendency to rely too heavily on initial information when making subsequent decisions and judgements.
Associative meaning
Connections between concepts and ideas in memory that affect how people interpret meaning and information.
Associative network
A system of interconnected ideas and concepts in memory that influence each other’s activation and accessibility.
Bookkeeping
Adjusting one’s beliefs or judgements rather than relying on the anchor.
Cognitive algebra
Mental process of combining and comparing different pieces of information to make judgements or decisions.
Cognitive consistency
Idea that people prefer to keep their ideas and understanding, as well as attitudes consistent with each other and with their behavior to avoid dissonance and stress.
Cognitive miser
Limited resources result in cognitive shortcuts.
Configural model
Model of impression formation that emphasises the importance of considering all the information about a person or situation holistically, suggests that attitudes are made up of several components that work together to form a whole.
Conversion
A process of attitude formation that is inconsistent with previous attitudes and beliefs.
Normative models
Models of decision-making that specify the optimal or rational way to make judgements or decisions.
Paired distinctiveness
People are more likely to remember unusual or distinctive combinations of events or information.
Personal constructs
People’s individual beliefs and ideas about the world that influence how they perceive and interpret information.
Priming
Activation of a particular concept or idea in memory which can influence subsequent judgements or behavior.
Social identity theory
The idea that people’s self-concept is partially based on their membership in social groups, and that this membership influences attitudes and behaviors.
Social judgeability
The extent to which a trait can be easily judged by others.
Subtyping
Creating new subcategories or exceptions within a larger category or stereotype to accomodate information that does not fit the category.
Vividness
The degree to which information is rich, detailed and emotionally engaging.
Weighted averaging
Combining serveral pieces of information or judgements to form a single overall impression or evaluation while giving more weight or importance to some pieces of information over others.
Causal schemata
Organized knowledge structures that help make sense of causes of behavior or events.
Consensus information
Information about how other people behave in a given situation.
Consistency information
Information about whether a person’s behavior is consistent across time and situations.
Correspondence bias
Overestimating importance of dispositional factors and underestimating the importance of situational factors in explaining behavior.
Correspondent inference
Inferring a person’s traits based on their observed behavior.
Covariation model
People make causal attributions based on three types of info, consensus, consistency and distinctiveness.
Discount distinctiveness information
Giving less weight to information that is unique to a particular situation and more to that which is consistent across situations.
Essentialism
Belief that certain categories have an underlying, unchanging essence that defines them such as gender and ethnicity.
False consensus effect
Overestimating extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.
Hedonic relevance
A tendency to think more about and remember information that is relevant to our goals and interests.
Illusion of control
The belief that we have more control over events and outcomes than we actually do.
Non-common effects
Tendency to attribute behavior to a particular cause if only that cause could have explained the set of effects we are seeing.
Outcome bias
Tendency to judge quality of a decision based on it’s outcome rather than the decision-making process.
Personalism
Focusing too much on dispositional factors when attributing, disregarding external/situational factors.
Self-handicapping
Creating excuses or obstacles to protect self-esteem.
Self-perception theory
Inferring our own attitudes and beliefs based on how we act. This is the only way we can learn about our self, through attribution.
Self-serving bias
Attributing one’s success to dispositional factors and failures to situational ones.
Social representation
The understanding we have of an idea or concept derived from interaction and communication with others in the society we live in as well as present norms.
Ultimate attribution error
Tendency to make dispositional attributions about groups of people based on behavior even when situational factors may be more relevant.
Acquiescent response set
Tendency to respond positively or agree with questions asked regardless of the content.
Balance theory
A theory that predicts that individuals prefer consistency in their attitudes and will change attitudes to maintain balance.
Bogus pipeline technique
Research method to reduce effect of social desirability bias, led to believe that their true attitudes are being measured via a fake lie detector test.
Cognitive algebra
A mathematical model used to predict the combind impact of multiple attitudes on behavior.
Cognitive consistency theories
Individuals seeks consistency between attitudes and behavior and will change one of them to achieve consistency.
Evaluative conditioning
A learning process where attitudes are acquired or changed through repeated pairing with positive or negative stimuli.
Expectancy-value model
A model that predicts behavior as a function of the individual’s beliefs about the otucomes of behavior and the value they place on those values.
