Social Interaction

Question 1

Define statuses

Answer 1

Positions in society that are used to classify individuals

• ie) a premed student (or an older nontrad who never took orgo or biochem learning it for the MCAT)
• Most statuses exist in relation to other statuses: being a premed student doesn’t have meaning unless there are other statuses with which to compare it, such as medical student or resident

– not all personal characteristics are considered statues (being left handed for example, isn’t a status)

Question 2

What are the three key types of statuses?

Answer 2

1) Ascribed status
2) Achieved status
3) Master status

Question 3

What is an ascribed status?

Answer 3

One that is given involuntarily, due to such factors as race, ethnicity, gender and family background

Question 4

What is an achieved status?

Answer 4

A status that is gained as a result of one’s efforts or choices, such as being a doctor

Question 5

What is a master status?

Answer 5

The status by which a person is most identified.

• Typically the most important status the individual holds, and affects all aspects of their life

– Also generally how people view themselves, and holds a symbolic value

— Master statuses can also cause pigeon holding: viewing someone as only their master status and no other characteristics (such as the president or other major political figure)

Question 6

What is a role as it pertains to statuses?

Answer 6

A role is a set of beliefs, values, attitudes and norms that define expectations for those who hold the status

Question 7

What is role performance?

Answer 7

Role performance is the carrying out of behaviors associated with a given role

• Individuals can vary in how successful they are at performing a role
  ie) doctors must translate medical lingo into a vernacular patients can understand; some are way better at this than others

– role performance can also change depending on who the person’s role partner is

Question 8

What is a role partner and a role set?

Answer 8

The person with whom one is interacting

• doctors have many role partners such as nurses, patients’ relatives, other doctors, resident and hospital administration

The various roles associated with a status are referred to as a role set

Question 9

What is role conflict, role strain and role exit?

Answer 9

Role conflict - Difficulty in satisfying the requirements or expectations of multiple roles

Role strain - difficulty in satisfying multiple requirements of the same role

Role exit - is the dropping of one identity for another

Question 10

Define a social group as it pertains to social interaction

Answer 10

A group consists of two or more people who share similar characteristics and a sense of unity

• Common characteristics shared by social groups include values, interests, ethnicity, social background, family ties and political representation

Question 11

Explain some of the key reasons for the importance of social groups

Answer 11

Social groups help provide many of the needs we have; they provide an opportunity to belong and be accepted, and offer protection, safety and support

We also learn, earn a living and practive religion in groups

Groups can also be a source of conflict, including discrimination, persecution, oppression and war

Question 12

What are the 5 most common types of groups?

Answer 12

1) Peer groups
2) Family groups
3) In-groups
4) Out-groups
5) Reference groups

Question 13

Define a peer group

Answer 13

A group that is defined by association of self-selected equals around similar interests, ages and statuses

• They provide an opportunity for friendship and feelings of belonging

Question 14

What is a family group?

Answer 14

Group consisting of individuals who are born, adopted or married into.

It joins members of various ages, sexes and generations through emotional ties

• Family groups can be filled with conflict at times
• ie) very true of adolescents when peer groups begin competing with family groups for time and loyalty

Question 15

What are in-groups and out-groups?

Answer 15

Groups to which an individual belongs and can be contrasted with out-groups, with which an individual competes or is in opposition

Question 16

What are reference groups?

Answer 16

Groups that establish the terms by which individuals evaluate themselves: to determine how strong of a medical school applicant you are, you may consider yourself in relation to the reference group of all medical school applicants (so…not strong…)

Question 17

What is a primary group?

Answer 17

A group characterized by direct interactions, close bonds providing warm, personal and intimate relationships to members

• These groups often last a long period of time and may include a core circle of friends, a tightly knit family, or members of a team

Question 18

What is a secondary group?

Answer 18

Groups characterized by superficial interactions, with few emotional bonds

• Typically last for a short period of time, and they form and dissolve without any special significance, such as students working together on a group project

Question 19

Explain the Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft (Community and society) theory of Ferdinand Tonnies

Answer 19

Theory distinguishing two major types of groups: Community and Society

1) Community - refers to groups unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry or geography
- ie) families and neighborhoods
2) Society - refers to groups that are formed because of mutual self-interests working together toward the same goal
- ie) companies and countries

Question 20

What is interaction process analysis and the system for multiple level observation of groups (SYMLOG)

Answer 20

A technique for observing, classifying and measuring the interactions within small groups

• in 1970’s it was revised to the system for multiple level observation of groups

– based on belief that there are three fundamental dimensions of interaction:

