Kognitionspsykologi Flashcards
1
Q
Autobiographical memories
A
A combination of episodic and semantic memories. Needs visualization to work, brain scans showed that the visual cortex is active during retrieval of autobiographical memories.
2
Q
Brain regions autobiographical memories
A
Medial temporallobe MTL, episodic memory.
Parietal cortex - Scene processing
Prefrontal cortex - memories about oneself
3
Q
Reminiscence bump
A
Increased proportion of autobiographical memories from youth for adulthood.
4
Q
Self image hypothesis(Rem. Bump)
A
Strong memories for period when self image is formed.
5
Q
Cognitive hypothesis of reminiscence bump
A
Times of fast changes followed by stability reinforces memories, a lot of first-time-happenings: First child, getting married etc.
6
Q
Cultural life script hypothesis (rem. bump)
A
Expected life events over time in one’s culture, rather than own events are more important. We remember culturally important memories easier.
7
Q
Emotional memories
A
Emotional events are easier to remember, in greater detail. Emotions enhance memory, bigger effect over time. Improves consolidation. Amygdala is active.
We’ve seen better memory for emotional rather than neutral memories. Stress enhances this effect. But emotions can lead to worse memory - weapon focus? Emotionally negative easier to remember rather than neutral.
8
Q
Selective enhancement
A
We are inclined to remember some things more vividly on the cost of remembering other things. We remember what is central, rather than peripheral.
9
Q
Infantile amnesia
A
Total lack of memories from early childhood 3-5 years. Reason is thought to be development of self perception during second year of life. This gives the framework within which auto.bio memories can be organized.
Hippocampus is not fully developed, quick neurogenisis. So the memories are not stabilized.
10
Q
Flashbulb memories
A
Memories of collective and historical memories are clear and differentiated in time. What we remember are:
Informer(the one who informed us)
Where we were when we heard about it.
What was happening when we heard about it
Own and other’s emotions
Consequences
Some reason that these memories are better encoded and deeper memories.
11
Q
Narrative rehearsal hypothesis
A
We hear about general events so often, that’s why we remember them.
12
Q
Source monitoring
A
Where does a memory come from?
Source monitoring error / Source misattribution- Failing to place a memory’s origin.
Reality monitoring - When we daydream we interfere with memories because fantasy leads to memory consolidation with details from fantasies.
13
Q
Factors that affect memory
A
Experiences
Knowledge
Pragmatic conclusions: Based on knowledge through experience (Empirical)
Memories often include information implicated of what is to be remembered, TBR, even though it was never explicitly named.
14
Q
The (re)constructivity of memory
A
Memory is constructive, we build it using many of our experiences, knowledges, perception, attitudes, etc.
It is also reconstructive, it can be affected by retrieval and therefore manipulated.
When we don’t remember something we fill it in. Quick and unconscious conclusions.
Relies on schemas and scripts.
15
Q
Schema
A
All stored knowledge about an event or object.
16
Q
Script
A
Knowledge related to sequence of actions. How we act in restaurants etc. How to wash our hands. How to go to work.
17
Q
DRM-paradigm
A
Remembering a word that was never presented.
18
Q
Reason for constructive memory
A
Storing all info is not optimal, overloading system.
Ability to draw intuitive conclusions is tied to forgetting. And reverse, remembering everything perfectly leads to lack of intuitive concluding.
19
Q
Hyperthymestic syndrome(Hyperthymesia)
A
Remembering every detail. Lack of abstract thinking, generalizing etc.
20
Q
Misleading postevent information effect on memory three hypothesis for why/how it happens
A
Misleading info after an event.
Memory trace replacement - MPI replaces original memory.
Retroactive interference - MPI interferes with (without eliminating) original memory.
Source monitoring error - MPI is mistakenly identified as what was originally experienced.
21
Q
Trace decay
A
Memory decays with time. Easily comprehensible and plausible theory but without much support. Critique: With correct encoding and good cues we’re able to remember much even after a long time.
22
Q
Interference
A
Memories mix.