Impression management
Process of trying to control other’s impressions of oneself through behavior, communication and appearance.
Information integration theory
Theory that predicts behavior as a function of the individual’s perception of the attitude object, the individual’s motivation to engage in the behavior and the social norms surrounding the behavior.
Moderator variable
A variable that affects the strength or direction of the relationship between two other variables.
Multiple act criterion
Predicts behavior as a function of the individual’s intention to engage ina behavior and their past behaviors.
One-component attitude model
Model that predicts behavior as a function of the strength of an individuals attitude towards the behavior.
Protection motivation theory
Theory that predicts behavior as a function of the individual’s perceived vulnerability to a threat and the effectiveness of the recommended protective behavior.
Semantic differential
Measuring attitudes by having participants rate a concept on a set of bipolar adjectives.
Terror management theory
A theory that suggests that people’s fundamental fear of death motivates their behaviors and attitudes. We resort to defense mechanisms when reminded about our mortality. We might for example try to defend our cultural worldview or self-esteem by engaging in activities that strengthen them. That might be why we affiliate with others so much. We might resort to defend our cultural worldviews by becoming more prejudice towards outgroups.
Can’t be falsified and is reductionistic.
Three-component attitude model
A theoretical framework that suggests that attitudes are composed of three components: affective, behavioral and cognitive.
Two-component attitude model
Attitude is made up of two components: affect and cognition.
Unidimensionality
The degree to which a measure or construct can be represented as a single underlying factor or dimension. Single cause.
BIRGing(Basking in reflected glory)
Refers to the tendency for people to surround themselves with successful people to boost their self-esteem.
Narcissism
A personality trait characterized by excessive self-love, a sense of entitlement and a lack of empathy for others.
Overjustification effect
The phenomenon in which an external reward reduces an individual’s intrinsic motivation to perform a task.
If our behavior and performance is attributed to internal reasons we will be more motivated and happy.
Related to self-perception.
Personal identity
The unique characteristics and attributes that define an individual’s sense of self.
Regulatory focus theory
The theory that individuals have two distinct motivational orientations. Promotion focus and prevention focus.
Promotion is on increasing gains, advantages and rewards. Seek challenges, constant improvement towards ideal.
Prevention is on avoiding losses and risks and being cautious. Nearing ought-self. Avoidant strategies to avoid failure, rather than striving for improvement.
Self-affirmation theory
The theory that individuals can reduce impact of threats to their self-esteem by affirming their positive self-attributes in other domains.
Self-assessment
Evaluating one’s own thoughts, feelings and behaviors. We want to have true valid info about us, without it being positive necessarily.
Self-discrepancy theory
Higgins theory.
Discrepancy between actual, ought and ideal self causes stress, one seeks to diminish this discrepancy.
Ought is the self imposed by external expectations, obligations and responsibilities aswell as how we feel we should be. Failure to be ought self leads to fear, anxiety, personal inadequacy and alienation.
Ideal self is how we would like to be.
Failure to be ideal is unhappiness, disappointment, dissatisfaction, self-dislike.
We use self-regulation to make actual self more similar to the other selves.
Self-enhancement
Promoting and maintaining a positive self-image. We want to gain new info about ourselves that is positive or reaffirm existing positive qualitites. Most common motive regarding our construction of the self.
Self-evaluation maintenance model
The theory that individuals’ self-evaluation processes are influenced by the performance of others.
Self-monitoring
Regulating behavior and self-presentation to match demands of social situations, this is activated through social cues.
Self-presentation
Process of of presenting oneself to others in a desired way. Also used to persuade someone.
5 strategies: Self-promotion, showing one’s competence.
Ingration - Become liked, flattering, compliments etc.
Intimidation - Try to act threatening
Exemplification - Give impression that you have moral
Supplication - Get sympathy, make yourself out to be a martyr
Expressive self-presentation:
Social validation is important, we want to show ourselves of and get validated. That’s why we act differently in public vs privately.
Self-regulation
Controlling thoughts, feelings and behaviors to acheive goals and meet social expectations.
Self-verification
Seeking out feedback and information that confirms one’s existing self-concept. This is even with we have a negative self-perception. This applies to social identity aswell.
Self-concept
Refers to an individual’s overall perception and evaluation of themselves, including beliefs, thoughts, feelings and attitudes about their own identity, personality traits, abilities and values. Mental representation of self based on experiences, social interactions and feedback from others.
