Identity and Personality Flashcards
Define self-concept
an idea of the self constructed from the beliefs one holds about oneself and the responses of others.
- includes appraisal of who we used to be and who we will become
– individual self concept plays an important role in the way we evaluate and feel about ourselves
Define self-schema
The self-schema refers to a long lasting and stable set of memories that summarize a person’s beliefs, experiences and generalizations about the self, in specific behavioral domains.
ie) exciting or dull; quiet or loud; healthy or sickly; athletic or nonathletic; lazy or active; and geek or jock. If a person has a schema for “geek,” for example, he might think of himself as a bit of a computer geek and would possess a lot of information about that trait.
Define identity
The individual components of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong
- multiple identities that define who we are and how we should behave within a given context
– Religious affiliation, sexual orientation, personal relationships and membership in social groups are jus a few of the identities that sum to create our self-concept
*Identities not alwasy compatible: not the same with friends as you are with your boss
Define gender identity
Gender identity describes a person’s appraisal of themselves on scales of maxculinity and femininity
- two separate dimensions rather rather than two extremes of a continuum because people can score high for both male and female trais
– usually well established by age three, but may morph and change over time
* not necessarily tied to biological sex or sexual orientation
Define Androgyny
the state of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine (people who score high for both masculine and feminine traits)
Define undifferentiated
Individuals who achieve low scores on both masculine and feminine scales
Define ethnic identity
one’s ethnic group, in which members typically share a common ancestry, cultural heritage and language.
Explain the study and results of Kenneth and Mamie Clark’s ethnic self-concept among ethnically white and black children in 1939 and 1940
They used a doll preference task: The experimenter showed each child a black doll and a white doll and asked the child a series of questions about how the child felt about the dolls
- both white and black children preferred the white doll
– apparently this highlights the negative effects of racism and minority group status on the self-concept of black children
— Newer studies have shown that black children tend to hold more positive views of their own ethnicity (this may represent societal changes)
Define nationality
National identity, based on political borders, is the result of shared history, media, cuisine and national symbols such as a country’s flag.
- not tied to ethnicity or even to legal citizenship
Explain the hierarchy of salience as it pertains to identity
Idea that there are several factors that determine which identity will be enacted in particular situations, and that our identities are organized according to a hierarchy of salience
- we let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment
– researchers have found that the more salient the identity, the more we conform to the role expectations of the identities
What is salience as it pertains to the hierarchy of salience and what are some of the factors which determine salience?
Salient means prominent or conspicuous
- some factors determining salience are:
- the amount of work we have invested into the identity (being a doctor)
- Rewards and gratification associated with the identity (being a doctor)
- amount of self-esteem we have associated with the identity (being a doctor)
Self-discrepancy theory
Theory stating that each of us has three selves:
1) Actual self
2) Ideal self
3) Ought self
* Generally, the closer these three selves are to one another, the higher our self-esteem will be
What is “actual self” as it pertains to self-discrepancy theory
The actual self is the way we see ourselves as we currently are
- made up of self-concept
What is ideal self as it pertains to self-discrepancy theory
The person we would like to be
What is ought self as it pertains to self-discrepancy theory
Our representation of the way otehrs think we should be
Define self-esteem and give examples of behaviors of people with low self-esteem
The measure of how we feel about ourselves
- individuals with low self-esteem don’t necessarily view themselves as worthless, but will be far more critical of themselves
- as a result, they take criticism from other poorly and typically believe people will only accept them if the are successful
– research shows they are also more likely to use drugs, be pessimistic and to give up when facing frustration
Define self-efficacy
Our belief in our ability to succeed and can vary by activity for individuals
- People more motivated to pursue those tasks for which our self-efficacy is high, but self-efficacy that is too high can be deleterious
Define overconfidence
quality of being too confident
- can lead us to take on tasks for which we are not ready, leading to frustration, humiliation, or sometimes even personal injury
Explain learned helplessness, and the experiment
Unethical experiment where dogs were separated into three groups 1) control group - dogs strapped into harness
2) dogs strapped into harness and subjected to painful electrical shocks unless they pressed a lever to stop them
3) dogs strapped into a harness and subjected to painful shocks with no way to stop them (powerless)
- 1st and 2nd group recovered quickly from experience, but 3rd group soon stopped trying to escape the shock and acted helpless to avoid pain, even when offered opportinities to avoid being shocked (this is learned helplessness)
– Only when dogs were forcibly removed from cages did they change expectations about their control
* Learned helplessness is considered one possible model of clinical depression
Explain locus of control
Locus of control refers to the way we characterize the influences in our lives.
