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MCAT Psychology / Sociology > Learning, Memory and Sleep disorders > Flashcards

Learning, Memory and Sleep disorders Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the three types of memory?

A

1) Sensory
2) Short term / working memory
3) Long-term Memory

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2
Q

Define Sensory Memory

A

Sensory memory is a very brief memory that allows people to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimulus has ceased.

aka echoic / iconic

  • if you hear a sound in the wilderness you can hear it in your mind briefly

– last 0.5 - 2 seconds

—quickly forgotten if not paid attention to

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3
Q

Define Short Term-Memory

A

7-9 chunks of info can be stored for 5-15 seconds (or longer if rehearsed)

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4
Q

Define Long-Term Memory

A

Long term memory thought to last a lifetime w/ infinite storage as far as we know.

  • people think poor recall is the reason why you can’t remember some long term memories

– info adequately rehearsed in short term memory is integrated into LTM

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5
Q

What are the two types of Long Term Memory?

A

1) Explicit
a) Episodic
b) Semantic
2) Implicit

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6
Q

Define Explicit memory, and its 2 sub-types.

A

Explicit (consious) memory - declaritive memory holding facts and events that can be further divided into 2 categories

I) Episodic - (events / experiences) a trip you really enjoyed, or hated

  • Also your emotional memory (memory of how you felt during your trip)

II) Semantic Memory - (facts / concepts) remembering your first pet’s name, your first car, etc.

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7
Q

Define Encoding

A

Process by which we transfer sensory information from sensory to long term memory through rehearsal of the information.

  • when attempting to remember something, info must be converted into such that can be understood by the brain (just like binary for a computer)

– this involves the strengthening and weakening of neuronal connections so that a pattern of activation is created

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8
Q

What are the 4 types of encoding?

A

1) Semantic Encoding
2) Acoustic Encoding
3) Tactile Encoding
4) Visual Encoding

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9
Q

Define Visual Encoding

A

encoding pictures, faces, places, landscapes, etc.

  • starts out as an iconic memory
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10
Q

Define Tactile Encoding

A

remembering how something feels, such as your favorite blanket, texture, etc.

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11
Q

Define Acoustic Encoding

A

Encoding sounds (language, music, birds, etc.)

  • begins as echoic memory
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12
Q

Define Semantic Encoding

A

Process of encoding sensory input that has particular meaning or can be applied to a context

  • Various strategies can be applied including chunking and mnemonics to aid in encoding and sin some cases, allow deep processing and optimizing retrieval
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13
Q

What part of the brain is primarily responsible for the processing of encoded information?

A

The hippocampus in the temporal lobe receives information from the cortex

  • numerous pathways into and out of the hippocampus enable us to relate memory to other experiences

– allows us to recprd info and make connections with info we already knew

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14
Q

Define the Primacy Effect

A

When viewing a list, you’re more likely to remember information at the beginning of the list and have trouble remembering the middle

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15
Q

Define the Recency Effect

A

When viewing a list, you’re more likely to remember information at the end and struggle with the information in the middle

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16
Q

Define Serial Position Effect

A

Term encompassing both the primact and recency effect

  • least likely to remember info in the intermediary of list
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17
Q

Name 5 methods to encode memories more efficiently.

A

1) Chunking
2) Elaboration
3) Acronyms
4) Associating memories w/ images (self-reference)
5) Hierarchies

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18
Q

What is chunking?

A

Organizing information into groups for better memory storage

ie) 2,532 instead of 2-5-3-2

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19
Q

What is elaboration?

A

relating new information w/ info you already know

  • increases our access to that memory by associating info with what we know

– strengthening neuronal connections between related information

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20
Q

When regarding memory storage, what are acronyms?

A

Acronyms are using words or sentences that stand for longer concepts: Dear King Phillp Came Over For Good Soup

– taxonomy acronym (Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species)

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21
Q

How does associating memories w/ images help with memory storage?