1) dominance vs. submission
2) friendliness vs. unfriendlines
3) instrumentally controlled vs. emotionally expressive

Question 21

Explain group conformity

Answer 21

Group conformity is a phenomenon where it has been observed that a group holds power over its members through group pressure that ultimately shapes members’ behaviors

• individuals are compliant with the group’s goals, even when those goals may be in direct contrast to the individual’s goals

– Individuals conform in an attempt to fit in and be accepted by the group

— Individuals will often participate in behaviors they normally would not

Question 22

Explain groupthink

Answer 22

Groupthink is a phenomenon related to group conformity, and occurs when members begin to focus solely on ideas generated within the group, while ignoring outside ideas

• this leads to groups not exploring all sides of an issues and may limit the group’s options or views; group members may also self-censor by not expressing their beliefs

Question 23

What is a network?

Answer 23

A network is the observable pattern of social relationships among individuals or groups

• Patterns of relationship can be determined by mapping the interactions between individual units, the nature of which can be highly variable

– Network maps (like below) facilitate analizing social networks and can be used to gain understanding of the actions of individuals and groups, and to study the broader social structure

Question 24

What are some pros and cons of being in a specific network

Answer 24

Individuals in a network face the demands and expectations of other members, constraining what they are able to do

They also may have access to resources through the network

-ie) an example of a network is a university’s alumni association: the members are held to certain standards and commitments, but also may reap the benefits of the network when searching for a job

Question 25

Explain the difference between immediate and distant networks

Answer 25

Immediate networks are dense with strong ties (a group of close friends)

Distant networks are looser and contain weaker ties (aquaintances)

• The combination of immediate and distant networks provide the most benefit to individuals, which is augmented if the networks work complementarily to provide different resources

Question 26

What is an organization as defined in sociology?

Answer 26

These are entities that are set up to achieve specific goals and are characterized by having a structure and a culture

• ie) school groups, companies, sports teams, political organizations, etc.

– The study of organizations is at the heart of sociology because of the importance that organizations have throughout a person’s life

Question 27

What are some characteristics of formal organizations

Answer 27

They differ from groups in many ways:

First, they continue despite the departure of an individual member, meaning they can have a history before and after an individual member

Second, organizations have expressed goals that are generally recorded in a written format, and guide the members and their activities

Third, organizations have enforcement procedures that seek to control the activities of their members

Finally, organizations are characterized by the hierarchical allotment of formal roles or duties to members.

Question 28

What is a characteristic institution

Answer 28

This is the basic institution of a society

• In prehistoric times, it consisted of the kin, clan or sib

– Now, with cities being transformed into urban centers of trade and commerce, we have moved to a bureaucracy

Question 29

What is a bureaucracy, and what are its six general characteristics?

Answer 29

A rational system of political organization, administration, discipline and control.

• Generally, a bureaucracy has these six characteristics:
  1) paid, nonelected officials on a fixed salary
  2) Officials who are provided rights and privileges (as a result of making their career out of holding office)
  3) Regular salary increases, seniority rights and promotions upong passing exams or milestones
  4) Officials who enter the organization by holding an advanced degree or training
  5) Responsibilities, obligations, privileges and work procedures rigidly defined by the organization
  6) Responsibility for meeting the demands of one’s position
• Due to these characteristics, bureaucracies are often slow to change and less efficient than other organizations

Question 30

Explain the iron law of oligarchy

Answer 30

This law states that democratic or bureaucratic systems naturally shift to being ruled by an elite group

• Shift occurs due to a number of factors, including the necessity of a core body of individuals to carry out the day-to-day activities of the organization, increased need for specialization and leadership characteristics of certain members of the gorup

– Thus, even a group established with democratic principles and complete egalitarianism will ultimately centralize, placing power in the hands of a few key leaders

Question 31

Explain the term McDonaldization

Answer 31

This term is commonly used to refer to a shift in focus toward efficiency, predictability, calculability and control in societies

-ie) establishment of 24 hour news channel which feature a running footer of the latest news demonstrates an efficient and predictable source of information

– Corporations may mine “big data” to make business decisions using controlled, standardized methods, allowing the business to focus on the calculable outcomes of a choice such as profit and loss analysis and market share

Question 32

Define self-presentation / impression management

Answer 32

The process of displaying oneself to society through culturally accepted behaviors

• The implication of self-presentation is that people use specific strategies to shape what others will think of them

Question 33

What is meant by the term, expressed emotions

Answer 33

Expressed emotions include both verbal and nonverbal behaviors that communicates internal states

We can express emotions with or without conscious awareness

• many things govern emotional expression including culture and gender roles
• ie) Research shows that in US, women are expected to express anger in public less often than men, while men are expecte to repress the expression of sadness

