Identity and Personality Flashcards
Define self-concept
an idea of the self constructed from the beliefs one holds about oneself and the responses of others.
- includes appraisal of who we used to be and who we will become
– individual self concept plays an important role in the way we evaluate and feel about ourselves
Define self-schema
The self-schema refers to a long lasting and stable set of memories that summarize a person’s beliefs, experiences and generalizations about the self, in specific behavioral domains.
ie) exciting or dull; quiet or loud; healthy or sickly; athletic or nonathletic; lazy or active; and geek or jock. If a person has a schema for “geek,” for example, he might think of himself as a bit of a computer geek and would possess a lot of information about that trait.
Define identity
The individual components of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong
- multiple identities that define who we are and how we should behave within a given context
– Religious affiliation, sexual orientation, personal relationships and membership in social groups are jus a few of the identities that sum to create our self-concept
*Identities not alwasy compatible: not the same with friends as you are with your boss
Define gender identity
Gender identity describes a person’s appraisal of themselves on scales of maxculinity and femininity
- two separate dimensions rather rather than two extremes of a continuum because people can score high for both male and female trais
– usually well established by age three, but may morph and change over time
* not necessarily tied to biological sex or sexual orientation
Define Androgyny
the state of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine (people who score high for both masculine and feminine traits)
Define undifferentiated
Individuals who achieve low scores on both masculine and feminine scales
Define ethnic identity
one’s ethnic group, in which members typically share a common ancestry, cultural heritage and language.
Explain the study and results of Kenneth and Mamie Clark’s ethnic self-concept among ethnically white and black children in 1939 and 1940
They used a doll preference task: The experimenter showed each child a black doll and a white doll and asked the child a series of questions about how the child felt about the dolls
- both white and black children preferred the white doll
– apparently this highlights the negative effects of racism and minority group status on the self-concept of black children
— Newer studies have shown that black children tend to hold more positive views of their own ethnicity (this may represent societal changes)
Define nationality
National identity, based on political borders, is the result of shared history, media, cuisine and national symbols such as a country’s flag.
- not tied to ethnicity or even to legal citizenship
Explain the hierarchy of salience as it pertains to identity
Idea that there are several factors that determine which identity will be enacted in particular situations, and that our identities are organized according to a hierarchy of salience
- we let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment
– researchers have found that the more salient the identity, the more we conform to the role expectations of the identities
What is salience as it pertains to the hierarchy of salience and what are some of the factors which determine salience?
Salient means prominent or conspicuous
- some factors determining salience are:
- the amount of work we have invested into the identity (being a doctor)
- Rewards and gratification associated with the identity (being a doctor)
- amount of self-esteem we have associated with the identity (being a doctor)
Self-discrepancy theory
Theory stating that each of us has three selves:
1) Actual self
2) Ideal self
3) Ought self
* Generally, the closer these three selves are to one another, the higher our self-esteem will be
What is “actual self” as it pertains to self-discrepancy theory
The actual self is the way we see ourselves as we currently are
- made up of self-concept
What is ideal self as it pertains to self-discrepancy theory
The person we would like to be
What is ought self as it pertains to self-discrepancy theory
Our representation of the way otehrs think we should be
Define self-esteem and give examples of behaviors of people with low self-esteem
The measure of how we feel about ourselves
- individuals with low self-esteem don’t necessarily view themselves as worthless, but will be far more critical of themselves
- as a result, they take criticism from other poorly and typically believe people will only accept them if the are successful
– research shows they are also more likely to use drugs, be pessimistic and to give up when facing frustration
Define self-efficacy
Our belief in our ability to succeed and can vary by activity for individuals
- People more motivated to pursue those tasks for which our self-efficacy is high, but self-efficacy that is too high can be deleterious
Define overconfidence
quality of being too confident
- can lead us to take on tasks for which we are not ready, leading to frustration, humiliation, or sometimes even personal injury
Explain learned helplessness, and the experiment
Unethical experiment where dogs were separated into three groups 1) control group - dogs strapped into harness
2) dogs strapped into harness and subjected to painful electrical shocks unless they pressed a lever to stop them
3) dogs strapped into a harness and subjected to painful shocks with no way to stop them (powerless)
- 1st and 2nd group recovered quickly from experience, but 3rd group soon stopped trying to escape the shock and acted helpless to avoid pain, even when offered opportinities to avoid being shocked (this is learned helplessness)
– Only when dogs were forcibly removed from cages did they change expectations about their control
* Learned helplessness is considered one possible model of clinical depression
Explain locus of control
Locus of control refers to the way we characterize the influences in our lives.