23
Q
Proactive interference
A
Old learning interferes with new learning.
24
Q
Retroactive interference
A
New learning interferes with old learning.
25
Cue dependentent forgetting
We forget because of an error in retrieval cues.
26
Repression
Some theories claim that emotionally painful memories get repressed so they can't reach consciousness. Some imply it leads to amnesia.
Emotional memories tends to be remember extra well. Usually doesn't disappear.
Not to be confused with supression, consciously trying not to remember something and pushing it away.
27
Hypermnesia
Remembering something because it is potent. PTSD
28
PTSD and overconsolidation
Stress hormones leads to patogenical memory traces. We remember things that were dangerous so that we avoid them in the future.
Implication: Preventive PTSD treatment using betablockers that inhibit adrenaline-reuptake.
29
False memory syndrome
A condition where a person's identitiy is tied to a "memory" of a traumatic experience that did not in fact occur.
There false memories can easily be suggested into existence.
Some types of psychotherapy has qualities that create conditions for false memory formation.
Reasons for error:
Attentional errors. They directed their attention to the wrong place.
Familiarity error: We might think someone who is familiar did it.
Suggestion errors: We make errors due to suggestion from other people.
30
How to avoid wrong witness testemonies
Inform witness that the guilty might not be present in witness confrontation
People figuring in the witness confrontation should be similar to the perp.
Use sequential rather than simultaneous presentation.
Improve interviewing quality.
31
Imagery- visualization - mental images
Seeing without physically visual stimulus. Pure top-down processing.
32
Representation
Physical condition represented through letters on a paper etc that can convey information about an object or event.
Same thing can be represented in different formats.
Symbolical representation: Words represent an actual thing or event.
Depictive representation: A painting depicts a real thing or event.
All our experiences of reality is done indirectly, via representations in the nervous system.
33
Propositional representation
Symbols.
Descriptive
34
Spatial representation
Likens realistic images.
Each part of the representation is a part of that which is represented.
Distance in visualization reflects distance in reality.
35
Perky effect
Projecting a picture that was basically invisible and then asked them to imagine a picture. If asked to project a fruit they'll experience a banana, the picture was of an almost invisible banana.
36
Visualization is topographical
We can, using brain scans and algorithms, generate images of what is being visualized due to the topographical structure of V1 and the retina.
Activity in V1 is similar during perception aswell as visualization.
37
Double disassociations regarding visualization and perception
Indicates that the processes are neurologically independent of each other. But there is support for common mechanisms. How can we explain this?
There is only a partial overlap between brain regions.
Perception - lower areas in the brain.
Visualization - Higher areas and cognitive processes such as memory.
38
Principle of least commitment
It simply means to prioritise tasks in such a way that you keep certain decisions about resources and timings as open as you can for as long as possible. We do not decide to throw away information that might later become relevant.
39
Definitionsteorin
Kategorin "hund" representeras av definitionen av en hund.
"Fyra ben, apporterar bollar, har två ögon" osv...
Empiriska problem: Typikalitetsproblem. Vilket objekt är mer typiskt en kategori och därför är de mer typiska definitionen och därför går det snabbare att identifiera och kategorisera.
40
Prototypteorin och dess problem
Allt som liknar varandra tillhör samma kategori. Family resemblance. Man har en abstrakt representation av kategorin som är oftast förekommande bland kategorins medlemmar. Vi lagrar i form av mentala representationer som används som referens när vi försöker identifiera och kategorisera objekt.
Blåmesen har högre prototypikalitet gällande fågelkategorin än en pingvin även om båda är fåglar.
Problem med prototypteorin: Uppdateringsproblem. Vi kan stöta på nya objekt som tillhör kategorin, ska prototypen för kategorin uppdateras för att representera kategorin? Hur ska det gå till? Beror på hur många gånger man exponeras för ett objekt som kan tänkas tillhöra kategorin.
Vi kan kategorisera objekt som tillhör en kategori men som delar fler egenskaper med medlemmar av en annan kategori.