A

Linking new memories w/ ideas or images personally applicable to you enables better recall by having new info associated with info your already familiar with

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22
Q

What are hierarchies as it pertains to memory encoding?

A

Organizing new information into a hierarchy allows better recall

  • Trying to remember the names of everyone in a family and organizing them by age
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23
Q

What is autobiographical memory?

A

memories about you (relathinships, emotions, memories about life, events, etc.)

  • consists of episodes recollected from an individual’s life and is a combo of episodic and semantic memory
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24
Q

What is retrospective memory?

A

Memory of people, words, and events encountered or experienced in the past

  • includes all other types of memory including episodic, semantic and procedural

– can be implicit or explicit

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25
Q

What is implicit memory?

A

Procedural (unconscious) memory. How to perform a skill or task you’ve done many times.

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26
Q

What is prospective memory?

A

Memory you know must be recalled in the future

ie) I need to remember to buy eggs tomorow

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27
Q

What are Semantic Networks

A

Also known as Frame Networks, Semantic Networks are links in the neuronal pathways between 2 related ideas

ie) seeing a cat may also activate related knowledge like they have claws, are predators, are quick, etc.
- having seen or thought of a cat, we’ll get spreading activation to other neurons in the neural frame network that are related to them

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28
Q

Define Spreading Activation

A

method for searching associative neural or semantic networks

  • helps us remember more “details” about an event

– strong foundation for how we thinks

— if you’re having trouble remembering what movie you saw last week, think of what theater it was, what time it was, and this will activate semantic network and help you remember the movie

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29
Q

Define recall, and name the three types.

A

The ability to bring stored information into your conscious mind

The 3 types are:

1) Serial Recall
2) Free Recall
3) Cued Recall

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30
Q

Define serial recall.

A

Remembering things in a specific order

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31
Q

Define free recall

A

remembering something w/o any cues (begins to deteriorate once people pass the age of 60)

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32
Q

Define Cued Recall

A

the ability to remember something once cued or asked

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33
Q

What are the 3 types of memory retrieval?

A

1) Recall
2) Recognition
3) Relearning

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34
Q

Define Recognition

A

Type of memory retrieval where you remember things you’ve already seen

  • subcatergory of declaritive memory
  • ability to recognize previously encountered events, objects or people
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35
Q

Define Relearning

A

Memory retrieval where you need to relearn a task you once knew well, but haven’t done in a long time

  • being good at saxophone and not playing for a long time, you would need to relearn what you knew

– relearning is much faster than original learning

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36
Q

Define Retrieval Cues

A

Prompts that help remind you of something

  • related to spreading activation (movie theater example)
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37
Q

Define Priming

A

implicit memory effect in which exposure to a stimulus influences a response to a later stim.

  • shown picture of sponge and asked to name a cheese, you’ll think of Swiss Cheese
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38
Q

Define Retreival Failure

A

Occurs when there aren’t enough cues for you to recall information

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39
Q

How does one’s emotional state play a role in memory retrieval?

A

We seem to recall emnotionally charged events more easily than boring ones

  • Research suggests the involved emotions of event are what make it easier to recall, not signifigance of event

– not about how important an event was to you, but rather how emotional that event was

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40
Q

Are you more, or less likely to recall an event that occurred immediately before an emotionally charged event?

A

Less likely, because the emotional signifigance of the new event may interfere with encoding of less emotional event

  • you’re less likely to remember something if it’s followed by emotionally charged event

– stronger effect in women

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41
Q

Do memories associated with pleasant, or unpleasant emotions degrade less rapidly?

A

Memories associated with pleasant emotions tend to fade less rapidly than unpleasant

  • both fade at about the same rate in people with mild depression
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42
Q

True or False - Older adults tend to regulate emotions better than youth

A

True

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43
Q

How does emotional state affect autobiographical memories?

A

Memories associated with positive emotions often possess more contextual and sensorial details than neural / negative memories

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44
Q

Define mood, and its role in memory retrieval.