- People with an internal locus of control view themselves as controlling their own fate
- People with an external locus of control feel that the events in their lives are caused by luck or outside influences
What are the 5 stages of psychosexual development as proposed by Freud?
1) Oral stage (0-1 years)
2) Anal stage (1-3 years)
3) Phallic, or Oedipal stage (3-5 years)
4) Latency stage (5 - puberty)
5) Genital stage (puberty onward)
Explain Freud’s theory of psychosexual development especially as it pertains to the conflict and resolution of each stage.
Frued thought human psychology and sexuality were inextricably linked
- He proposed libido (sex drive) is present at birth and that libidinal energy and drive to reduce libidinal tension were underlying dynamic forces that accounted for human psychological processes
- In each stage, children are faced with a conflict between societal demands and the desire to reduce libidinal tension associated with different erogenous zones
- each stage differs in the manner in which libidinal energy is manifested and the way in which the libidinal drive is met
Define fixation as it pertains to psychosexual development
a persistent focus of the id’s pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier stage of psychosexual development. These fixations occur when an issue or conflict in a psychosexual stage remains unresolved, leaving the individual focused on this stage and unable to move onto the next
- fixation occurs when a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development
- in response to anxiety caused by fixation, the child forms a personality pattern based on that particular stage, which persists into adulthood as a mental disorder known as neurosis
Define neurosis
a relatively mild mental illness that is not caused by organic disease, involving symptoms of stress (depression, anxiety, obsessive behaviour, hypochondria) but not a radical loss of touch with reality
Explain the oral stage
The first stage (0-1 year). During this stage, gratification is obtained primarily through putting objects into the mouth, bitin and sucking. Libidinal energy is centered on the mouth.
- Orally fixated adults would likely exhibit excessive dependency
Explain the anal stage
From 1-3 years is the anal stage, during which the libido is centered on the anus and gratification is gained through the elination and retention of waste materials.
- Toilet training occurs during this stage.
Fixation during this stage would lead to either excessive ordeliness (anal-retentiveness), or sloppiness in the adult
Explain the phallic or Oedipal stage.
Occurring during the ages of 3-5, it centers on resolution of the Oedipal conflict for male children, or the analogous Electra conflict for female children.
Explain the conflict and resolution of the phallic stage for male children
- In Freud’s view, the male child envies his father’s intimate relationship with his mother and fears castration at his father’s hands.
– He wishes to eliminate his father, and possess his mother, but the child feels guilty about these wishes.
— to successfully resolve the conflict, he deals with his guilty feelings by identifying with his father, establishing his sexual identity, and internalizing moral values
Finally, to a large extent, the child de-eroticizes or sublimates his libidinal energy by collecting objects or focusing on shcoolwork
What is the conflict and resolution of phallic stage for female children
Freud didn’t elaborate much on the Electra comples, although he theorized a similar desire.
- Because females cannopt have castration fear, they are thought to have penis envy.
– Girls are expected to exhibit less stereotypically female behavior and be less morally developed in this theory
Explain the latency stage
The latency stage begins once the libido is sublimated at the conclusion of the phallic stage, where libidinal energy is latent until puberty is reached
Explain the genital stage
Beginning in puberty, and lasting through adulthood
- According to Freud, if prior development has proceeded correctly, the person should enter into health heterosexual relationships at this point. However, if sexual traumas of childhood have not been resolved, such behaviors as homosexuality, asexuality or fetishism may result
Provide a synopsis of Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development
Erikson’s stages of personality development are based on a series of crisis that derive from conflicts between needs and social demands
- psychosocial theory emphasizes emotional development and interactions with the social environment
*possible to fail at resolving conflict central to each stage, but doesn’t mean that mastery of each stage is required to move on
What are the 8 stages of Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development with their associated ages
1) Trust vs. mistrust (0-1 year)
2) Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1-3 years)
3) Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years)
4) Industry vs. inferiority (6-12 years)
5) Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-20 years)
6) Intimacy vs. Isolation (20-40 years)
7) Generativity vs. stagnation (40-65 years)
8) Integrity vs. despair (65 - death)
Explain the trust vs. mistrust stage
Essential Question: Can I trust the world?