41
Exemplarteorin
Kategorin representeras av alla exemplar av kategorin som man sett tidigare. Föddes i slutet av 70-talet ur kritik mot prototypsteorin.
Attraktiva egenskaper:
Lagring - Ingen information går förlorad.
Kan förklara de fenomen som ansetts stödja prototypsteorin.
Kritik mot exemplarteorin.
- Vad är ett exemplar?
- Kräver stor lagringskapacitet
- Vilket exemplar lagras?
- Kan den förklara allt (och inget)?
42
Collin & Quillians semantiska nätverk
Målet var att visa hur kunskap organiseras.
Koncept representeras av noder.
Koncept som är relaterade till varandra är sammanfogade med länkar.
Kunskap är hierarkiskt organiserad.
Koncept som inte är relaterade är inte sammanlänkade.
Prediktion: Avstånd mellan noder predicerar svarstid på frågor kopplade till noderna.
Bra prediktionsförmåga men det är inte en bra modell för strukturen av hur mänskligt minne och kategorisering fungerar.
43
Spreading activation effect Collin Semantiska nätverk
När en nod aktiveras sprids aktiveringen till närliggande koncept. Priming här.
44
Konnektionistiska nätverk
Beskriver hur information kodas/lagras/framplockas mentalt. Enheter antas motsvara neuron. De är länkade likt hur neuroner är länkade synaptiskt.
Enheter kan via länkar aktivera eller inhibera andra enheter.
Kunskap programmeras inte direkt in i nätverket. Nätverket lär sig själv successivt. Kunskap aktiveras via distribuerad representation, många neuroner aktiva samtidigt. Bra eftersom systmet är resilient mot skador.
Inlärning kan ske genom feedback från vår omgivning. Då kan systemet omorganisera sig.
Fördelar med nätverket:
- Bygger på hur det mänskliga nätverket är uppbyggt. Enheter kan inhibera och aktivera varandra.
- Kan lära sig själv
- Distribuerad representation
Nackdelar med nätverket:
- Lär sig långsamt
- Uppdateringsproblem - signal ska gå baklänges för att korrigera. Detta stämmer inte hos oss människor. Hos oss sker istället ny aktivering som korrigerar.
- Svårt att få överblick, vad sker och varför?
45
Regressionsanalys
Predicerande variabel som predicerar utfall på annan variabel.
46
Väntevärdesriktig skattning
Väntevärdesriktig skattning innebär att i genomsnitt, över alla möjliga stickprov som vi kan dra ur populationen, kommer stickprovsmedelvärdet att överensstämma med populationsmedelvärdet.
47
Standardfel
Genomsnittliga avvikelsen i en samplingsfördelning.
48
Ensidig prövning
Vi vill veta om det finns en effekt i en viss riktning.
49
Tvåsidig prövning
Vi vill veta om det finns en effekt alls.
50
Kritiskt värde
Det värde som sätter gränsen för när ett värde är osannolikt nog för att nollhypotesen ska förkastas.
51
Typ 1-Fel
Att förkasta H0 trots att H0 stämmer.
52
Typ 2-fel
Att förkasta H0 trots att H1 stämmer. Sannolikheten minskar med större stickprov. Påverkas av effektstorlek, felvarians och beroende mätningar.
53
Gestaltpsykologins problemlösning
A) Hur man representerar ett problem
b) Lösningen involverar omorganisering eller omstrukturering av problemrepresentation
c) Leder till plötslig insikt. EUREKA!!!!!!!! Typ omorganisering av två trianglar som istället blir en rektangel. MATH? Meth.
Hur lätt ett problem är att föreställa sig påverkar hur lätt det är att lösa problemet.
Mental representation - simulering - är viktigt.
54
Fixering
Tendensen att fokusera på vissa delar av ett problem vilket förhindrar en lösning.
55
Funktionell fixering
Ett objekt används bara till det som vanligtvis används till.
56
Förförståelse/mentala set
Situationen genererar ett visst mind-set.
