Social Processes, Attitude and Behavior Flashcards
Describe the Michelangelo phenomenon
Taken from Michaelangelo’s quote about the sculptur simply releasing and uncovering the ideal figures hdden within the stone, psychologists and sociologists have described self as being made up of both the intrapersonal and the interpersonal self.
- Analogous to what Michelangelo believed, the ideal self can thus be sculpted with help from others
Define the Intrapersonal Self
This is the ideas an individual has regarding his or her own abilities, traits and beliefs.
Define the Interpersonal Self
The manner in which others influence creation of the ideal self
Explain social action as defined by Max Weber
The actions and behaviors that individuals are conscious of and performing because others are around
- The idea is that humans will behave in different ways based on their social environment, and how their behavior will affect those around them
– ie) if individuals predict a negative raction from those around them, they will often modify their behavior
Social action is different from social interaction
How is social interaction different from social action?
Social action considers just the individual that is surrounded by others while social interaction looks at the behavior and actions of two or more individuals who take one another into account
Define social facilitation
The tendency of individuals to perform better at simple tasks when being observed by others
- supports the idea that people natually exhibit a performance response when they know they are being watched
– this theory suggests that performance sparls a perceived evaluation in the individuals performance, thus improving it
— social facilitation reflects idea that performance is not solely influenced by individual ability, but also by social environment and awareness of that environment
Explain the Yerkes-Dodson Law of social facilitation
This law states that being in the presence of other will significantly raise arousal, which enhances the ability to perform tasks one is already good at (or simple tasks), and hinders the performance of less familiar tasks (or complex tasks)
- ie) expert pianist may perform better in concert than when alone in practice sessions, but someone with limited muscial knowledge would perform worse
– It also shows that people perform best on complex tasks (like MCAT) when at a moderate state of arousal. Once arousal becomes too high, performance drastically decreases
Explain deindividuation
A social phenomenon where individual behavior is dramatically different in social environments
- This is thought to be due to the presence of a large group which provides anonymity, and causes a loss of individual identity
– Deindividuation can also lead to antinormative behavior
What is antinormative behavior?
Simply defined as behavior against the norm
- This aspect of deinidividuation attempts to provide an explanation for violent behavior seen in crowds and riots: in group settings, the individual loses his sense of individualtiy and becomes an anonymous part of a group
– With anonymity, they are more likely to acty in a manner that is inconsistent with their normal self
— this is enhanced when the group is in uniform or masked, disguising the individual within the group and increasing anonymity.
Describe the bystander effect
Social phenomenon occurring in social groups wherein individuals don’t intervent to help victims when others are present
- it’s been shown that the liklihood and timeliness of response is inversely related tot he number of bystanders (the more people standing by, the less likely any one of those people is to help.)
- ie) Kitty Genovese was killed outside her home in 1964 and out of the 38 witnesses, not one called the police
What are some of the factors contributing to the bystander effect?