Social comparison theory
Proposes that individuals evaluate themselves in relation to others. Upward social comparison is comparing with people who are better whilst downward is comparing with someone who is worse. We do the latter to boost our self-esteem.
Happens with in and out groups aswell, leads to prejudice and intergroup conflicts.
Stigma
Negative social label applied to an individual or group based on characteristics that are deemed undesirable or devalued by society.
Symbolic interactionism
Perspective that emphasises the role of symbols and language in shaping social interaction and the construction of social reality.
The self comes from this human interaction.
Action research
Researchers collaborate with practicioners to identify problems, implement interventions and evaluate their effectiveness.
Cognitive dissonance
Mental discomfort brought on when a person’s values, beliefs or attitudes are inconsistent with their behavior.
Compliance
Conforming to a request or demand without necessarily sharing opinions or perspective as the communicator. Closely associated with individuals that have some sort of power, or authority. Associated with behavior, not attitude.
Disconfirmation bias
Tendency to accept supportive evidence of a belief that one holds, uncritically - whilst actively refuting or discounting evidence that challenges that belief.
Door-in-the-face tactic
Making a big and bold request that will be rejected only to make a smaller, but real, request afterwards.
Effort justification
Tendency to value something more highly after putting effort into obtaining it. Can be used for persuasion because if you feel like you worked hard even though you did not like the work or goal, you can still justify the effort and then appraise the goal as positive afterwards.
Elaboration-likelihood model
A model of persuasion that suggest there are two routes to attitude change, depending on the person’s motivation and ability to process the message. Central route vs peripheral.
Central is based on scrutinizing content of message and being rational. Uses more cognitive resources and requires motivation to analyze contents using logic. Results in long-lasting attitude changes.
Peripheral is when individuals are influenced by cues that are peripheral to the message, such as credibility of speaker, attractiveness of message or emotions elicited by message. This route is used when the individual is less motivated to process info or lacks the cognitive resources to do so. Results in short-lasting attitude changes.
Foot-in-the door tactic
Persuasion technique where you make a small request that is likely to be accepted ony to follow up with the bigger, real request.
Forewarning
Informing in advance about persuasive attempt or potentially threatning event.
Heuristic-systematic model
A model of persuasion that describes two routes of processing information and messages. Instantaneous - heuristic way, less attention, using cognitive heuristics
or
systematic - analytically processing all available information using attention.
Mood affects processing. If we are in a good mood we don’t systematically analyze contents, instead we are using heuristic processing.
Induced compliance
Behaving in a way that is inconsistent with beliefs and attitudes due to external pressure. Leads to post-decisional conflict that is similar to cognitive dissonance. Therefore we change our attitude towards the decision to decrease cognitive dissonance.
Individual self
Personligt och privat synsätt på självet.Annorlunda från alla andra.
Collective self
Synsätt på själv som socialt, hör till grupptillhörighet och sociala kategorier.
Self-awareness
State where you are aware of yourself as an object. Allows for comparison. Might be unconscious process that is automatic self-directed attention rather than intentional process?
Qualification to self-awareness theory
Introduces two types of self that you can be aware of.
Private self- Own thoughts, feelings, attitudes. Self-awareness revolves around matching behavior to internal standards.
Public self - How others see you and your public image. Self awareness here revolves around impression management.
High self awareness effects
Allows for comparison
Improves introspection and self insight.
Intensifies emotions.
Reduced self-awareness leads to deindividuation, results in anti-social behavior such as vandalism and violent riots.
Multiple selves
We can have different selves that are activated and accessed depending on contextual cues. Minimal group paradigm shows that we will behave differently depending on context.
Social identity theory and self
Social identity - Part of our self based on memebership in groups.
Personal identity - Part of self based on qualities and unique relationships.
Relational self - part of self based on behavior and relations to other. Similar to personal identity.
Based on research on social cat. , intergroup relations, social comparison and prejudices/stereotypes
Number of social identity is based of social groups we belong to.
Important aspect of our self-perception.
Group defines our social identity, social identity defines our self-perception, group affects our self-perception and the group’s status and reputation affects our self-perception.
We can move to groups with higher status but some groups are impossible to change, such as ethnicity. Improve status or direct attention to out groups with worse status.