57
Newell & Simon conceptualisation of problem
Initial stage: Start of problem solving.
Partial stage: Stage after every step on the way.
Goal stage: Solution
Problem space: All of the above are a part of the problem.
Operators: Actions, rules that take the problem from one stage to the next
58
Medel-mål analys
Sätta delmål som minskar avstånd mellan slutmål och initial startpunkt.
Använder kognitiva genvägar sk. heuristiker(tumregler), t.ex vi vill röra oss framåt och inte gå tillbaka till ett tidigare stadie i problemlösningen (repeat-state-avoidance)
59
Analogical problem solving
Problemlösning förenklas om man tidigare stött på problem som det nuvarande och man löst det tidigare problemet innan.
En analogi överför en mening från ett problem (källa) till ett annat (mål)
1. Notera analogin mellan källan och målet
2. Mappa relevanta delar av problemet till varandra.
3. Applicera mappningen för att generera en lösning till målproblemet.
60
Latent inhibition
Passively inhibiting irrelevant stimuli. People with bipolarity and schizofrenia have a harder time with this. More creative people also have lower latent inhibitionl.
61
Induktivt resonemang
En trolig slutsats utifrån en mängd bevis.
62
Deduktivt resonemang
En logisk slutsats som dras utifrån en rad premisser.
63
Syllogism
an instance of a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from two given or assumed propositions (premises); a common or middle term is present in the two premises but not in the conclusion, which may be invalid (e.g. all dogs are animals; all animals have four legs; therefore all dogs have four legs ).
Three principles for syllogisms:
1. If all premises are true and the conclusion is valid then the conclusion is true.
2. The validity of a syllogism is determined solely by its form.
3. A syllogism is only valid if it holds up for all cases.
64
Belief bias
Bedömningen på huruvida en slutsats är trovärdig baseras inte på dess logiska resonemang utan hur väl slutsatsen passar in i bedömarens "världsbild" - belief bias
65
Omvänd implikation
Om X innebär/implicerar Y tenderar man tro att Y innebär/implicerar X.
66
Conditional syllogism
If P then Q.
Proof: P
Conclusion: Q.
If I study then I pass.
Proof: I studied
Conclusion: I passed.
INVALID CONDITIONAL SYLLOGISM:
I passed, therefore I studied. No it can be another theory or explanation that is better suited.
67
Difference belief bias and confirmation bias
Belief bias is that if it seems plausible and compatible with our world view then we make the conclusion that it is logical.
Confirmation bias is about how we seek and evaluate information.
1. Seeking information that supports rather than falsifies our belief/world view.
2. We place greather emphasis on information that supports or belief rather than that which contradicts our belief. We rationalize it so that "this is good because..." and "this is bad because..."
68
Permission schemas
If A is fulfilled then B is allowed. This is easier when the situation is concrete, because then we can find a suitable schema more easily.
69
Expected utility theory
Theory of expected utility, suggests that homo economicus (the economical man) wants to maximize benefit/utility. We choose that which leads to greatest benefit to us. All alternatives' benefits are independent of each other.
Example of two criterias for homo economicus that we often fail as humans:
- We have to be transitive. If I rather want B than
C then I certainly also want A rather than C, if I want A rather than B.
- Regularity - we should not want an alternative more when another alternative is introduced. Decoy effect, something is seen as vastly better in comparison with something that is bad but almost costs the same.
We are bad at predicting how happy/unhappy something will make us, therefore we are bad at accurately evaluating expected benefit when we are makign decisions.
70
Endownment effect
The endowment effect is a cognitive bias where people value an object or item they own or possess more than they would if they did not own it. In other words, people tend to overvalue their possessions simply because they own them.
71
Framing effect
We are influenced by how information is framed 90% fat free cheese or 10% fat cheese?
72
Rule of thumbs and thought errors.
Basic idea is that we have two parallel decision-taking-systems; Analytical and intuitive.
Analytical uses situational algorithms while intuitive uses non-situational-specific heuristics.