1) When in groups, people are less likely to notice danger or anything out of the ordinary
- thought to be attributed to social etiquette (rude to watch other and surroundings)
2) When in groups, human take cues from others
- if others are not responding to a situation, and individual is less likely to perceive the situation as a threat or emergency
3) The degree of responsibility felt by the bystander
- their relationship to the victim, and whether they consider the victim to be deserving of aid
4) Cohesiveness of the group has been shown to influence the responsiveness of bystanders
- in groups of stangers, the likelihood of response and speed of response is much slower than a group of well acquainted individuals
Explain social loafing
This is the tendency of individuals to put less effort when in a groupe setting than individually
- this may apply in many contexts such as physical effort (lifting a heavy object), mental efforts (group project), or intitiatve (coming up with solutions to problems)
What is peer pressure
This refers to the social influence placed on an individual by a group of people or another individual
- peers is defined has individuals who are equals within a social group
– in adolescence, peers play an extremely important role in determining lifestyle, appearance and social activities
— peer pressure can cause drastic change in behavior, attitudes or beliefs to conform to the norms of the group
Peer pressure can exist in many forms and exists at all ages (it can be positive or negative)
- religious ideals, appearance, values, drug use and sexual behavior
What is the identity shift effect
This is when an individual’s state of harmonty is disrupted by a threat of social rejection, the individual will often conform to the norms of the group
- upon doing so, the individual will begin to experience internal conflict because the behavior is outside the normal character of the individual
– to eliminate the sense of internal conflict, the individual experiences an identity shift to adopt the standards of the group as their own
What is cognitive dissonance
This is the simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions leading to an internal state of discomfort
- this discomfort can manifest as anxiety, fear, anger or confusion
– people will typically try to reduce this discomfort by changing, adding to or minimizing one of these dissonant thoughts
Provide a brief synopsis of Solomon Asch’s conformity experiment
Experiment showing that individuals will often conform to an opinion held by the group
In the experiment, male college students participated in simple tasks of perception.
One individual would make observations in the presence of confederates who were actors pretending to be part of the experiment (goal was to see if behavior was influenced by the group)
Participants were shown two cards with lines, and asked to identify which line on card 1 matched the line on card two
the actors were instructed to either be truthful, or lie
- when being truthful, the participants’ error rate was less than 1%, but when actors lied, the error rate went up to 33%
– Asch concluded that individuals will sometimes provide answers they know to be untrue if it avoids going against the group
Explain group polarization
This is the tendency for groups to make decision that are more extreme than the individual ideas and inclinations of the individual members within the group
- thus, polarization can lead to riskier or more cautious decisions based on the initial tendencies of the group members toward risk or caution
– this explains many real-life scenarios from policy-making, violence and terrorism
What is choice shift as it relates to group polarization
Choice shift is the tendency of a group to change their average behavior following a meeting (can be positive or negative)
- Choice shift and group polarization refer to the same idea, but polarization is used to describe behavior at the individual level while choice shift describes group behavior
Explain groupthink
This refers to a social phenomenon in which desire for harmony or conformity results in a group of people coming to an incorrect or poor decision in an attempt to eliminate or minimize conflict among group members
- consensus decision are reached without alternate ideas being assessed
– the group also begins to isolate and ignore external viewpoints, seeing their own ideas as correct without question
What are the eight factors indicative of groupthink
1) Illusion of invulnerability
2) Collective rationalization
3) Illusion of morality
4) Excessive stereotyping
5) Pressure for conformity
6) Self-censorship
7) Illusion of unanimity
8) Mindguards
What is a fad?
Behavior that is transiently viewed as a popular and desirable by a large community
- ie) pogs in the 1990’s
What is mass hysteria?
This refers to a shared, intense concern about the threats to society
- many features of groupthink are present in mass hysteria, such as collective rationalization, illusion of morality, excessive stereotyping and pressure for conformity
– these lease to a shared delusion that is augmented by distrust, rumors, propaganda and fear mongering
ie) Salem Witch Trials
Define culture
Culture can be defined as the beliefs, behaviors, actions and characteristics of a group or society of people
- It is learned by living within a society, observing behaviors and traits, and adopting them
– it is passed down from generation to generation
Define culture shock
Being surprised at the dramatic difference between the cultures of others, and yours, especially while traveling abroad
- cultural differences include everyting from typical jobs, common dwellings and diet, to what time of day one eats and where one travels while on vacation
What is cultural assimilation
This is the process by which an individual’s or group’s behavior and culture begin to resemble that of another group
- this can also mean that groups with different cultures begin to merge into one
– assimilation integrates new aspects of a society and culture with old ones, transforming the culture itself
Assimilation is usually not an even blend; one group will generally have more power and influence than the other, resulting in more traits of that culture being displayed after transformation
What are the four primary factors that can be used to assess the completeness of the assimilation of immigrants?