A

mood - a temporary state of mind or feeling

  • essentially what your emotional state was when you encoded the memory

– mood affects what you pay attention to and what is encoded as a result

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45
Q

Define mood congruence as it relates to memory.

A

We remember events that match our current mood more clearly

  • we pay more attention to the negative things if you’re in a bad mood
46
Q

Define mood dependence as it pertains to memory

A

Remembering is easier when your mood at retrieval is the same as your mood during encoding

  • easier to remember fact or event if you’re in the same emotional state as you were when you first learned the fact
47
Q

Explain emotional bias in memory

A

memories of something can be biased based on your emotions toward object when you first remembered it

  • one reason why first impressions last the longest
48
Q

True / False - Neurogenesis occurs throughout our entire lives

A

True

Neurogenesis does occur throughout our entire lives but our brain reaches maximum size in early 20’s

  • after 20’s, brain begins to slowly deline in volume and blood flow gradually decreases

– you are able to form new neuronal connections, learn and remember new things throughout your life

— ability more profound in people who get plenty of execise and who’re frequently stimulated intellectually

49
Q

What types of memory improves or remains constant as we age?

A

1) Semantic - memories of facts / concepts
- includes vocab and language
2) Procedural memory - how to perform tasks

50
Q

What types of memory declines with age

A

1) Episodic - forgetting what they went to grocery store for, where they parked their care, etc.
- the memory of times, places, emotions and other contextual information
2) Long term memory - also declines
3) Short term memory - possibly due to neuronal death
4) Free recall - uncued recall

51
Q

Define memory dysfunctions

A

Neurologic conditions adversely affecting the formation of, or recall of memories

52
Q

Define dementia

A

gradual decline in ability to recall information due to neuron death

  • caused by injury or disease

– also causes changes in personality and cognition that interfere with daily life

53
Q

Define Alzheimer’s disease

A

Most common, well known and studied cause of dementia

  • majority of people afflicted over 65 years of age
  • early onset dementia can occur as early as 30 (strong genetic component)
  • early symptoms include forgetfulness
  • behavior / routine changes occur as disease progresses
  • difficulty speaking / swallowing in later stages
54
Q

Define Korsakoff’s Syndrome

A

Chronic memory disorder linked to vitamin B1 (thiamine) deficiency

  • most commonly caused by chronic, long term alcohol abuse
  • confusion, involuntary eye movement and poor coordination
55
Q

Define Huntington’s Disease

A

a genetic condition in which the genes of the neuron are preprogrammed to undergo apoptosis

  • usually occurs around mid-life but there is also a juvenile onset
56
Q

Define Anterograde Amnesia

A

inability to create new memories

  • results from damge to hippocampus
57
Q

Define Retrograde Amnesia

A

inability to remember past memories

  • amnesiacs sometimes remember events from long before the accident, but not events leading up to the accident

– this suggests hippocampus plays a role in memory consolidation and processing, but perhaps the memories aren’t stored there indefinitely

58
Q

Explain memory decay

A

Long-term memory is mostly indefinite but there can still be decay

  • as the time since you learned something increases, so does liklihood that you will forget that info
59
Q

Define Retention Interval

A

time between learning material and having to recall it

  • the longer the retention interval, the greater the liklihood of memory decay

– as retention interval increases, liklihood of recall decreases

60
Q

Define Decay Theory

A

states that if Long-Term Memories aren’t recollected often enough, it’ll become harder to remember them

  • it’s also hypothesized that neurons naturally die, making memories inaccessible
61
Q

Define interference as it pertains to memory, and what are the two types

A

Learning new material can interfere w/ older memories

1) retroactive interference - new information interferes with old
- memory of new phone # interferes w/ old
2) proactive interference - old material interferes w/ learning new memories
- calling new boyfriend your exes name

62
Q

Define Positive Transfer

A

when old information can assist in learning and remembering new info

  • addition helping to learn multiplication
  • chemical equilibrium facilitating acid/base chemistry
63
Q

What is a schema

A

a pattern of thought or behavior that organized catergories of information and the relationships among them

  • mental shorcut for brain
64
Q

How can schema’s adversely affect memories?