Heuristics often lead to right decision, but because of their general charactheristics they often lead to systematic errors(biases). We study the errors to arrive at which thought processes produced them.
Analytical is favored over heuristic.
73
Availability heuristic
Events that are easy to remember are deemed more probable or more oftently occuring than events that are difficult to remember.
74
Representatitivty heuristic
Probablility of assigning a person X to category A depends on how characteristic X is for category A.
75
Conjunction error
In heuristics and decision-making, a conjunction error occurs when people overestimate the likelihood of two events occurring together (conjunction) compared to the likelihood of each event occurring alone.
76
Adaptive toolbox
Three central terms:
1. Bound rationality(Herbert Simon):
To judge whether a behavior is rational or not we need to take into account three things:
A. The actor's limitations.
B. The structure of the environment.
C. The actor's goal.
2. Representative design (Egon Brunswik)
We're built to adapt to the world we live in. We need to study human behavior in natural experiment environments and tasks that are natural to humans. A lot of thought errors disappear when we use natural design.
3. Natural frequencies
77
Ecological rationality
A behavior or rule has high ecological rationality if it works in the environment.
78
Social rationality
A behavior has low social rationality if it violates social conventions.
79
Base-rate neglect
We tend to not think of how common something is. We ignore the base frequencies of how often something occurs.
80
Human language vs animal communication
Humans are productive, animals are static.
Humans make new words through new combinations. We are stimulus-independent. Usually animals communicate based on stimuli. Humans talk about abstract and absent things. We have culturally transferred language through herition.
Humans arbitrarily make up words. But not completely.
Bubu Kiki-effect: we have a sense for how we should name things.
81
Psycholinguistics
Studies psychological processes through which language is learnt and processed:
1. Comprehension
2. Production
3. Representation
4. Learning
82
Fonem
Språkets minsta byggstenar - enkla ljud - voklaer, konsonanter.
Minsta språkliga ljudenhet som kan förändra ett ord till annat.
83
Morfem
Språkets minsta betydelsebärande enhet
Ord kan bestå av flera morfem. Fria morfem - ordstammar, egen betydelse.
Bundna morfem: Prefix, suffix - ingen egen betydelse.
84
Aktivt/Passivt ordförråd
Aktiva är de ord vi använder. Passivt är det vi förstår.
Vocabulary spurt: Man lär sig 10-20 ord i veckan i åldern mellan 2-5 år.
85
Talsegmentation
Finns i princip inga tysta tomrum mellan talade ord. Hur gör vi då för att identifiera orden. Skilja fonem från stavelser och stavelser från ord?
Kontextet spelar stor roll. Svårt att identifiera ord tagna ur sina sammanhang.
Koartikulation - fonetisk kontext.
Snabbt [snapt] - stavelsen får ett annat fonem pga sammanhanget.
Phonemic restoration effect: Ljud som saknas kan återskapas av hjärnan så att de upplevs som hörda.
Statistical learning: Mer sannolikt att ett ljud åtföljs av ett annat.
86
The word superiority effect
We can identify a single letter when it is included in a word rather than on it's own or in a fake word. This is contextual.
87
Lexical ambiguity
A word can mean different things.
88
Semantic dominance
Some word's meaning are more common than others.
Skewed dominance: Ambiguous words with differing dominance. With lack of context only one meaning will be activated, faster processing.
Balanced dominance: Ambiguous words with same rate of dominance. When we lack context, both meanings will be activated which leads to slower processing of the meaning.
89
Syntax
Rules for how to combine words to sentences.
Parsing: Mental grouping of words to sentences that create meaning for the interlocutor.
90
Garden path-sentences
Sentences that start in an ambiguous way that mislead the listener.
91
Garden path model of parsing
Listeners use heuristic rules of thumb to organize words to create sentences. The grammatical structure in a sentence decides the parsing.
Late closure: A new word is interpreted as being part of the sentence????????
92
Parsing
Mental grouping of words to sentences that create meaning for the interlocutor.