Self-coherence
Holistic image of ourselves that is coherent and consistent. How to obtain tihs:
- Limit number of contexts we are in, thus limiting identities.
- Update the self constantly and remove old info that is irrelevant.
Attribute changes in self externally, instead of them being a change in how we are fundamentally.
Self-schemas and self-knowledge
Cognitive generalizations and categorizations of the self.
Self-schematic personality traits - most central and typical traits for our selves.
Social identity salience
How salient and relevant our social identity is in a specific context and how much influence it gets in comparison with our personal identity.
Affected by factors in situation. Our self-perception , attitudes, feelings and appraisasls are affected by which social identity is prominent.
Self-enhancing triad
Leads to positive illusion of a superior self.
Above-average effect
Overestimation of control of events
Unrealistically optimistic
Lagom är bäst.
Too much is unrealistic
Too little lead to mental illness
Threats against self-esteem
Failures
Inconsistency
Stressors
Self esteem
Stigmatized groups compensate by avoiding comparisons, striving for equality etc.
Differences in self-esteem are stable.
- Self-concept confusion: how stable, consistent and extensive our self-knowledge is
- Motivational: Focus on our strengths. Decreasing impact of our weaknesses.
Self-esteem as sociometer
Self-esteem is an internal measure of the quality of one’s relations to others aswell as how socially accepted we are. Ostracism –> low self-esteem.
Inoculation
A strategy for resisting persuason by exposing people to weak versions of a persuasive argument and then refuting them. You strengthen your existing beliefs and motivate and defend them.
Supportive defence: Prepare arguments that support your exisiting opinion.
Inoculation defence: Dispute weak versions of arguments against your belief and then be less persuaded by stronger similar arguments in the future.
Multiple requests
A persuasion technique that involves making multiple requests in a single message, increasing the likelihood that atleast one request will be accepted.
Reactance
The negative emotional response that arises when someone’s freedom or autonomy is threatened or restricted, eg. when someone tries to persuade us. Negative attitude change: we undermine credibility by disputing the arguments.
Reciprocity principle
The norm of returning favors or kindness, often used as a persuasive strategy.
Selective exposure theory
People seek out and pay attention to information that confirms their existing beliefs or attitudes to avoid cognitive dissonance.
Except when the attitude is strong enough to integrate or dispute the new information.
Or the attitude is weak enough and we can accept the new information.
Post-decisional conflict
Cognitive dissonance that arises when a person makes a decision that conflicts with their personal beliefs, values and attitudes. We usually change attitude towards the behavior to cope with dissonance.
Sleeper effect
A message from a less credible source may take time to seep in as you misattribute the source because of forgetting and simply remember the message contents. Over time the message may influence you as you can’t remember that the source is not credible.
Third-person effect
The third-person effect refers to the tendency of people to perceive themselves as less susceptible to the influence of media than others. This can lead people to be more accepting of messages that they might otherwise reject if they believed that they would be personally influenced by them.
Agentic state
A psychological state in which an individual views themselves as an agent carrying out the wishes of someone else, often as an authority figure. Blaming person giving orders.
Lawyer handling will and testimony of a deceased person.
Autokinesis
A perceptual phenomenon in which a stationary point of lighr appears to be moving in absence of external motion. Due to conformity.
Compliance
Conforming to the request from someone to fit in or to avoid social rejection.
Conformity
Tendency to adjust beliefs or behaviors to fit that of the group.
Personality affects - Low self-esteem, social support need, low IQ, high anxiety
Situation - We conform in some situations but not others - Group size matters, 3-5 persons optimal. Independent source, different sources that affect the group. If the group is unanimous, we conform more.
Gender - Women tend to conform more in public spaces.
Culture: Collectivistic cultures conform more.
Conformity bias
Overestimating degree of conformity in a group, leading to the assumption that dissenting opinions are less prevalent than they actually are.
Conversion effect
The shift in an individual’s attitudes or beliefs due to persuasive communication or influence. Also in case of minority influence, a sudden and dramatic change in attitude with the majority.
Dual-process dependency model
We conform either because of normative social influence or informational social influence. Meaning, we conform either for social approval or for informational guidance.
Informational influence
Conforming to the group because we think they know more than we do.