1) Socioeconomic status
2) Geographic distribution
3) Language attainment
4) Intermarriage
What are ethnic enclaves?
These are locations (usually neighborhoods) with a high concentration of one specific ethnicity and are most common in urban areas
- ie) Chinatown and Little Italy
– these tend to slow assimilation
What is multiculturalism?
This refers to communities or societies containing multiple cultures. From a sociological perspective, multiculturalism encourages, respects and celebrates cultural differences
- this can enhance cultural diversity and acceptance within society, which contrasts with the concept of assimilation
What are subcultures?
Subcultures refer to groups of people within a culture that distinguish themselves from the primary culture to which the belong
- symbolic attachment to things such as clothing or music can differentiate the group from the majority
– subcultures can be formed based on race, gender, ethnicity, sexuality and other differentiating factors from the whole of society
— subcultures can be perceived as negative when the subvert the majority culture’s definitions of normalcy (such as countercultures)
Define counterculture
When a subculture group gravitates toward an identity that is at odds with the majority culture and deliberately opposes the prevailing social mores
What is socialization as defined by psychologists and sociologists, and its 4 sub-categories?
Socialization of the process of developing, inheriting, and spreading norms, customs and beliefs
- Individuals gain the knowledge and habits that are necessary for inclusion in society (well, most of us anyhow)
1) Primary socialization
2) Secondary socialization
3) Anticipatory socialization
4) Resocialization
What is cultural transmission / cultural learning, and cultural diffusion?
These refer to the manner in which a society socializes its members.
What is primary socialization?
This occurs during childhood, when we initially learn acceptable actions and attitudes in our society, primarily through observation of our parents and other adults in close proximity
- In children, this sets the stage for future socialization and provides the foundation for creating personal opinions
Secondary socialization
This is the process of learnign appropriate behavior within smaller sections of the larger society
- this occurs outside of the home and is based on learning the rules of specific social environments
- ie) behavior necessary to thrive in school is different from that in the home setting
– Secondary socialization is typically associated with adolescents and adults and and includes smaller changes and refinements to behavior that were established in primary socialization
What is anticipatory socialization?
The process by which a person prepares for future changes in occupations, living situations or relationships
- ie) A couple living together in preparation for married life is an example of anticipatory socialization
What is resocialization?
Another process by which one discards old behaviors in favor of new ones to make a life change, and can have positive or negative connotations
- ie) methods by which members of the armed forces are traned to obey orders and commands without hesitation is a prime example of resocialization, but so is attracting and indoctrinating members into a cult
What are norms and mores?
Norms are societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior.
- While they aren’t laws, they do provide a mechanism for regulating the behavior of individuals and groups and thereby serve as a means of social control
– Norms provide us with a sense of what is appropriate, what we should do, and what is considered taboo
Mores are widely observed social norms
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What are sanctions in the context of sociology?
Sanctions are penalties for misconduct, used to maintain social control
- these often include fines or incarceration; in some societies, corporal punishment (infliction of pain or bodily injury) and capital punishment (execution)
Define taboo
Socially unacceptable, disgusting or reprehensible behavior.
What are folkways?
Folkways are norms that refer to behavior that is considered polite in particular social interactions, such as shaking hands after a sports match
Provide some examples of agents of socialization for children, adolexcents and adults.
Children - primarily parents, family members and teachers
Adolescents - social circles including friends, peers and teachers
Adults - colleagues and bosses can also facilitate socialization
What is deviance?
Deviance refers to any violation of norms, rules or expectations within a society
- using the term deviant is often associated with strongly negative connotations; however, in the sociological context, it simply refers to any act that goes against social norms
– varies in severity from jay-walking to murder
What is social stigma?
This is extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society
- These deviations from the norm can include differences in beliefs, abilities, behaviors and appearance
- ie) certain medical conditions such as HIV and obesity can be stigmatized
– it can also spread to affect others associated with a particular individual (families of serial killers, etc.)