A

Schemas can skew memories by placing items typically found in a familiar environment into the memory when they weren’t there

ie) remembering seeing a stethoscope in a doctor’s office even though one wasn’t there
- people can accidentally (or intentionally) alter what they remember by being misinformed by others

65
Q

Define Source Monitoring Error

A

When you can’t remember where you heard something you know

66
Q

Define Dyssomnia

A

disruption in quality, timing or amount of sleep

  • insomnia, sleep apnea, narcolepsy
67
Q

Define Parasomnias

A

abnormal events during sleep

-somnambulence, somniloquy, night terrors

68
Q

Define Somniloquy

A

sleep-talking is a parasomnia that refers to talking aloud while asleep. It can be quite loud, ranging from simple mumbling sounds to loud shouts and long, frequently inarticulate speeches, and can occur many times during a sleep cycle.

69
Q

What are Night Terrors

A

Most often in children, they scream and cry during 3rd-4th NREM stages

  • they awaken in a hightened sense of anziety, screaming and crying for up to ten minutes

– different from nightmares in the sense that after nightmares, you’re easily consoled and often rapidly realize it was a dream

70
Q

Define learning

A

Learning refers specifically to the way in which we acquire new behaviors

71
Q

What is a stimulus

A

Anything to which an organism can respond

  • The combination of stimuli and responses serve as the basis for all behavioral learning
72
Q

What is habituation as it pertains to learning

A

A decrease in response to a stim due to repeated exposure

73
Q

Define dishabituation

A

The recovery of a response to s timulus after habituation has occurred

  • usually seen when, late in the habituatio of a stim., a second stim is presented, interrupting the habituation process

– always temporary, and always refers to to changes in response to the original stim., not the new one

74
Q

What are the two types of learning?

A

1) Associative Learning
2) Observational Learning

75
Q

Define associative learning, and name the two types

A

The creation of a pairing, or association, either between two stimuli, or between a behavior and a response

1) Classical conditioning
2) Operant conditioning

76
Q

Define classical conditioning

A

Classical conditioning is a type of associative learning that takes advantage of biological, instinctual responses to create associations between two unrelated stimuli

ie) Ivan Pavlov’s experiments with dogs

77
Q

What is an unconditioned stimulus and an unconditioned response?

A

Any stimulus that brings about a reflexive response (jumping after a loud noise, salivating to the smell of food)

An unconditioned response is any innate or reflexive response

78
Q

What are neutral stimuli

A

Stimuli that do not produce a reflexive response

79
Q

Describe Pavlov’s experiment, and name the unconditioned stim and responses

A

The unconditioned stimulus in Pavlov’s experiments was meat, which would cause salivation, the unconditioned response

The neutral stimulation was a ringing bell

Pavlov repeatedly rang the bell before placing meat in the dogs mouths

Initially, the dogs didn’t react to the bell, but after a while, they began to salivate to the bell, even when meat wasn’t provided

This was the conditioned stimulus and response

80
Q

What is a conditioned stimulus?

A

a normally neutral stimulus that, through association, now causes a reflexive response called a conditioned response

81
Q

What is acquisition as it relates to classical conditioning?

A

Acquisition is the process of taking advantage of a reflexive, unconditioned stimulus, to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned one

  • It is the end goal of classical conditioning
82
Q

Explain extinction, as it pertains to classical conditioning

A

Extinction is when a conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus enough times, and habituation to the conditioned stimulus occurs

  • ie) if the bell rings often enough without the dog getting meat, the dog may stop salivating when the bell sounds
  • Not always permanent
83
Q

What is spontaneous recovery?

A

When an extinct, conditioned stimulus is presented again, and a weak conditioned response is exhibited

84
Q

What is generalization as it pertains to classical conditioning?