Syntax-first-approach: Rules based on syntax is used, then meaning of words and then pragmatic information. Grammatic structure decides parsing. If it does not make sense syntaxically we re-parse to create meaning.
Interactionist-approach: Right from the start other factors than syntax seem to influence parsing.
Top-down factors: Previous knowledge and experience shapes our parsing.
93
Visual word paradigm
A scene's context. We use both the words and the visual scene to interpret sentences.
94
Brocas area and aphasia
Brocas area is in the frontal lobe and is responsible for production of speech and syntax. They can make themselves intelligible. Hard to write but can comprehend speech.
95
Wernickes area and aphasia
Temporal lobe. Can produce sentences with correct grammar but they're gibberish sentences.
96
N400 response
P600 response
N400 Affected by deviation in meaning. The cats won't eat. The cats won't bake.
P600 is affected by grammatic deviation.
N400 and P600 activity increse when sentences deviate both semantically and grammatically.
97
Semantic coherence
Representation of the text in the inner mind that create clear relations.
Inference: We make conclusions regarding the information in the text that are not explicitly stated.
Anaphorical inference: Binds pronouns with objects/humans.
Causal inference: Events in a sentence are caused by events mentioned in previous sentences. Stina took an alvedon. Her headache disappeared.
98
Situational model of reading comprehension
Mental representation of what a text is about, humans, objects, places, events. Visualization plays a crucial role in reading comprehension.
99
Given-new contract
Speaker facilitates comprehension by introducing known information first and then new information - this makes it easier to understand.
100
Syntaxical coordination.
Different speakers will use similar grammatical constructions when they have a conversation. Adjusting and interplaying between each other.
101
Syntaxical priming
Production of a specific grammatic construction leads to an increased probability that the listener will use the same construction. Reduces memory load in conversations. Also reduces ambiguity.
102
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (language's influence on cognition)
Linguistical relativity hypothesis. Our thinking and understanding of the world is dependent on the language we use.
103
Representative design
Psychological processes have adapted to represent the environment in which we find ourselves. We need representative design to study these processes. We collect stimuli from the natural world så that the natural environment is extracted into the study.
104
2 purposes of applied cognitive psychology
1. Strive to solve problems with applied cognitive psychology.
2. Can develop and change theory building/formulation?
105
Lateral inhibition
A neuron is inhibited of firing by a lateral neuron.
106
Direct perception
Bottom-up processes? Visibility is improved by movement. Perceptual world is dynamic. Perception is for action. We are dynamic interactors with our environment, not passive observers.
Three main terms/concepts:
1. Texture gradients / Change in density
2. Affordances - What action is possible?
3. Ambient optical flow - Moving visual field
107
Texture gradients
The velocity in which the density of texture changes specifies orientation and inclination in objects. Difference in size between texture elements near observer and size of the textures of the surrounding of an object gives us a hint as to how far away the object is.
108
Affordances
Relations that exist naturally and are independent of previous knowledge. You know what to with something just by looking at it. Orangutans handed a hammer will use the flat end to hammer things and the sharp end to claw at walls.
109
Ambient optic array (optic flow)
Movement varies in the surroundings relative to the individual's movements. If we move towards an object it will remain in focus whilst its surroundings will move to the side and out of our visual field.
This allows us to estimate TTC (time to contact) when driving, allowing us to brake when necessary.
110
Unconscious inferences(Heimholtz)
We make unconscious inferences constantly about the world and we base these on previous experiences and thus perceive that which is most probable/likely.
111
Inattentional blindness
Seeing but not noticing due to lack of attention to what we are looking at. We can't process everything, we filter away a lot of stimuli.
Spatially based attention:
Placed on the visual area in which most information is expected. Dangers can come from other areas than which we are looking at.
Quality-based attention: Attention based on colour, movement and sound.
Object-based attention: Focus on most common objects - cars in trafic. Less focus on pedestrians and motorcyclists.