Meta-contrast principle
Tendency for perceived differences between two stimuli to be greater when they are presented close together in time or space.
Minority influence
A minority group’s ability to influence beliefs or behaviors of a larger group, often through persistence and consistency in their message. More potent if the minority is seen as part of the ingroup.
Motive should be principle (autonomy is an example) not economy.
Group has made a sacrifice or investment.
Group is consistent and persistent.
Normative influence
Conforming to gain social approval or avoid rejection.
Referent informational influence
Social influence that occurs when we admire or identify with members of a group. Key concept is depersonalization, we see ourselves as the group rather than individuals. If the group does it, we do it.
Social impact
The degree to which an individual’s behavior or attitudes are influenced by others in a given social context. Bigger groups have more influence. The more that join, the less impact each person has.
Audience effects
The impact that the presence of other people has on an individual’s behavior.
Coordination loss
The inefficiency that can arise when individuals work together in agroup due to lack of coordination.
Diffuse status characteristics
Characteristics that are not directly relevant to the task at hand but that affect the status and treatment of group members.
Distraction-conflict theory
A theory that explains how the presence of other people can be distracting and lead to a conflict between attending to the task and attenting to the people.
Drive theory
A theory that explains how motivation arises from the need to reduce physiological tension or arousal that arises from fear of failure. We get motivated to perform well to avoid failure in front of other people.
Ethnomethodology
A perspective that emphasise the study of methods and practices that people use to make sense of the social world.
Evaluation apprehension model
A theory that explains how the presence of others can lead to performance anxiety due to the fear of being evaluated.
Expectation states theory
A theory that explains how the perceived status of group members affects their interactions and outcomes.
Group socialization
The process by which individuals learn and internalize the norms, values and expectations of a group.
Group structure
Pattern of roles, norms and communication within a group.
Initiation rites
Formal or informal rituals that mark an individual’s transition into a group.
Uncomfortable ones produce more loyalty due to effort justification.
Mere presence
The impact that the mere presence of other people has on an individual’s behavior, even in the absence of interaction.
Process loss
Inadequate execution of actions that will lead to optimum performance.
Ringelmann effect
The tendency for individuals to exert less effort in a group than they would if working alone.
Two possible explanations:
1. Coordination loss - difficulty to coordinate group behavior and influence
2. motivation - social loafing -the more group members there are the less one exerts themselves. Social loafers still contribute, free-riders don’t contribute at all.
Why does social loafing happen?
1. Output equity - thinking that others are not exerting effort either
2. evaluation aprehension - if we are anonymous we are more inclined to loaf - being held responsible changes this - we want to avoid failing in front of people
3. matching to standards - lack of understanding for what the group is trying to achieve and it’s standards
Schism
A division or seperation within a group. Because of social identity uncertainty and this leads to a desire for autonomy, thus trying to Brexit or affect the majority which creates conflicts.
Social attraction
The degree to which individuals are drawn to each other on basis of similarity, proximity and familiarity.
Social compensation
Tendency to increase effort in a group when they feel that their individual performance is necessary for achieveing the group’s goals.
Social facilitation
a phenomenon where people show increased levels of effort and performance when in the presence of others—whether it be real, imagined, implied or virtual—compared to their effort and performance levels when they are alone.
Specific status characteristics
These refer to personal traits or attributes that are believed to give someone a higher or lower status within a particular social context. Such as education level, job title, race, ethnicty, gender or physical attractiveness
Status stereotype
Generalization about characteristics or abilities of a individuals based on their status.
Subjective group dynamics
How we identify or attach to a particular group can affect our behavior with that group.
Task taxonomy
Categorization of different types of tasks based on their requirements and characteristics.
- Is the task dividable or can only one person do it?
- Is it a maximizing or optimizing task?
- How do individual contributions show themselves in the group work result?
Uncertainty-identity theory
Feeling more secure and comfortable when you feel you have a certain sense of identity and place in the world. Theory suggests that people may try to reduce feelings of uncertainty by forming strong social identities and affiliating with groups that provide a sense of belonging and purpose
Status characteristics theory
Explains how certain characteristics affect the perceived status of individuals and groups in society which in turn affects their treatment and opportunities.
Social transition scheme
A model that explains how individuals adapt to changes in their social environment by going through a series of stages (shock, denial, acceptance)
Belief congruence theory
People are more willing to form relationships with people that share their beliefs and values.