A

A broadening effect by which a stimulus similar enough to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response

  • ie) experiment with Little Albert: conditioned baby to be afraid of a white rat by pairing the demonstration of the rat with a loud noise. Subsequently, Little Albert exhibited a fear response to a white stuffed rabbit, a white sealskin coat, and a man with a white beard
85
Q

What is discrimination as it pertains to classical conditioning

A

When an organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli.

  • This is the opposite of generalization

Pavlov’s dogs could have been conditioned to discriminate between bells of different tones by having one tone paired with meat, and another presented without meat

  • association would’ve occurred with one but not the other
86
Q

Define operant conditioning

A

Learning that links voluntary behaviors with consequences in an effort to alter the frequency of those behaviors

  • associated wtih B.F. Skinner, who is considered the father of behaviorism
87
Q

Briefly define the theory of behaviorism

A

Theory that all behaviors are conditioned

88
Q

What is reinforcement as it relates to operant conditioning, and their two categories?

A

It’s the process of increasing the liklihood that an individual will perform a behavior.

1) Positive reinforcers
2) Negative reinforcers

89
Q

What are positive reinforcers?

A

Positive reinforcers increase a behavior by adding a positive consequence or incentive following the desired behavior.

  • Money is an example of a common and strong positive reinforcer
90
Q

What are negative reinforcers?

A

Negative reinforcers act similarly to positive ones in that they increase the frequency of a behavior, but they do so by removing something unpleasant

  • ie) taking an aspirin reduces headaches, so the next time you have one, you are more likely to take one

– Negative reinforcement is often confused with punishment, but it isnt. Remember, that any reinforcement - positive or negative - increases the liklihood a behavior will be performed

91
Q

What are the two subdivisions of negative reinforcement?

A

1) Escape learning
2) Avoidance learning

92
Q

Define escape learning

A

This is where the role of the behavior is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists, like a headache

93
Q

Define avoidance learning

A

Avoidance learning is meant to prevent the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen

  • ie) practicing avoidance now as I want to avoid an unpleasant score on the MCAT (already crossed that bridge)

– if you do well on test day, that success will positively reinforce the behavior of studying for the next major exam of your medical career (USMLE)

94
Q

What are primary reinforcers?

A

A primary reinforcer is something an organism needs such as food, water, shelter, etc.

  • ie) a dolphin trainer providing a fish for a dolphin
95
Q

What is a conditioned / secondary reinforcer?

A

A reinforcer that is paired with classical conditioning to cause it to elicit the same response as a primary reinforcer.

  • ie) the clicker used by dolphin trainers
96
Q

What is punishment as it pertains to operant conditioning, and its two types?

A

Punishment uses conditioning to reduce the occurrence of a behavior

1) Positive punishment
2) Negative punishment

97
Q

What is positive punishment

A

Positive punishment adds an unpleasant consequence in response to a behavior to reduce that behavior

  • ie) a thief may be arrested for stealing, which is intended to stop him from stealing again
98
Q

Define negative punishment

A

A reduction of a behavior when a stimulus is removed

  • ie) a parent may forbid their child from watching television as a consequence for bad behavior, with the goal of preventing the behavior from happening again
99
Q

Define reinforcement schedules, list their two different factors, and list the 4 types of schedules

A

Reinforcement schedules are schedules dictating when to provide reinforcement after the performance of the desired behavior

* Two factors are:

1) Fixed or variable
2) Ratio or interval

* The four common reinforcement schedules are:

1) Fixed-ratio
2) Variable-ratio
3) Fixed-interval
4) Variable-interval

100
Q

What is a fixed-ration (FR) schedule

A

These schedules reinforce a behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior.

  • ie) ina typical operant condition experiment, researchers might reward a rat with food every third time is presses a bar
  • continuous reinforcement is a fixed-ratio system in which the behavior is rewarded every time it’s performed
101
Q

What is a variable-ratio (VR) schedule?

