Social Structure and Demographics Flashcards
Define sociology, and the two sub-categories of sociology
Sociology is the study of society: how we create society, how we interact within it, how we define what is normal and abnormal in society, and how we institutionalize these ideas
- Foundation of sociology thus flows from explanatory theories and the institutions that make up society as a whole
Microsociology - focuses on small groups and the individual
Macrosociology - focuses on large groups and social structure
What is a social structure
A system of people withing a society organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships
Name the main theories in sociology
1) Functionalism or Functional Analysis
2) Conflict theory
3) Symbolic Interactionism
4) Social Constructionism
5) Rational Choice Theory
6) Exchange Theory
7) Feminist Theory
Define Functionalism or Functional Analysis
The study of the structure and function of each part of society
- Early functionalists viewed society as a living organism and like an organism, if society is to function smoothly, its parts and systems must work together in harmony
- When all parts of society fulfill their functions, society is in an abnormal or pathologic state
Define function and dysfunction, as used by later functionalist theorists
Function refers to the beneficial consequences of people’s actions (they can be either latent or manifest)
- According to these theorists, functions help keep society in balance
Dysfunction refers to harmful consequences of people’s actions as they undermine a social system’s equilibrium
Define manifest and latent functions
Manifest functions are actions intended to help some part of a system
Latent functions are unintended positive consequences on other parts of society
- they may flow logically from manifest functions, but are unstated or unrecognized
ie) annual meetings of medical societies have the manifest function of educating a group of physicians, but latently, they create stronger interpersonal bonds between physicians and provide a sense of identity for the group
Explain Conflict Theory
Based on the works of Karl Marx, it focuses on how power differentials are created and how these differentials contribute to the maintenance of social order
- Furthermore, power differentials can lead to the dominance of a particular group if it successfully outcompetes other groups for economic, political and social resources
Explain symbolic interactionism
Symbolic interactionism is the study of the ways individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures and other symbols
- The central idea is that symbols - things to which we attach meaning - are the key to understanding how we view the world and communicate with one another
– These symbols include everything from how we codify concepts in language to hand gestures and body language to the role of certain behaviors (symbols do not always match across cultures)
ie) thumbs up in some middle-eastern countries is an offensive gesture
Explain social constructionism
Social contructionism focuses on how individuals put together their social reality. Social constructs arise from humans communicating and working together to agree on the significance of a concept or principle.
Can be applied to intangible concepts; like how society defines honor and justice (dependent on interactions and decisions of people within that society)
-These concepts depend on the society itself, so they are subject to change as social norms and opinions develop over time
Also applied to tangible objects such as money (only because we as a society imbue them with value, do they have it)
- Other examples include work ethic, acceptable dress and gender roles
Explain rational choice theory and a problem associated with it
Rational choice theory focuses on decision-making in an individual and attempts to reduce this process to a careful consideration of benefits and harms to the individual
Every outcome of social interaction can be associated with rewards (money, accolades, honor, prestige and social approval), or punishments (embarrassment, humiliation, sanctions and stigmatization)
In this theory, an individual considers all the possible rewards and punishments of each social action and chooses the option that has the highest benefit-to-harm ratio
- This theory problematized by concepts like altruism, in which an individual benefits another at some cose to him - or herself
Explain exchange theory
An extension of rational choice theory, but focuses on interactions within groups rather than on the individual
Exchange theory posits that an individual will carry out certain behaviors because of anticipated rewards and will avoid certain behaviors because of anticipated punishments
- similar to operant conditioning, exchange theory assumes a behavior that is met with approcal by others will reinforce that behavior and encourage its continuation, and vice versa
Explain feminist theory
This theory attempts to explain social inequalities that existon the basis of gender
- it focuses on the subordination of women through social structures and institutional discrimination
- this subordination takes many forms including expected gender roles, sexuality, financial opportunity and social mobility
Define gender roles
The behaviors expected of a given gender
- the industrial revolution began a doctrine of separate spheres in which men served as breadwinners and protectors of finances and women served as caretakers of the children and home
– biases still exist against individuals who step out of traditional roles
Define sexual inequality
Differential expectations of behavior between men and women
-ie) men rewarded for promiscuity and women stigmatized for same behavior
– women also more frequently objectified than men, being viewed as a sexual object rather than as a person
What is the glass-ceiling
phenomenon where women are less frequently promoted in the workplace and may have more difficulty attaining top-level administrative positions within a company
Define social institutions, and what are the six major types
Social institutions are well-established social structure that dictate certain patterns of behavior or relationships and are accepted as a fundamental part of culture
- They regulate the behavior of individuals in core areas of society
The major types are:
1) Family
2) Education
3) Religion
4) Government
5) Economy
6) Healthcare and Medicine
5)
Explain family as it relates to social institutions
Doesnt have a fixed definition across cultures or time; what is is accepted as family in the current day does not necessarily match expectations from even a few generations
It is influenced by a number of different factors including culture, value systems, beliefs, practices, gender, age, race, ethnicity, etc.