112
Prospagnosi
Oförmåga att känna igen ansikten, även det egna. Pga hjärntrauma
113
Fusiform Face Area FFA
Part of the temporal lobe responsibile for identification of faces.
114
Estimatorvariabler
De variabler som påverkar hur väl man kan estimera/uppskatta en person, alltså identifiera personen som inte ligger under juridisk kontroll.
Etnicitet
Exponeringstid
Ljusförhållanden
Retentionsintervall?
Stress - de som var stressade vid exponering hade svårt att identifiera vid senare tillfälle
Vapenfokus - Om det finns vapen vid exponering blir det svårare att reliabelt identifiera folk
115
Policy gällande systemvariabler - riktlinjer för lineups
1. Admin ska inte veta vem som är skyldig.
2. Vittet ska varnas för att förövaren kanske inte är med.
3. Figuranter ska väljas som passar in på vittnes muntliga utsaga.
4. Vittnet ska ange sin säkerhet omedelbart efter en identifikation.
5. Använd sekventiell procedur.
116
Signal detection analysis
Sequential procedures only give less attempts at identifications - response bias?????
117
Space-based attention
We place our attention at the space in which we expect most relevant information - where objects that merit attention are likely to appear.
118
Feature-based attention
Allocation of attention to a specific feature that is important such as colour, pitch, movement. Objects that have the specific feature stand out and we attend to them.
119
Object-based attention
We attend to objects that are most common to be present. On roads we are more attentive to cars than pedestrians because our experience has taught us that cars are more common and therefore we expect them. Car drivers who are also motorcyclists collide at a lower rate than other car drivers, they expect motorcycles at a higher rate.
120
Exogenous control of attention
Our attention is attracted by exogenous/external factors that are salient. High sounds, flashing lights etc.
121
Endogenous control of attention
Choosing what to direct our attention at. Is affected in part by the viewer's expectations.
122
Control processes of central executive - executive functions
Interactive system that connects perception with LTM, a middle-man between cognition and action.
Establish and update goals.
Surveil and correct errors.
Schedule responses.
Keep memory alive.
Inhibit irrelevant information.
Retrieve information from LTM.
Coordinate activity.
123
Executive functions - 3 core functions of the Central Executive
3 core functions:
1. Inhibition - Resist external interruption - maintain focus.
2. Handle WM
3. Cognitive flexibility - allowing different perspectives on things.
124
Embedded processes theory
WM is just attention focused on LTM.
WM is a set of processes that hold a limited amount of information in a readily accesible state for use in an active task.
Functional definition of WM. Limit of WM is set by our attentional capacities. There are 4 distinct chunks:
Central executive that directs the focus of attention on LTM which operates on activated elements in LTM, and it's surrounded by inactive elements of LTM.
125
Cognitive ageing
WM capacity declines with age, same as other executive functions and cognitive functions.
Examples:
LTM, Language, Problem solving, Decision-making
Research aims to minimize cognitive ageing, this can be done through cognitive training.
Older people struggle with cognitive flexibility aswell as manipulation of material in WM. This is very apparent when tasks require dynamic attentional control.
Proactive interference affects WM in higher rate in elders. The inhibition of interference is harder to achieve.
126
CRUNCH
Compensation-Related Utilization of Neural Circuits Hypothesis:
Less efficency in neural activation leads to higher rate of activation - this might be the reason older people get tired when they are activating cognitive functions? Takes more energy to do the same work as younger people.
127
Negative priming
Learning to ignore a irrelevant stimulus renders it hard to fastly respond to that same stimulus when it becomes relevant in the future.
128
Training executive functions and the 3 effects
Target training - Becoming better at specific task
Near transfer - Improvement at related untrained task.
Far transfer - Improvement at unrelated untrained task.
Far transfer requires training that includes:
Executive function, Quick processing, Attention and Adaptive WM-training. Eg: N-back task
N-back task: Pts need to indicate if presented stimulus is identical to previously presented, e.g 3 steps back. Requires constant update of target and suppressal of previous items that were to be remembered.
