Socialization Flashcards
Social Facilitation
The tendency of people to perform at a different level based on the fact that others are around
Deindividuation
The process by which individuals lose their self-awareness and distinctive personality in the context of a group, which may lead them to engage in antinormative behavior.
The Bystander Effect
the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
Peer Pressure
The social influence exerted by one’s peers to act in a way that is acceptable or similar to their own behaviors.
Group Polarization
The attitude of the group as a whole toward a particular issue becomes stronger than the attitudes of its individual members.
Group Think
is the tendency for groups to make decisions based on ideas and solutions that arise within the group without considering outside ideas. Ethics may be disturbed as pressure is created to conform and remain loyal to the group
Culture
A total way of life held in common by a group of people, including learned features such as language, ideology, behavior, technology, and government.
Assimilation
Adopting the traits of another culture. Often happens over time when one immigrates into a new country.
The process where a group or individuals culture begins to melt into another culture
Multiculturalism
The practice of valuing and respecting differences in culture.
It is the encouragement of multiple cultures within a community to enhance diversity
Subcultures
refers to a group of people within a culture that distinguishes themselves from the primary culture to which they belong
Subcultures
refers to a group of people within a culture that distinguishes themselves from the primary culture to which they belong
Socialization
is the process of developing and spreading norms. customs and beliefs
Norms
rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members
Beliefs
Specific ideas that people hold to be true
Stigma
is the extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society.
Schemas
Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information.
Deviance
Behavior that violates the standards of conduct or expectations of a group or society
Conformity
Adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
Compliance
occurs when an individual changes their behavior based on the requests of others. Methods of gaining compliance include foot-in-the-door technique, door-in-the-face technique, lowball technique, and thats not all technique among others.
Obedience
A form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority
Attitudes
Patterns of feelings and beliefs about other people, ideas, or objects that are based on a person’s past experiences, shape his or her future behavior, and are evaluative in nature.
The Functional Attitudes Theory
states that there are four functional areas of attitude that serve individuals in life: knowledge, ego expression, adaptability, and ego defense
Components of Attitude
Affect, behavioral, Cognitive
The Learning Theory of Attitude
states that attributes are developed through forms of learning: direct contact, direct interaction, direct instruction, and conditioning
The Elaboration Likelihood Model of Attitude
states that attitudes are formed and changed through different routes of information processing based on the degree of elaboration
The Social Cognitive Theory of Attitude
states that attitudes are formed through observation of behavior, personal factors, and environment
Central Route Processing
One of the ELM routes. Occurs when a listener is persuaded by the arguments or the content of the message.
High Elaboration
Scrutinizing and analyzing the content of persuasive information
Peripheral Route Processing
One of the ELM routes. Occurs when a listener decides whether to agree with the message based on other cues besides the strength of the arguments or ideas in the message.
Low Elaboration
Focusing on superficial details of persuasive information.
Normative Conformity
the desire to fit into a group because of fear of rejection
Identification
refers to the outward acceptance of others ideas without personally taking on these ideas.
Counterculture
A culture with lifestyles and values opposed to those of the established culture.
Social Loafing
The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.
Cognitive Dissonance
A state of mental discomfort arising from a discrepancy between two or more of a person’s beliefs or between a person’s beliefs and overt behavior.
Identity Shift Effect
person’s state of harmony is disrupted by threat of social rejection, person will often conform to norms of groyp. but upon doing so, person experiences internal conflict because behavior is outside norm character for person, so the person experiences identity shift to fix internal conflict. adopt standards of group as own
Status
is a position in society used to classify individuals
Ascribed Status
A social position assigned to a person by society without regard for the person’s unique talents or characteristics.
Master Status
A status that has special importance for social identity, often shaping a person’s entire life.
A status with which a person is most identified.
Achieved Status
A social position that a person attains largely through his or her own efforts. It is voluntarily earned by the individual
Role
a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave
Role Performance
carrying out of behaviors associated with a given role
Role Partner
another individual who helps define a specific role within the relationship
Role Set
contains all of the different roles associated with a status
Role Conflict
difficulty in satisfying the requirements or expectations of multiple roles simultaneously
Groupthink
occurs when members begin to conform to one anothers’ views and ignore outside perspectives
Role Strain
difficulty in satisfying multiple requirements of the same role
Groups
are made up of two or more individuals with similar characteristics that share a sense of unity
Peer Group
A social group whose members have interests, social position, and age in common
Family Group
group into which an individual is born, adopted, or married
In Group
A group that one identifies with and feels loyalty toward
Out Group
a social group toward which a person feels a sense of competition or opposition.