- patterns of kinship are usually reflected in terms like father, uncle, etc. but not ubiquitous across cultures (Hawaiians call family members cousins or uncles even if they are not biologically their uncle,etc.)
Identify some alternative forms of family different from the nuclear family.
Single-parent families
Families that cohabitate with other members (grandmother, etc.)
Families with marital disunions (divorce)
Same-sex parents
Explain domestic violence, and what are a few reason why it’s hard for some to leave the abusive relationship?
Domestic violence is spousal abuse, and includes physical as well as sexual abuse, emotional abuse and financial abuse
- it is observed across all social classes
- number one cause of injury to American women
- most common in families with drug abuse, especially alcoholism
It may be challenging for some to leave an abusive relationship for a variety of reasons including lack of a safe haven, financial restrictions and psychological disorders (ie. learned helplessness)
What is elder abuse?
Abuse of the elderly and is also observed across all socioeconomic classes, and most commonly manifests as neglect of an older relative - although physical, psychological and financial abuse may occur as well
- Caretaker of the elder individual is most commonly the source of abuse
Explain child abuse
Abuse of children most commonly manifests as neglect, but physical, sexual and psychological abuse are also common
- in medical school, we will be trained on how to identify signs of nonaccidental trauman such as a broken femur in a child who can not yet walk, and burn marks on buttocks from placing infant in burning hot water.
– doctors are mandated reporters, which means they are legally obligated to report suspected cases of elder or child abuse
Explain educational social institutions
Education systems are designed to arm the population with information which may be in the form of facts, figures and mental processes, but the system also emphasizes the social role of education in society, creates statuses within said society and stimulates learners to add to their knowledge base
- susceptible to inequalities across socioeconomic classes (lower SES associated with decreased accessibility and quality of education)
– not easily reversed: low funding, deprioritization of education and poor historical performance cna make it challenging for a failing school district to acquire resurces and improve education to its students
Explain the hidden curriculum as it pertains to the educational institution, and what do sociologists focus on when investigating education?
The hidden curriculum refers to the process of transmitting social norms, attitudes and beliefs to students
- Sociological investigations into education may focus on the ethics, morals, practices, political influence, finances and values of an education system
– Sociologists also explore education trends, including grade inflations and deflation, adult education, online education and accessibility of education
What is teacher expectancy?
Teacher expectancy refers to the idea that teachers tend to get what they expet from students
- Thus, a teacher who places high demands on students but who also believes that her students can rise to the challenge will more often see students succeed than a teacher who places the same demands but doubts the students can achieve them (example of self-fulfilling prophecy)
Explain the social institution of religion
Religion is considered to be a pattern of social activities oranized around a set of beliefs and practices that seek to address the meaning of existence
- as an organization, religion persists over time and has a structure into which members are resocialized
– when studying religion from a sociological perspective, it is not important to agree with the belief system but rather to examine it objectively within its social and cultural context
Define Religiosity
This refers to how religious one considers themselves to be, and includes strength of religious beliefs, engagement in religious practices and attitudes about religion itself
What are some of the different ways religion can be organized, and their definitions?
Denominations are separations of large unbrella religions such as Christianity, Judaism and Islam, that may share certain beliefs but not others.
Sect was historically a pejorative term, it now refers more properly to a religious group that has chosen to break off from the parent religion (protestant movement, puritains, etc.)