A

These schedules reinforce a behavior after a varying number of performances of the behavior, but such that the average number of performances to receive a reward is relatively constant

  • ie) researchers reward a rat with food after one button push, then three, then 4, then 2, etc.

– this schedule works the fastest for learning a new behavior, and is the most resistant to extinction (VR means variable ratio, but also very rapid and very resistant)

102
Q

What is a fixed-interval (FI) schedule?

A

These schedules reinforce the first instance of a behavior after a specified time period has elapsed

  • ie) once a reward is provided, 60 seconds must pass before another is provided

– the first lever press provides a pellet, but subsequent presses wont work for another 60 seconds

103
Q

What is a variable-interval (VI) schedule

A

These schedules reinforce a behavior the frist time it’s performed after a varying interval of time

  • ie) after intially waiting 60 seconds, the rat may need to wait 90 seconds, then 30, etc.
104
Q

What is shaping as it pertains to operant conditioning?

A

Shaping is the process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors

  • ie) attempting to train an animal to perform a complex task, you may break it down into steps, and reward for each step accomplished, then move onto the next one and only reward once they correctly perform the next step

– shaping allows for the training of extremely complicated behaviors

105
Q

What is latent learning?

A

Learning that occurs without a reward, but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced

  • ie) a classic experiment associated with latent learning involves rats running a maze. Rats that were simply carried throught he maze and then incentivized with a food reward for completing the maze on their wn performed just as well - and sometimes better - than those rats that had been trained to run the maze using more standard operant conditioning techniques
106
Q

What is problem solving as it relates to learning?

A

Another form of learning stepping outside the standard behaviorist approach. Problem solving often involves trial and error.

  • ie) children solving a jigsaw puzzle
  • as we age, our abstract thinking abilities improve and we’re able to sit back and observe the situation, and then take decisive action to solve the challenges they face
107
Q

What is preparedness as it pertains to learning?

A

The instinctual or habitual tendancies of an animal to perform a certain behavior. When training them, rewarding them for performing these natural behaviors works well in helping them learn.

  • ie) birds naturally peek when looking for food, so rewarding them with food when they perform peeking based behaviors works well
108
Q

What is instinctive drift, and how does it impede learning?

A

Instinctive drift is difficulty in overcoming instinctual behaviors due to the trained behavior being contradictory to their instinctive behaviors

  • ie) researches attempted to train racoons to place coins in a piggy bank but were unsuccessful (racoons would rub coins together, slide them into the piggy bank, then remove them)

– they couldn’t learn this behavior because it contradicted their instinctual food gathering behaviors of rubbing seeds together and washing them in a stream prior to eating them

109
Q

What is observational learning, and provide a synopsis of the popular study researching it?

A

The process of learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching others.

  • The most famous and perhaps most controversial study of observational learning is Albert Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment

– children watched an adult ina room full of toys punching and kicking an inflatable clown toy. When the children were later allowed to play in the room, many of them ignored the other toys and inflicted similar violence on the Bobo doll (just like the adults)

— observational learning is not simply imitation because it can be used to teach individuals to avoid behavior as well (after watching the adult who harmed Bobo get scolded, the children were less likely to be violent toward the doll themselves)

110
Q

What are mirror neurons?

A

Mirror neurons are located in the frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex and fire bth when an individual performs and action and when that individual observes someone else performing that action

  • They are laregely involved in motor processes, but additionally are thought to be related to empathy and vicarious emotions

– Some mirror neurons fire when we experience an emotion, and when we observe others experience the same emotion

111
Q

What is modeling as it pertains to observational learning?

A

Modeling is conducting your behavior in a manner you want others to emulate, such as your children.

  • Peope learn what behaviors are acceptable by watching other perform them

– much attention is focused on violent media or domestic abuse as models for antisocial behavior, but prosocial modeling can be just as powerful

— research has shown that children disproportionately imitate what parent did rather than what they said, so the do as I say, not as I do appreach doesn’t work

MCAT Psychology / Sociology (14 decks)

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