Explain labeling theory.
Strongly linked with deviance, stigmatization and reputation, this theory posits that the labels given to people affect not only how other respond to that person, but also the person’s self image.
- this can lead to channeling of behavior into deviance or conformity
- ie) woman labeled as promiscuous, this could either lead to further promiscuity or to a change in behavior toward socially accepted behavior
– We usually avoid being labeled, but some groups embrace deviant labels
Explain differential association theory
This theory states that intimate exposure to other who engage in deviany behavior lays the groundwork for one to engage in deviant behavior themselves
- differential association is the degree to which one is surrounded by ideals that adhere to social norms vs. ideals that go against them
– in this theory, when associations with others engaging in deviant behavior are more numerous than normative behavior, the indiidual begins gravitating toward deviant behavior themselves
Explain strain theory
This theory attempts to explain deviance as a natural reaction to the disconnect between between social goals and social structure
- ie) the American dream = acquiring wealth and personal stability through achievement and hard work (desireable social goal), but the structure of society is unable to guarantee the education and opportunity needed to achieve this goalto all citizens
– therefore, deviant behavior such as theft may arise as an attempt to achieve the social goal outside of the limiting social structure
Define conformity aka majority influence and what are the two most important types for the MCAT?
Matching one’s attitudes, beliefs and behaviors to societal norms
- the pressure to conform can be real or imagined: an actual pressure from others, or a perceived pressure or expectation
1) Internalization
2) Identification
Define Internalization
This involves changing one’s behavior to fit with a group while also privately agreeing with the ideas of the group.
- classic experiment looking at internalization was Philip Zimbardo’s Standord Prison Experiment (guards and prisoners who took on their roles). After the experiment, they were shocked by their behavior
- Western cultures far less willing to conform than Eastern cultures
Define Identification
This refers to the outward acceptance of others’ ideas without personally thaking on these ideas
Define Compliance, and what are somem of the notable techniques
Compliance is a change in behavior based on a direct request
- The person or group that asks the individual to make the change typically has no actual power or authority to command the individual, yet will ask him to change behavior
1) Foot-in-the-door technique
2) Door-in-the-face technique
3) Lowball technique
4) That’s-not-all technique
Explain the foot-in-the-door technique
This is when a small request is made, and after gaining compliance, a larger request is made
Explain the door-in-the-face technique
This is the opposite of the foot in the door technique. Here, a large request is presented first and, if refused, a second, smaller request is made
- Often, this smaller request is the goal of the requester
Explain the lowball technique
This technique involves getting an initial commitment from an individual, and then raising the cost of the commitment
- like when your manipulative boss has you commit to something, then feeds off of your soul, so then you go to medical school and become her boss.
Explain the that’s not all technique.
This method involves making an offer, but before they make a decision, you tell them the deal is better than they expected
- Infomercials: Low prive of $19.99, but if you call in the next 20 min, you’ll get an additional product!
Define obediance
Obediance is changing one’s behavior in response to a direct order from an authority figure
- authority figures have social power over other individuals
- ie) Stanley Milgrams obediance experiment
Explain social cognition
This focuses on the ways in which people think about others and how these ideas impace behavior
- Our attitudes - the ways in which we perceive others- impact the ways we behave toward them
Define attitude, and name its three primary components
An attitude is the expression of positive or negative feelings toward a person, place, thing, or scenario
- Attitudes develop from experiences with others who affect our opinions and behaviors
– Even prior to meeting someone, past experiences and information from others can influence your attitude toward a person
1) Affective
2) Behavioral
3) Cognitive
Explain the affective component of attitude
This component refers to the way a person feels toward something, and is the emotional component of attitude
- ie) Snakes scare me and I love my family, etc.
What is the behavioral component of attitude?
This is the way a person acts with respect to something
-ie) because you don’t like snakes, you actively avoid them
What is the cognitive component of attitude?