If the conflict between trust and mistrust is resolved successfully, the child will come to trust his environment as well as themselves
- If mistrust prevails, the child will often be suspicious of the world, possibly throughout their lives
Explain conflict between autonomy vs. shame and doubt
Essential Question: Is it okay to be me?
The favorable outcome here is feeling able to exert control over the world and to exercise choice as well as self restraint.
- The unfavorable outcome is a sense of doubt and a persistent external locus of control
Explain conflict between initiative and guilt
Essential Question: Is it okay for me to do, move and act?
Favorable outcomes include a sense of purpose, the ability to initiate activities, and the ability to enjoy accomplishment
If guilt wins out, the child will be so overcome by the fear of punishment that the child may either unduly restrict himself, or may overcompensate by showing off
Explain industry vs. inferiority
Essential Question: Can I make it in the world or people and things?
if resolved favorably, the child will feel competent, be able to exercise their abilities and intelligence in the world, and be able to affect the world in the way that the child desires.
Unfavorable resolution results in a sense of inadequacy, a sense of inability to act in a competent manner, and low self-esteem
Explain identity vs. role confusion
Essential Question: Who am I, What can I be?
This stage encompasses what Erikson termed physiological revolution
The favorable outcome is fidelity, the ability to see oneself as a unique and integrated person with sustained loyalties
Unfavorable outcomes are confusion about one’s identiy and an amorphous personality that shifts from day to day
Explain intimacy vs. isolation
Essential Question: Can I love?
The main crisis of young adulthood, favorable outcomes are love, the ability to have intimate relationships with others, and the ability to commit oneself to another person and to one’s own goals
- If not favorably resolved, there will be an avoidance of commitment, alienation, and distancing of oneself from others and one’s ideals
– Isolated individuals are either withdrawn or capable of only superficial relationships with others
Explain generativity vs stagnation
Essential Question: Can I make my life count?
The successful resolution of this conflict results in an individual capable of being productive, caring and a contributing member of society
If this crisis is not overcome, one acquires a sense of stagnation and may become self-indulgent, bored, and self-centered with little care for others
Explain integrity vs. despair
Essential Question: Is it okay to have been me?
If favorably resolved, we will see wisdom, which Erikson defined as detached concern with life itself, with assurance in the meaning of life, dignity, and an acceptance that one’s own life has been worthwhile, along with a readiness to face death.
If not resolved favorably, there will be feelings of bitterness about one’s life, a feeling that life has been worthless, and at the same time, fear over one’s own impending death
Provide a synopsis of Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of personality development
Theory of personality development focussing on the development of moral thinking rather than on resolving conflicts and urges
- Kohlberg reasoned that, as our cognitive abilities grow, we are able to think about the world in more complex and nuanced ways, and this directly affects the ways in which we resolve moral dilemmas, as well as perceive the notion of right and wrong
Explain the Heinz dilemma experiment, and how Kohlberg used the responses of participants to organize moral reasoning into his stages of moral reasoning.
Kohlberg told participants about a man named Heinz, whose wife was dying of a rare disease. A druggist invented a drug that could cure the disease and cost $200 to produce, yet he sells it for $2000. Heinz cannot afford this price, so he pleads with the druggist to lower the price. The druggist refuses. Desperate to save his wife, Heinz breaks into the druggists office one night and steals the medication.
- Kohlberg asked the volunteers to explain whether the characters in the story acted morally, and why or why not.