Dehumanization
Portraying or treating individuals or groups as less than fully human, often to justify volence or discrimination against them.
Displacement
Redirecting negative emotions or behaviors towards a target that is less threatning than the original source of the emotion.
Dogmatism
Rigidity or inflexibility in beliefs or opinions, often accompanied by a rejection of evidence or alternative perspectives.
Face-ism
Tendency for media and society to emphasize the facial features of men over their bodies and the reverse for women.
Glass ceiling
Invisible barrier that prevents individuals from advancing to higher positions in their careers, often due to discrimination or bias.
Glass cliff
Phenomenon of women being placed in leadership positions during times of crisis or difficulity , when the risk of failure is high.
Reverse discrimination
Discrimination against a member of a dominant group in favor of a historically discriminated group member.
Self-fulfilling prophecy
A belief or expectation that leads to it’s own fulfillment, usually as a result of confirmation bias.
Social dominance theory
A theory that explains how group-based hierarchies are created and maintained. Focuses on the social and psychological mechanisms that support the dominance of some groups over others.
Stereotype threat
A phenomenon in which individuals from stigmatized groups may experience anxiety or decreased performance when faced with situations that activate negative stereotypes about their group.
Tokenism
Includigng individuals from underrepresented groups in order to give the appearance of diversity without actually addressing underlying issues of inequality or discrimination.
Persuasion 3 parts
Communicator:
Source credibility
Attractiveness - are they hot?
Similarity to ourselves
Speech velocity - if we speak fast we give the impression that we know what we are talking about
Message:
Repetition - mere exposure effect
Fear - moderate fear
Facts versus feelings - give someone a feeling that the product is good for them
Format - generally - video if the product is simple - audio is better than text
The sleeper effect
audience
Self-esteem, U-curve - moderate self-esteem most susceptible to persuasion
Gender : Opposite gender is persuaded easier than same
Previous opinion: argument that goes against the person’s previous opinion does not persuade - disconfirmation bias
Strategy for persuasion
Ingratiation - get them to like you first.
Reciprocity principle
Multiple requests - foot in the dor, door in the face, low ball
Mindlessness:
We agree without really considering the request.
Free choice
Time before a decision is characterised by insecurity and dissonance, but then we are calm afterwards.
Vicarious dissonance
If someone you admire acts in a way that you don’t agree with you might suffer cognitive dissonance, then you might change your attitude or relationship to the person.
Power
The ability to influence others whilst resisting influence from others.
4 factors of compliance
Immediacy of the victim, it should be far away.
Immediacy of authority figure, should be close.
Legitimacy of authority figure, do we respect and follow the figure?
Group pressure, are we being pressured to do it because everyone else doing it?
Convergence effect
We do the same as others.
Conformity bias
Social psychologists’ tendency to see conformity as a one-way route from majority to minority.
Comparison process
Focusing on what others say to fit it into our world view. Majority opinion is generally accepted mindlessly.
Validation process
Weighing our world view against evidence to see if it is valid.
Convergent-divergent theory
We expect to agree with majority. But affiliating with minorities stimulates creativity.
Convergent thinking
Finding concrete and familiar solutions to the problem. Generated by majority influence
Divergent thinking
Opposite to convergent thinking, creative thinking that explores other unprecedented solutions, influenced by minority influence.
Leniency contract
Contract between ingroup minority and majority. The minority can present their opinions without risk of exclusion.
Intergroup behavior
Any behavior that is influenced by the ingroup’s perception of the outgroup
Abuse syndrome
A pattern of behavior in which an individual is subjected to repeated mistreatment or neglect, typically by a person in a position of power or authority over them, which can lead to physical, psychological or emotional harm.
Biosocial theories
Theories that suggest that biological and social factors interact to influence human behavior
Cathartic hypothesis
The idea that aggressive behavior can be reduced through the release of aggressive impulses, such as watching violent media or engaging in physical activity. Actually increases aggression.
Collective aggression
Aggressive behavior that is carried out by a group, often towards an outgroup.
Disinhibition
Removal of inhibitions or restraints on behavior often as a result of alcohol consumption or social norms.
Excitation-transfer model
A model that suggests that residual physiological arousal can transfer from one situation to other, intensifying emotional reactions in new situation.