Primary Groups
those that contain strong, emotional bonds
Secondary Groups
Secondary Groups
Gemeinschaft (community)
is a group unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry, or geography
Gesellschaft (society)
is a group unified by mutual self interest in achieving a goal
Network
an observable pattern of social relationships between individuals or groups.
Organizations
Bodies of people with a structure and culture designed to achieve specific goals. They exist outside of each individual’s membership within the organization
The Basic Model of Emotional Expression
states that there are universal emotions, along with corresponding expressions that can be understood across cultures
The Social Construction Model of Emotional Expression
states that emotions are solely based on the situational context of social interaction
Display Rules
cross-cultural guidelines for how and when to express emotions
Cultural Syndrome
shared set of beliefs, norms, values, and behaviors organized around a central theme, as is found among people sharing the same language and geography
Impression Management
The process of consciously making behavioral choices in order to create a specific impression in the minds of others.
Self Disclosure
is sharing factual information
Managing Appearance
An impression management strategy in which one uses props, appearance, emotional expression, or associations with others to create a positive image.
Ingratiation
using flattery or conformity to win over someone else
Aligning Actions
An impression management strategy in which one makes questionable behavior acceptable through excuses.
The Dramaturgical Approach to Impression Management
approach states that a person creates images of themselves in the same way that actors perform a role in front of an audience?
Factors that affect Interpersonal Attraction
- physical attractiveness, which is increased by symmetry and proportions close to the golden ratio.
- Self-disclosure
- Reciprocity in which we like people who we think like us
- Proximity or being physically close to someone
Attachment Theory
- theory based on John Bowlby’s work that posits that children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments to caregivers as a means of increasing the chances of their own survival.
- a theory about how our early attachments with our parents shape our relationships for the rest of our lives
Secure Attachment
- Attachments rooted in trust and marked by intimacy
- Infants use the mother as a home base from which to explore when all is well, but seek physical comfort and consolation from her if frightened or threatened
- A relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver
- Requires a constant caregiver
- the child shows a strong preference for the caregiver
Avoidant Attachment
occurs when a caregiver has little or no response to a distressed, crying child; the child shows no preference for the caregiver compared to strangers
Ambivalent Attachment
Occurs when a caregiver has an inconsistent response to a child’s distress, sometimes responding appropriately, sometimes neglectfully. The child will become distressed when caregiver leaves and is ambivalent when he or she returns
Disorganized Attachment
occurs when a caregiver is erratic or abusive; the child shows no clear pattern of behavior in response to the caregiver’s absence or presence and may show repetitive behaviors
Social Support
Is the perception or reality that one is cared for by a social network
Emotional Support
type of nurturing support enabling people to express their feelings and to have those feelings validated by others
Esteem Support
affirms the qualities and skills of the person
Material Support
providing physical or monetary resources to aid a person
Informational Support
providing useful information to a person
Network Support
providing a sense of belonging to a person
Game Theory
A model that explains social interaction and decision-making as a game, including strategies, incentives, and punishments.
Inclusive Fitness
The ability of an organism to increase its fitness by behaving altruistically to support group members that share its genes (e.g. a worker honey bee surrenders any possibility of reproducing itself but supporting the hive increases inclusive fitness and the reproduction of its genes through the queen)
The total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and by providing aid that enables other close relatives to increase the production of their offspring.
Social Perception
AKA social cognition. The way by which we generate impressions about people in our sexual environment. Contains a perceiver, target, and situation of the scenario
Implicit Personality Theory
states that people make assumptions about how different types of people, personality traits, and actions are related to each other
Cognitive Biases
- Primacy Effect: First impressions are more important than subsequent impressions
- Recency Effect: the most recent information we have about an individual is most important in forming an impression
- Reliance on Central Traits
Reliance on Central Traits
is the tendency to organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics that matter to the perceiver.
Primacy Effect (Impressions)
First impressions are more important than subsequent impressions
Recency Effect (Impressions)
the most recent information we have about an individual is most important in forming an impression
Halo Effect
A cognitive bias in which judgments of an individual’s character can be affected by the overall impression of the individual.
Just World Hypothesis
the belief that people get what they deserve in life and deserve what they get
Self Serving Bias
the tendency to attribute successful outcomes of one’s own behavior to internal causes and unsuccessful outcomes to external, situational causes
Attribution Theory
focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people’s behavior. It can be dispositional or situational
Dispositional Attribution (internal)
assuming that another’s behavior is due to personality factors, not situational ones
Situational Attribution (external)
Assigning the cause of a behavior to environmental factors.
Correspondent Inference Theory
- Used to describe attributions made by observing the intentional (especially unexpected) behaviors performed by another person.
- A theory that states that people pay closer attention to intentional behavior than accidental behavior when making attributions, especially if the behavior is unexpected.