– He wasn’t interested in their appraisal, but rather the reasoning behind the appraisal
Based upon their responses, he organized moral reasoning into six distinct stages, ranging from the concrete to the abstract. He then organized these stages into three phases consisting of two stages each
List the three phases of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development with their associated stages
Phase I: Preconventional morality
1) Obediance
2) Self-interest
Phase II: Conventional morality
3) Conformity
4) Law and order
Phase III: Postconventional morality
5) Social contract
6) Universal human ethics
– Kohlberg viewed these stages as a progession in which each stage is adopted and then abandoned for the next as the individual progresses.
Explain the first phase of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development and the associated stages
Preconventional morality is typical of preadolescent thinking and places an emphasis on the consequences of the moral choice.
Stage I: Obediance- is concerned with avoiding punishment (If I steal the drug, I’ll go to jail
Stage II: Self-interest - is concerned with gaining rewards (I need to save my wife because I want to spend more of my life with her.
– Stage II is often called the instrumental relativist stage because it is based on the concepts of reciprocity and sharing: I’ll scratch your back if you scratch mine
Explain the second phase of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development and the associated stages
Conventional morality - begins to develop in early adolescense when individuals begin to see themselves in terms of their relationships to others.
- this phase is based on understanding and accepting social rules
Stage III) Conformity - Places emphasis on the “good boy, nice girl” orientation in which a person seeks the approval of others. ( I should not steal the drug because stealing is wrong.)
Stage IV) Law and Order - maintains the social order in the highest regard (if everyone stole things they couldn’t afford, people who produce those items would not be able to continue their business
Explain the third phase of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development and the associated stages
Postconventional morality - this is a level of reasoning that Kohlberg claimed not everyone was capable of, and is based on social mores, which may conflict with laws.
Stage V) Social Contract - views moral rules as conventions that are designed to ensure the greater good, with reasoning focused on individual rights (Everyone has a right to live; businesses have a right to profit from their products)
Stage VI) Universal human ethics - reasons that decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principles (it is wrong for one person to hold another’s life for ransom)
What are some of the arguments critics present regarding Kohlberg’s theories?
Some argue that postconventional morality describes views that are more prevalent in individualistic societies and is therefore biased against collectivist cultures.
- similarly, his research was only performed using male subjects, which may cloud differences in reasoning patterns between men and women
Provide a synopsis of Vygotsky’s theories of cultural and biosocial development
Vygotsky posited the engine driving cognitive development was the child’s internalization of various aspects of the culture: rules, symbols, language and so on.
- Vygotsky is known for his concept of the zone of proximal development, referring to those skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed, but are in the process of developing
– Gaining these skills successfully requires the help of a more knowledgeable other, such as a parent
Define role taking as it relates to the development of identity
Role-taking is when children act out a specific role in a scenario (such as playing house)
- Helps them see the identities of other as different from their own
– Role taking is good practice for later in life, when a child begins to understand the perspectives and roles of others.
Define theory of mind
The ability to sense how another’s mind works - for example- understanding how a friend is interpreting a story while you tell it
- once developed, we begin to recognize and react to how others think about us
– become aware of judgements from the outside world and react to these judgments (are reactions to how others perceive us provide the foundation for looking-glass self)
Define looking-glass self
The looking-glass self describes the process wherein individuals base their sense of self on how they believe others view them. Using social interaction as a type of “mirror,” people use the judgments they receive from others to measure their own worth, values, and behavior.
Explain reference group, as it pertains to self-concept and identity
The group we are comparing ourselves to
- Self-concept often depends on whom we are comparing ourselves to.
–if you compare yourself to people who are better you’ll be depressed, if you compare to people who are worse, you’ll be happy
ie) Doctors are rich compared to average earners, but poor compared to billionaires
Define Personality, and how it’s different from identity
Personality describes the set of thoughts, feelings, traits and behaviors that are characteristic of an individual across time and different locations
- Identity describes who we are, while personality describes how we act and reat to the world around us
Provide the general idea behind the psychoanalytic / psychodynamic theories of personality.
These theories contain some of the most widely varying perspectives on behavior, but the all have in common the assumption of unconscious internal states that motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personality.
What are the three facets of Freud’s structural model of personality
1) Id
2) Ego
3) Superego
Define Id as it pertains to Freuds Structural Model and explain how pleasure principle, primary response and wish fulfillment are related to it.