Research also supports the conclusion that women are better at detecting subtle differences in emotional expression than men

Question 34

Explain the basic model of emotional expression

Answer 34

First established by Charles Darwin, he stated that emotional expression involves a number of components: facial expressions, behaviors, postures, vocal changes and physiological changes

• He claimed that expression is consistent with his theories on evolution and should be similar across all cultures

– Also stated that animals used rudimentary muscle actions that are similar to those used by humans for facial expressions

Question 35

Explain the appraisal model

Answer 35

The appraisal model is another emotional model which accepts that there are bilogically predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced, but that there is a cognitive antecedent to emotional expression

Question 36

Explain the social construction model

Answer 36

This model assumes that there is no biological basis for emotions

• Instead, emotions are based on experiences and the situational context alone

– It also suggests that certain emotions can only exist within social encounters and that emotions are expressed differently - and thus play different roles- across cultures

— in this model, one must be familiar with social norms for a certain emotion to perform the corresponding emotional behaviors in a given social situation

Question 37

Explain the relationship between culture and emotional expression

Answer 37

Culture provides the foundation to understand and interpret behaviors

• studies suggested that cultural differences can lead to very different social consequences when emotions are expressed

Question 38

What are display rules?

Answer 38

Display rules are the cultural expectations of emotions

• a culture’s display rules govern which emotions can be expressed and to what degree

– if one breaks the display rules, they could become social pariahs

(some cultures express pain and loss loudly, while some cultures view this as being weak)

Question 39

What are four methods for managing emotional expression?

Answer 39

1) Simulating feelings one does not actually feel
2) Qualifying, amplifying or deamplifying feelings
3) Masking an emotion with another emotion
4) Neutralizing any emotional expression whatsoever

Question 40

What is a cultural syndrome?

Answer 40

A shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values and behaviors among members of the same culture that are organized around a central theme

• they influence the rules for expressing or suppressing emotions and can even influence the ways emotions are experienced
• ie) individualistic societies, such as Western culture, view happiness as infinite, attainable and internally experienced

collectivist cultures, like many Eastern countries, see happiness as a very rational emotion, and generally applied to collective experiences more than to individual successes

Question 41

Explain impression management and the three selves.

Answer 41

This refers to our attempts to influence how others perceive us. This is accomplished through the regulation or controlling of information in social interactions

1) Authentic Self
2) Ideal Self
3) Tactical Self

Question 42

Define authentic self

Answer 42

This describes who the person actually is, including both positive and negative attributes

Question 43

Define Ideal Self

Answer 43

The ideal self refers to who we would like to be under optimal circumstances

Question 44

Define tactical self

Answer 44

The tactical self refers to who we market ourselves to be when we adhere to others’ expectations of us

Question 45

What are common impression management strategies

Answer 45

1) Self-disclosure
2) Managing Appearance
3) Ingratiation
4) Aligning actions
5) Alter-casting

Question 46

Explain the dramaturgical self and the two aspects of it you need to know for the MCAT

Answer 46

Describes impression management through a metaphor of a theatrical performance

• describes how individuals create images of themselves in various situations
  1) back stage self
  2) front stage self

Question 47

Explain the front stage self.

Answer 47

Where actor is in front of an audience and performs according to the setting role and script in order to conform to the image he wants others to see

-ie) you behave different in a work environment than you do at home, or with friends

Question 48

Explain back stage self

Answer 48

Back stage self is your personality when no one is watching, and you are able to act in ways that aren’t congruent with your desired public image

Question 49

Define communication

Answer 49

Communication is the ability to convey information by speech, writing, signals or behavior

• it is the foundation of social interaction and is often used to elicit changes, generate action, create understanding, sjare a point of view or inform

– effective communication is achieved when the desired message is received by the recipient

Question 50

Verbal communication

Answer 50

`The transmission of information via the use of words, whether spoken, written, or signed.

• It is tied to nonverbal communication and is often dependent on nonverbal cues for the receiver to understand the sender’s full meaning

Question 51

Define nonverbal communication

Answer 51

This refers to how people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally without the use of words

• some examples are facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body position and movement, touches and eye positioning

– Nonverbal cues serve a number of functions in communication, including expression of emotions, conveyance of attitudes and personality traits, and facilitation of verbal communication

Question 52

Define animal communication

Answer 52

Defined as any behavior of one animal that affects the behavior of another

• Nonhuman animals commincate via a variety of nonverbal means, including body language, rudimentary facial expressions, visual displays, scents and vocalizations