- People with an internal locus of control view themselves as controlling their own fate
- People with an external locus of control feel that the events in their lives are caused by luck or outside influences
What are the 5 stages of psychosexual development as proposed by Freud?
1) Oral stage (0-1 years)
2) Anal stage (1-3 years)
3) Phallic, or Oedipal stage (3-5 years)
4) Latency stage (5 - puberty)
5) Genital stage (puberty onward)
Explain Freud’s theory of psychosexual development especially as it pertains to the conflict and resolution of each stage.
Frued thought human psychology and sexuality were inextricably linked
- He proposed libido (sex drive) is present at birth and that libidinal energy and drive to reduce libidinal tension were underlying dynamic forces that accounted for human psychological processes
- In each stage, children are faced with a conflict between societal demands and the desire to reduce libidinal tension associated with different erogenous zones
- each stage differs in the manner in which libidinal energy is manifested and the way in which the libidinal drive is met
Define fixation as it pertains to psychosexual development
a persistent focus of the id’s pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier stage of psychosexual development. These fixations occur when an issue or conflict in a psychosexual stage remains unresolved, leaving the individual focused on this stage and unable to move onto the next
- fixation occurs when a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development
- in response to anxiety caused by fixation, the child forms a personality pattern based on that particular stage, which persists into adulthood as a mental disorder known as neurosis
Define neurosis
a relatively mild mental illness that is not caused by organic disease, involving symptoms of stress (depression, anxiety, obsessive behaviour, hypochondria) but not a radical loss of touch with reality
Explain the oral stage
The first stage (0-1 year). During this stage, gratification is obtained primarily through putting objects into the mouth, bitin and sucking. Libidinal energy is centered on the mouth.
- Orally fixated adults would likely exhibit excessive dependency
Explain the anal stage
From 1-3 years is the anal stage, during which the libido is centered on the anus and gratification is gained through the elination and retention of waste materials.
- Toilet training occurs during this stage.
Fixation during this stage would lead to either excessive ordeliness (anal-retentiveness), or sloppiness in the adult
Explain the phallic or Oedipal stage.
Occurring during the ages of 3-5, it centers on resolution of the Oedipal conflict for male children, or the analogous Electra conflict for female children.
Explain the conflict and resolution of the phallic stage for male children
- In Freud’s view, the male child envies his father’s intimate relationship with his mother and fears castration at his father’s hands.
– He wishes to eliminate his father, and possess his mother, but the child feels guilty about these wishes.
— to successfully resolve the conflict, he deals with his guilty feelings by identifying with his father, establishing his sexual identity, and internalizing moral values
Finally, to a large extent, the child de-eroticizes or sublimates his libidinal energy by collecting objects or focusing on shcoolwork
What is the conflict and resolution of phallic stage for female children
Freud didn’t elaborate much on the Electra comples, although he theorized a similar desire.
- Because females cannopt have castration fear, they are thought to have penis envy.
– Girls are expected to exhibit less stereotypically female behavior and be less morally developed in this theory
Explain the latency stage
The latency stage begins once the libido is sublimated at the conclusion of the phallic stage, where libidinal energy is latent until puberty is reached
Explain the genital stage
Beginning in puberty, and lasting through adulthood
- According to Freud, if prior development has proceeded correctly, the person should enter into health heterosexual relationships at this point. However, if sexual traumas of childhood have not been resolved, such behaviors as homosexuality, asexuality or fetishism may result
Provide a synopsis of Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development
Erikson’s stages of personality development are based on a series of crisis that derive from conflicts between needs and social demands
- psychosocial theory emphasizes emotional development and interactions with the social environment
*possible to fail at resolving conflict central to each stage, but doesn’t mean that mastery of each stage is required to move on
What are the 8 stages of Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development with their associated ages
1) Trust vs. mistrust (0-1 year)
2) Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1-3 years)
3) Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years)
4) Industry vs. inferiority (6-12 years)
5) Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-20 years)
6) Intimacy vs. Isolation (20-40 years)
7) Generativity vs. stagnation (40-65 years)
8) Integrity vs. despair (65 - death)
Explain the trust vs. mistrust stage
Essential Question: Can I trust the world?