Fundamental Attribution Error
The tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition. The tendency to attribute other people’s behavior to dispositional (internal) causes rather than situational (external) causes.
Attribute Substitution
A phenomenon observed when individuals must make judgements that are complex but instead substitute a simpler solution or perception.
Attributions are Highly Influenced By
the culture in which one resides
Stereotypes
Fixed, overly simple and often erroneous ideas about traits, attitudes, and behaviors of groups of people; stereotypes assume that all members of a given group are alike.
Self Fulfilling Prophecy
an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true.
Stereotype Threat
Anxiety and resulting impaired performance that a person may experience when confronted with a negative stereotype about a group to which they belong.
Prejudice
Believing some person/place/thing is inferior or superior without even knowing them
Ethnocentrism
The belief that one’s group is of central importance, tendency to judge the practices of other groups by one’s own cultural standards.
in group - group to which you belong
out group - group to which you do not belong
Cultural Relativism
The practice of trying to understand a culture on its own terms and to judge a culture by its own standards.
Discrimination (culture)
is when prejudicial attitudes cause individuals of a particular group to be treated differently from others.
Functionalism
Factions of society work together to maintain stability. Claims that society, like an organism, is a system that consists of different components working together.
A theoretical framework that explains how parts of society fit together to create a cohesive whole.
Manifest Functions
deliberate actions that serve to help a given system
Latent Functions
unexpected, unintended, or unrecognized positive consequences of manifest functions
Conflict Theory
Views society in terms of competing groups that act according to their own self-interests, rather than according to the need for societal equilibrium.
a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of groups that are competing for scarce resources
focuses on how power differentials are created and how these differentials contribute to the maintenance of social order
Symbolic Interactionism
Approach that focuses on the interactions among people based on mutually understood symbols
study of the ways individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols
Social Constructionism
Human actors construct or create “reality” rather than discovering a reality that has inherent validity.
explores the ways in which individuals and groups make decisions to agree upon a given social reality
Rational Choice Theory
states that individuals will make decisions that maximize potential benefit and minimize potential harm
Expectancy Theory
A theory proposing that people will behave based on their perceived likelihood that their effort will lead to a certain outcome and on how highly they value that outcome. It applies rational choice theory.
Feminist Theory
explores the ways in which one gender can be subordinated, minimized or devalued compared to another
The Key Ethical Tenets of American Medicine
- Beneficience
- Justice
- Autonomy
- Nonmalfeasance
Material Culture
The physical items one associates with a given cultural group.
Symbolic Culture
A type of non-material culture that consists of the elements of culture that have meaning only in the mind.
Non Material Culture
the beliefs, practices, aesthetics, and values , of a group of people
Cultural Lag
material culture changes more quickly than symbolic culture
Value
A fundamental belief or practice about what is desirable, worthwhile, and important to an individual
Ritual
a ceremonial act; a customary procedure
Demographics
statistical data relating to the population and particular groups within it.
Demographic Transition
The transition from high birth and mortality rates to lower birth and mortality rates, seen as a country develops from a preindustrial to an industrialized economic system.
Change in Demographics
Social Movements
organized activity to bring about (proactive or resist (reactive) social change
Social Class
a category of ppl with a shared SES
Prestige
is the respect and importance tied to specific occupations or associations.
Power
is the capacity to influence people through real or perceived rewards and punishments. Power differentials create social inequality
Anomie
A state of normlessness; anomic conditions erode social solidarity by means of excessive individualism, social inequality, and isolation.
Social Capital
The investment people make in their society in return for economic or collective rewards. Social networks are among the most powerful.
Meritocracy
A society in which advancement up the social ladder is based on intellectual talent and achievement.
Social Mobility
The ability of individuals to move from one social standing to another. Social standing is based on degrees of wealth, prestige, education and power.
Social Reproduction
transmission of social inequality from one generation to the next
Absolute Poverty
A lack of essential resources (food, shelter, clothing, hygiene).
Relative Poverty
Social inequality in which people are relatively poor compared to other members of the society in which they live.
Strain Theory
Merton’s theory that deviance occurs when a society does not give all its members equal ability to achieve socially acceptable goals
Cultural Capital
the benefits one receives from knowledge, abilities, and skills
Social Exclusion
Arises from a sense of powerlessness when poor individuals feel alienated from society.
Spatial Inequality
Social stratification across territories and their populations.
the unequal distribution of wealth or resources in a geographic area, so that some places are richer than others
unequal access to resources and variable quality of life within a population or geographical distribution
Environmental Injustice
unequal distribution of environmental hazards in communities
Incidence
The number of new cases of a disease per population at risk in a given period of time; usually, new cases per 1000 at-risk people per year.
Second Sickness
exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social injustice