General agression model
Suggests that aggression is the result of a complex interplay between personal and situational factors.
Affect and cognition can lead either to inhibition of impulses or arousal of impulses. Depends on the circumstances.
Situational variables can be feeling relatively deprived in relation to other nearby groups.
Bystander-calculus model
A theoretical framework of understanding when bystanders intervene in an emergency weighing risks and benefits of helping, aswell as efficacy of helping and others’ behavior.
We are put in arousal, that we then appraise and then we evaluate consequences/costs of helping.
Factors we evaluate before helping:
1. Relationship between victim and bystander.
2. Clarity of situation.
3. Perceived similarity between victim and bystander.
4. Degree of severity.
Fear of social blunders
Fear or phobia of social situations in which one will be scrutinized and embarrassed or judged.
Just-world hypothesis
The belief that the world is fundamentally fair and just and people get what they deserve.
Frame of reference
Norms give a frame of reference to which you relate in a specific context to know what is appropriate behavior etc.
Expectations states theory
A theory that explains how the perceived status of group members affects their interactions and outcomes.
Specific status characteristics : Traits relevant to task that are desirable.
Diffuse status characteristics - Traits irrelevant to task that are desirable.
Right-wing authoritarianism
- Conventionalism - adherence to societal conventions endorsed by established authorities.
- Authoritarian aggression - support for aggression towards social deviants
- Authoritarian submission - submission to society’s established authorities.
Social dominance theory
Prejudices are used based on how much they serve the ingroup.
Affirmative action - kvotera in minoriteter för att stärka hierarkin.
Finns kopplingar till exploatering.
Liknas vid system justification theory - bibehålla satus quo. Detta kan jämföras med authoritarian personality som innehar liknande egenskaper.
Attributional ambiguity
Stigmatized groups may be ambiguous about how they attribute others’ treatment of them. They might feel that negative feedback is because of prejudice but they might aswell think that is due to poor performance.
Infrahumanization
Feeling that the ingroup is more human than the outgroup.
Tightness-looseness
Hur okej det är med normkränkningar och normbrytningar.
The stereotype rebound effect
Tendency to express stereotypes more when asked to disregard one’s streotypes. More common in individualistic societes.
Face-saving
Maintaining the group’s reputation by conforming to what they are doing, as to not contradict/embarass them.
Ackulturation
Processen där immigranter inkorporerar regler kring beteenden som är karaktäristiska för andra kullturer.
4 vägar dit.
- Integration - Anammar båda kulturer.
- Assimilation - Ge upp tidigare kulturen.
- Separation - Tar avstånd från nya kulturen.
- Marginalisering - Överger tidigare kulturella identitet men misslyckas att inkorporera den nya.
Assortative mating
Choosing a partner based on similarity in various dimensions such as personality, career etc
Comparison level
What you think you deserve in a relationship, that affects how you evalute your relationship- based on previous experiences.
Equity theory
Similar to cost-benefit-ratio, the belief that you want to maintain equitable or fair relationships in terms of benefits and costs.
Hospitalism
Condition in infants and children who are raised in hospitals or institutions.
Partner regulation
The ways in which people try to influence their partner in order to maintain or improve the relationship.
Procedural justice
Perceived fairness of the procedures or processes used to allocate resources, rewards or benefits in a group.
Reinforcement-affect model
Model that proposes that affective experiences associated with social interactions, such as positive or negative emotions can reinforce or punish certain behaviors.
Type A personality
Overactive and competetive. Aggressive towards people they perceive as equals.
Neo-associational analysis
Media gives audience violent material that is then later translated to asocial acts.
Priming and also modeling is causing the agressive behavior.
Why does violence in close relationships happen?happen?
Learned model-behavior from partner or parent
Family members are close, therefore they suffer our tantrums
Stress - economical difficulities, unemployement rates, disease
Alcohol consumption
Distribution of power - men are traditionally more powerful
Mutualism
Doing something for someone who has helped you in the past.
Kin selection
Helping your kin is prioritised over strangers, generally. This is evolutionary, to carry on one’s genes.
Modern view on prosocial behavior
We communicate, and through this we can sense people’s emotions and needs. This allows for prosocial behavior.
Empathy and arousal
Often before we act prosocially we are in a state of arousal followed by empathy, and then action.