The Id consists of all the basic, primal, inborn urges to surviv and reproduce.
- It functions according to the pleasure principle (in which the aim is to achieve immediate gratification to relieve any pent-up tension)
- Primary process: this is the id’s response to frustration (obtain satisfaction now, not later)
– Wish fullfilment: is using mental imagery, such as daydreaming or fantasy, that fulfills this need for satifaction
* Because this mental image cannot effectively reduce tension on a permanent basis, the ego comes into play
Define Ego and how it operates according to the reality principle and secondary process
The ego is the psychological component of the personality that is represented by our conscious decision-making process
- It operates according to the reality principle, which takes into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id and the id’s pleasure principle
– While the ego suspends the workings of the primary process, it does so only to meet the demands of objective reality
— This guidance is referred to as the secondary process
* The Ego can be understood to be the organizer of the mind: it receives its power from - and can never be fully independent of - the id.
What is the superego
The superego is the personalities perfectionist, judging our actions and responding with pride at our accomplishments and guilt at our failures.
- The superego and be divided into two subsystems, both of which are a reflection of the morlas taught to a child by his caregivers.
1) conscience
2) ego-ideal
Define conscience and ego-ideal as they pertains to superego
Conscience is a collection of the improper actions for which a child is punished
- Ego-ideal consists of those proper actions for which a child is rewarded
– Eventually, a system of right and wrong substitutues for parental rewards and punishments
What parts of Freud’s structural model do we have conscious access to?
The ego, and a small part of the superego
Define preconscious, and explaing what parts of the structural model exist in this category
Preconscious are thoughts that we aren’t currently aware of and pertain to small portions of superego and ego
Define unconscious mind, and how it pertains to the categories of the structural model
These represent thoughts that have been repressed and that we don’t have conscious access to
- The entire ID, and a larege portion of the superego exist within the unconscious mind
Define instincts as Freud viewed them as part of his dynamic theory of personality
An instinct is an innate psychological representation of a biological need; Freud postulated that our behaviors are also influenced by instincts
- Instincts fall into two types:
1) Life (Eros) instrincts
2) Death (Thannatos) instincts
Define life (Eros) instincts
Life instincts promote promote and individuals quest for survival through thirst, hunger and sexual need
Define death (Thannatos) instincts
Death instincts represent an unconscious wish for death and destruction
- Thannatos was proposed by Freud as a response to his observations of victims of trauma reenacting or focusing on their traumatic experiences
Explain defense mechanisms as they pertain to Freud’s structural model
Defense mechanisms are the ego’s recourse for relieving anxiety caused by the clash of the id and superego
- All defense mechanisms have two common characteristics
First, they deny, falsify or distort reality
Second, they operate unconsciously
What are the 8 main defense mechanisms
1) Repression
2) Suppression
3) Regression
4) Reaction formation
5) Projection
6) Rationalization
7) Displacement
8) Sublimation
Define repression
Repression is the ego’s way of forcing undesired thoughts and urges to the unconscious, and underlies many of the other defense mechanisms, the aim of which is to disguise threatening impulses that may find their way back from the unconscious
- Repression is mostly an unconscious forgetting
Define suppression
Unlike repression, suppression is a more deliberate, conscious form of forgetting
Define Regression
This is a reversion to an earlier developmental state
- Faced with stress, older children may return to earlier behaviors such as thumb-sucking, throwing temper tantrums, or clinging to their mothers
What is reaction formation, and provide an example
Reaction formation is when individuals suppress urges by unconsciously converting them into the exact opposite emotion
ie) Someone interested in a movie star whom they know will never return their feelings may exhibit hatred for the celebrity as a way of reducing the stress caused by their unrequited feelings
Define projection
Defense mechanism by which individuals attribute their undesired feelings to others.
ie) I hate my parents may turn in to, my parents hate me
- projection is an important part of personality analysis
Define rationalization
This is the justification of behaviors in a manner that is acceptable to the self and society
ie) when turned down by a lady you’re interested in, you may rationalize it by saying you weren’t that interested anyway
Define displacement
Displacement describes the transference of an undesired urge from one person or object to another.