A church is a large, universal religious group that can be divided into multiple coexisting denominations
A cult is a religious sect that may take on extreme or deviant philosophies
What is secularism and fundamentalism
Secularism refers to a shift away from a world dominated by religion toward rationality and scientific thinking
Fundamentalism refers to a maintenance of a strict adherence to religious code
Explain government as a social institution
As institutions, governments are systematic arrangements of political and capital relationships, activities and social structures that affect rule-making, representation of the individual in society, rigts and privileges, division of labor and production of goods and services
- governments impact all other institutions to some extent (sanction or define specific family structures, finance and reulate education, recognize one religion but not others, etc.)
What is a democracy?
Supposedly allows every citizen a political voice by electing representatives to political office
Define monarchy
Goverments with a royal head of state, although the rulers powers may be significantly limited by the presence of a constitution and parliamentary system
Define dictatorship
A system where a single person holds power and usually includes mechanisms to quell threats to this power
What is a theocracy?
A system where power is held by religious leaders
Explain Healthcare and Medicine as social institutions
These institutions are aimed at maintaining or improving the health status of the individual, family, community and society as a whole
- Some of the key goals in American healthcare over the past few decades include:
- increased access to care
- decreased costs of healthcare
- prevention of disease before it occurs
- association of patients with primary care MD
- increased education for the public with public health outreach
- Decreased paternalism (doctor knows best mentality)
- Reduced economic conflicts of interest for physicians
Explain beneficence as it relates to medical ethics
The physician has the responsibility to act in the patient’s best interest
What is nonmaleficence
Do no harm; the physician has a responsibility to avoid treatments or interventions in which the potential for harm outweighs the potential for benefit
What is Respect for patient autonomy
The physician has a responsibility to respect patients decisions and choices about their own healthcare
- Patients have the right to refuse life-saving therapies (exceptions include significant psychiatric illness, children, public health threats, etc.)
Justice
The physician has a responsibility to treat similar patients with similar care, and to distribute healthcare resources fairly
Define culture, and what are the two types?
Culture can be defined as encompassing the entire lifestyle for a given group
- Binds nation-states, political institutions, marketplaces, religions and ideologies
- it contributes to our interpretation of the world, and is generally passed through familial lines
– culture is what makes human societies unique from one another
1) Material Culture
2) Symbolic Culture
Define Material Culture
Material culture includes the physical items one associates with a given group, such as artwork, emblems, clothing, jewelry, foods, buildings and tools.
- studied by looking at culture’s artifacts: material items that they make, possess and value.
- ie) America flag is an example
00 often most visible during ceremonies
Define Symbolic Culture
- also called nonmaterial culture
Culture focussing on the ideas that represent a group of people.
May be encoded in mottos, songs or catch-phrases, or may simply be themes that are pervasive in the culture
- Material culture is often the tangible embodiment of the underlying ideas of symbolic culture
Define culture lag
Phenomenon resulting from the fact that symbolic culture often doesnt change as fast as material culture.
- ie) technology encouraging community oriented and less private world while most Americans are still fond of individuality and privacy.
How does language relate to culture?
The most highly developed and complex symbol system used by most cultures
- critically important in the transmission of culture
– understanding a groups language, is critical to understanding culture
Define values
Values are what a person deems important in life, which dictates one’s ethical principles and standards of behavior
What is a belief?
A belief is something that an individual accepts to be truth
- every culture has its own beliefs and value systems
- ie) differing beliefs in healthcare between Asian and American cultures: Asians believe family should make healthcare decisions which directly contrasts with American culture that patient autonomy should be prized and that healthcare decision shwould be made by a patient whenever possible
Define cultural barriers
When a cultural difference impedes interaction with others of an alternate culture
Define cultural norms
Norms are societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior. While norms are not laws, they do govern the behavior of society and provide a sense of social control
- they provide us with a sense of what is appropriate, what we should do and should not do
– Norms exist for behavior, speech, dress, home life and more
Define a ritual
A ritual is a formalized ceremony that usually invol
Involves specific material objects, symbolism, and additonal mandates on acceptable behavior.
- rituals tend to have a prescribed order of events or routine
– Can be associated with specific milestones such as a graduation ceremony, wedding or funeral
or
holidays such as Thanksgiving dinner and Trick-Or-Treating on Halloween