129
Daily activites that protect against cognitive ageing
Polyglottism - better executive control
Piano Training
Aerobic training- Increased brain volume, frontal lobe increases
130
Situation Awareness
1. Perception of objects in surroundings
2. Understanding of current situation
3. Prediction of future development of situation
131
Triple code model - Number representation
Numbers represented in 3 codes
Verbal code: Related to phonological loop
Visual code: Related to visuospatial sketchpad
Analog code - Evolutionary original representation of quantity- gives meaning to numbers.
132
Approximate number system ANS
System to quickly estimate quantity - analog and imprecise.
Correlates with mathematical abilities.
133
Numerones
Neurons that detect quantity.
134
Mathematical anxiety
Comes from lacking ANS-efficiency. Anxiety impairs mathemtical abilites because WM is hijacked by processing of anxiety. Processing efficiency theory: we have a finite number of cognitive resources and how we allocate these determine how well we perform a cognitive task. Poorly allocated resources lead to deficient solving of tasks.
135
Semantic processing & memory
Elaborative encoding creates a memory trace that is easier to retrieve because there are more pathways for retrieval. Semantically elaborating on something results in deeper processing and thus creates new conections between new memory trace and old ones. Sort of creates memory cues that can be triggered by an increased number of ways.
Semantic processing means we elaborate on the meaning of a concept and tie it with preexisting knowledge of relevant concepts.
136
Dual coding theory
We encode and represent stimulus both verbally and visually. These modalities reinforce each other and more connections are made and thus encoding is happening at a deeper and more broad level, where it'll be easier to be extracted because there are more pathways to find it.
137
Ways to easier remember things - techniques
Mind maps: Grouping relevant information together to easily retrieve it.
Mnemonics: Easier to remember because rote learning is hard and thus we incorporate meaning to easier remember semantically difficult material.
Chunking - Numbers are grouped together by meaningful ties. Visualization further increases capacity.
Loci-method: Associate object with a specific location. Retrieval happens with a mental walk on the location. Works because our memory is made to navigate our surroundings.
Techniques work because:
we give material meaning that we can connect to preexisting concepts.
Structured retrieval through cues.
We get to practice - faster processing.
138
Prospective memory
Remembering an intention to remember(to do) something. Older people may suffer due to declining cognitive functions such as memory impairment. Enactment strategy - couple habit with unusual motoric activity.
139
Encoding specificity - cues
A cue is effective if it is relevant to the thing you are trying to remember.
Feature overlap - overlap between qualities in cues and memory. Involves context, reinstatement of context can reinforce memory very dramatically. If the info at retrieval overlaps with info in memory - retrieval is easy. Context reinstatement - visually imagining encoding scene can facilitate retrieval.
140
Testing effect
Trying to test yourself is better than reading text again.
141
Retrieval induced forgetting
Retrieval of one memory decreases strength of nearby memories. If I retrieve apples from a list of fruits I might forget oranges. But I won't forget shirts from another list that includes clothes.
142
Spacing and massing
Massed learning leads to interference. Spacing allows memory consolidation of each individual session.
143
Storage strenght and retrieval strength
Storage strength: How strong was the encoding.
Ret. Str. How easy is it to retrieve a memory?
144
State-dependent-learning
Humöröverensstämmelse inkodning/återhämtning. Det tillstånd vi är i när vi lär oss kommer leda till att vid framkallning av minne är det lättare att minnas om man är i samma tillstånd.
145
Encoding specificity principle
På det vis som vi lär in, är så vi har lättast att minnas och göra.
146
Mood congruency effect
Man är mer benägen att minnas sådant som delar det aktuella sinnestillståndet än det som inte är lika.
Därav är depression så potent, vi är benägna att minnas deprimerande minnen när vi är deprimerade och därav blir vi mer deprimerad. WIHO :)
147
Attention bias
Tendency for information processing system to favor stimulus with certain content.
Important for understanding anxiety disorders.
Emotional stroop: It's harder for us(especially anxious people) to complete the stroop task if the word in negatively charged.