- Someone angry at her boss may hold her tongue at work but snap at her spouse when she gets home
Define sublimation
Sublimation is the transformation of unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors
ie) pent-up sexual frustration may be sublimated into a drive for business success or artistic creativity
Explain Carl Jung’s idea of libido, and how he defined the ego, and name the two parts he divided the unconscious into
Carl Jung preferred to think of libido as psychic energy, not just psychic energy rooted in sexualtiy
- Jung identified the ego has the conscious mind
– he divided the subconscious into two parts:
1) the personal unconscious (similar to Freud’s notion of the unconscious)
2) the collective unconscious
Define the collective unconscious
The collective unconscious is a powerful system that is shared among all humans and considered to be a residue of the experiences of our early ancestors
- Its building blocks are images of common experiences, such as having a mother and a father
– these images invariably have an emotional element, and are referred to as archetypes in Jung’s theory
Define Jungian Archetypes
Jungian archetypes are defined as universal, archaic symbols and images that derive from the collective unconscious, as proposed by Carl Jung. They are the psychic counterpart of instinct.
- Archetypes are underlying forms or concepts that give rise to archetypal images, which may differ somewhat between cultures
– an example of Jungian archetypes are God and the Devil
What are the 4 primary Jungian archetypes
1) Persona
2) Anima
3) Animus
4) Shadow
Define the persona archetype
The persona is likened to a mask that we wear in public, and is the part of our personality that we present to the world
- like identity, Jung described the persona as adaptive to our social interactions, emphasizing those qualities that improve our social standing and suppressing our other, less desirable qualities
Define anima and animus
The anima (feminine) and animus (masculine) describe sex-inappropriate qualities
- in other words, feminine behaviors in males and masculine behaviors in females
ie) the anima is the suppressed female quality in males that explains emotional behavior (a man’s inner woman) and the animus is the analogous male quality of females that explains power-seeking behavior (a woman’s inner man)
Define the shadow archetype
The shadow archetype is responsible for the appearance of unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings and actions in our consciousness
How did Jung view the self?
The self to Jung was the point of intersection between the collective unconscious, the personal unconscious and the conscious mind
- the self strives for unity
– Jung symbolized the self as a mandala (the promoter of unity, balance and harmony between the conscious mind, personal unconscious and collective unconscious
Describe the four dichotomies of personality according to Jung
1) Extraversion (orientation toward the external world) vs. introversion (orientation toward the inner, personal world)
2) Sensing (obtaining objective information about the world) vs. intuiting (working with information abstractly)
3) Thinking (using logic and reason) vs. feeling (using a value system or personal beliefs)
4) Juding (prefering orderliness) vs. perceiving (preferring spontaneity)
- in most people, both sides of each dichotomy are present to some degree, but one tends to dominate
Explain Alfred Adler’s inferiority complex
the inferiority complex is an individual’s sense of incompleteness, imperfection and inferiority both physically and socially
- According to Adler, striving for superiority drives the personality
– This striving enhances the personality when it is oriented toward benefiting society, but yields disorder when it is selfish
Describe the notion of the creative self, according to Adler
The creative self is the force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness and establishes his personality
Describe the notion of style of life, according to Adler
Style of life represents the manifestation of the creative self and describes a person’s unique way of achieving superiority.
- The family environment is crucial in molding the person’s style of life
Describe fictional finalism, according to Adler’s theory of personality
This is the notion that an individual is motivated more by his expectations of the future than by past experiences
- According to Adler, human goals are based on the subjective or fictional estimate of life’s values, rather than objective data from the past
– fictional finalism can often be summed up by the phrase: Life would be perfect if only…(I could get a 520 on the MCAT)
Explain the difference between Freud’s, Adler’s and Jung’s theories of personality
Freud’s major assumption is that behavior is motivated by inborn instincts
Jung’s principal axiom is that a person’s conduct is governed by inborn archetypes
Adler assumes that people are primarily motivated by striving for superiority
Provide a synopsis of the main ideas of the humanistic or phenomenological theorists, and how it associates with Gestalt therapy
These theorists focus on the value of individuals and take a more person-centered approach, describing the ways in which healthy people strive toward self-realization. This is in direct contrast to the psychoanalysts, who focus on “sick” individuals and their troubling urges
- Humanism is often associated with Gestalt therapy, in which practitioners tend to take a holistic view of the self, seeing each individual as a complete person rather than reducing him to individual behaviors or drives
– for humanists, our personality is the result of the conscious feelings we have for ourselves as we attemnpt to attain our needs and goals
Explain Kurt Lewin’s Force Field Theory of personality
Doesn’t focus on personality constraints such as fixed traits, habits or structure such as id, ego and superego
Focuses on the present rather than the past or future.