The cognitive component of attitude is the way an individual thinks about something, which is usually the justification for the other two components
-ie) knowing snakes can be dangerous provides a reason to be afraid, and to avoid them
What is the functional attitudes theory?
Theory stating that attitudes serve four functions:
1) Knowlede
2) Ego expression
3) Adaptation
4) Ego defense
Explain the knowledge function of the functional attitudes theory
Attitudes help provide organization to thoughts and experiences, and knowing the attitudes of other helps to predict their behavior.
- This function is important in that it provides consistency and stability
– ie) One would predict that someone who cares about political action would vote in an upcoming election
Explain the ego-expressive function of attitudes
Ego-expressive attitudes allow us to communicate and solidify our self identity
-ie) If a person strongly identifies with a sports team, she may wear a hat that helps identify her as a fan of that team
Explain the adaptive function of attitudes
Adaptive attitude is the idea that one will be accepted if they express socailly acceptable attitudes
Explain the ego-defensive function of attitude
Attitudes are ego-defensive if they protect our self-esteem or justify actions that we know are wrong
-ie) a child who has difficulty doing math may develop a negative attitude toward the subject
What is the Learning Theory, and provide some examples
The Learning theory posits that attitudes are developed through different forms of learning, and that direct contact with the object can influence attitudes
-ie) children form a positive attitude toward sweets almost immediately after tasting them
Attitudes can also be acquired through direct instruction from others, and also be influenced by others’ attitudes
ie) teen may develop positive attitude towards smoking if all their friends smoke, or negative attitude towards cursing and people who curse after parents teach them cursing is bad
Attitudes can also be formed through classical conditioning, operant conditioning or observational learning
Explain the elaboration likelihood model
This model separates individuals on a continuum based on their processing of persuasive information (most people fall near the middle of this category)
- Two types of processing:
1) Central Route Processing - thinking deeply
2) Peripheral Route Processing - impressed with superficial details
– ie) Consider two voters watching a political campaign: while one may be swayed by the cogent arguments made by one candidate (high elaboration, central route processing), the other may be swared by the perception that the other candidate is more personable (low elaboration, peripheral route processing)
Explain central route processing of elaboration liklihood model
At one extreme are those who elaborate extensively; that is, those who think deeply about information, scrutinizing its meaning and purpose, and draw conclusions or make decision based on this thought
Explain peripheral route processing of elaboration likelihood model
Those who do not elaborate, focusing on superficial details: the appearance of the person delivering the argument, catchphrases / slogans and credibility
Explain the social cognitive theory
This theory postulates that people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviors of others
- In other words, behavior isn’t learned by trial-and-error, but develops through direct observation and replication of the actions of others, and in tandem with the influence of personal factors (such as thoughts about the behavior) and the environment in which we observe the behavior
Explain Bandura’s Triadic Reciprocal Causation, and how it applies to Social Cognitive Theory
This encompasses the three factors contributing to the development of attitude - behavior, personal factors and environment - and shows they are not independent concepts, but influence each other
-ie) The work ethic of employees in a company (behavior) is affected by how hard their colleagues work, their previous attitudes toward hard work (personal), and the systems and infrastructure of the company (environment)
Reciprocally, this behavior may creates a change in the employee’s attitude toward work (personal) and the systems within the company (environment)
Define Illusion of Invulnerability
the creation of optimism and encouragement of risk-taking
Define Collective Rationalization
ignoring warnings against the idea of the group
Define Illusion of Morality
the belief that the group’s decisions are morally correct
Excessive Stereotyping
the construction of stereotypes against outside opinions
Define Pressure for Conformity
the pressure put on anyone in the group who expresses opinions against the group, viewing the opposition as disloyal
Define Self-Censorship
the withholding of opposing views
Illusion of Unanimity
the false sense of agreement within the group
Define Mindguards
the appointment of memebers to the role of protecting against opposing views