If the conflict between trust and mistrust is resolved successfully, the child will come to trust his environment as well as themselves
- If mistrust prevails, the child will often be suspicious of the world, possibly throughout their lives
Explain conflict between autonomy vs. shame and doubt
Essential Question: Is it okay to be me?
The favorable outcome here is feeling able to exert control over the world and to exercise choice as well as self restraint.
- The unfavorable outcome is a sense of doubt and a persistent external locus of control
Explain conflict between initiative and guilt
Essential Question: Is it okay for me to do, move and act?
Favorable outcomes include a sense of purpose, the ability to initiate activities, and the ability to enjoy accomplishment
If guilt wins out, the child will be so overcome by the fear of punishment that the child may either unduly restrict himself, or may overcompensate by showing off
Explain industry vs. inferiority
Essential Question: Can I make it in the world or people and things?
if resolved favorably, the child will feel competent, be able to exercise their abilities and intelligence in the world, and be able to affect the world in the way that the child desires.
Unfavorable resolution results in a sense of inadequacy, a sense of inability to act in a competent manner, and low self-esteem
Explain identity vs. role confusion
Essential Question: Who am I, What can I be?
This stage encompasses what Erikson termed physiological revolution
The favorable outcome is fidelity, the ability to see oneself as a unique and integrated person with sustained loyalties
Unfavorable outcomes are confusion about one’s identiy and an amorphous personality that shifts from day to day
Explain intimacy vs. isolation
Essential Question: Can I love?
The main crisis of young adulthood, favorable outcomes are love, the ability to have intimate relationships with others, and the ability to commit oneself to another person and to one’s own goals
- If not favorably resolved, there will be an avoidance of commitment, alienation, and distancing of oneself from others and one’s ideals
– Isolated individuals are either withdrawn or capable of only superficial relationships with others
Explain generativity vs stagnation
Essential Question: Can I make my life count?
The successful resolution of this conflict results in an individual capable of being productive, caring and a contributing member of society
If this crisis is not overcome, one acquires a sense of stagnation and may become self-indulgent, bored, and self-centered with little care for others
Explain integrity vs. despair
Essential Question: Is it okay to have been me?
If favorably resolved, we will see wisdom, which Erikson defined as detached concern with life itself, with assurance in the meaning of life, dignity, and an acceptance that one’s own life has been worthwhile, along with a readiness to face death.
If not resolved favorably, there will be feelings of bitterness about one’s life, a feeling that life has been worthless, and at the same time, fear over one’s own impending death
Provide a synopsis of Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of personality development
Theory of personality development focussing on the development of moral thinking rather than on resolving conflicts and urges
- Kohlberg reasoned that, as our cognitive abilities grow, we are able to think about the world in more complex and nuanced ways, and this directly affects the ways in which we resolve moral dilemmas, as well as perceive the notion of right and wrong
Explain the Heinz dilemma experiment, and how Kohlberg used the responses of participants to organize moral reasoning into his stages of moral reasoning.
Kohlberg told participants about a man named Heinz, whose wife was dying of a rare disease. A druggist invented a drug that could cure the disease and cost $200 to produce, yet he sells it for $2000. Heinz cannot afford this price, so he pleads with the druggist to lower the price. The druggist refuses. Desperate to save his wife, Heinz breaks into the druggists office one night and steals the medication.
- Kohlberg asked the volunteers to explain whether the characters in the story acted morally, and why or why not.
– He wasn’t interested in their appraisal, but rather the reasoning behind the appraisal
Based upon their responses, he organized moral reasoning into six distinct stages, ranging from the concrete to the abstract. He then organized these stages into three phases consisting of two stages each
List the three phases of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development with their associated stages
Phase I: Preconventional morality
1) Obediance
2) Self-interest
Phase II: Conventional morality
3) Conformity
4) Law and order
Phase III: Postconventional morality
5) Social contract
6) Universal human ethics
– Kohlberg viewed these stages as a progession in which each stage is adopted and then abandoned for the next as the individual progresses.