Lewin defined the field as one’s current state of mind, which was simply the sum of the forces (influences) on the individual at that time
Whereas the focus of humanistic psychology is exploring how and individual reaches self-realization, then these forces could be divided into two large groups:
1) those assisting in our attainment of goals
2) those blocking the path to them
Define peak experiences according to Abraham Maslow
Profound and deeply moving experiences in a person’s life that have important and lasting effects on the individual
- Self-actualized people are more likely to have these experiences
Explain personal construct psychology, as proposed by George Kelly
Personal construct theory suggests that people develop personal constructs about how the world works. People then use these constructs to make sense of their observations and experiences.
- ie) you see large black dog as pet, another sees it as a threat
According to psychologist George Kelly, personality is composed of the various mental constructs through which each person views reality. Kelly believed that each person was much like a scientist. Just like scientists, we want to understand the world around us, make predictions about what will happen next, and create theories to explain events.
According to personal construct psychology, what would someone suffering from anxiety be dealing with?
Instead of being the victim of of inner conflicts and pent-up energy (as in psychodynamic theory), they’re having difficulty constructing and understanding the variable in the environment
Explain Carl Rogers’ client-centered, person-centered or nondirective therapy
Rogers believed people had freedom to control their own behavior and are neither slaves to the unconscious (as psychoanalysis would suggest) no subjects of faulty learning (behaviorism)
Rather than providing solutions or diagnoses, the person-centered therapist helps the client reflect on problems, make choices, generate solutions, take positive action adn determine his or her own destiny
What are type theorists and trait theorists
Type theorists attempt to create a taxonomy of personality types, while trait theorists attempt to describe individual personality as the sum of a person’s characteristic behaviors.
What are some popular type theories?
- Ancient greeks personality types based on body humors
- Blood, Phlegm, Yellow bile and Black Bile
– An imbalance of any humor would lead to different personalities
- Somatotypes
- Personality types based upon body structure
– Tall = high strung, short = jolly, etc.
- Type A - characterized by behavior that tends to be competitive and compulsive
- Type B - Generally laid-back and relaxed
- Myers-Briggs Type Inventory
What tools do trait theorists use to describe individuals?
Trait theorists use clusters of behaviors to describe individuals
- ie) people who are more reserved and less outspoken in groups also tend to enjoy solitary activities and avoid overstimulation
– these behaviors fall under the lable of introversion
Name and define the three traits in the PEN model?
1) Psychoticism - a measure of nonconformity or social deviance
2) Extraversion - a measure of tolerance for social interaction and stimulation
3) Neuroticism - a measure of emtional arousal in stressful situations
– The Eysenck’s reasoned that people could be distinguished from one another based on where they fell in each of these three dimensions
What are the traits of the Big Five Theory
1) Openness
2) Conscientiousness
3) Extraversion
4) Agreeableness
5) Neuroticism
Define Cardinal Traits
Cardinal traits are traits around which a person organized his or her life.
ie) Mother Teresa’s cardinal trait may be self-sacrifice
- Not everyone develops cardinal traits, but the do have central and secondary traits
Define central traits
Central traits represent major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer, such as honesty or charisma
What are secondary traits?
Secondary traits are other personal characteristics that are more limited in occurrence: aspects of one’s personaltiy that only appear in close groups or specific social situations
Explain functional autonomy
Described as a behavior that continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created the behavior
- ie) hunter that originally hunted due to finding food, continues hunting when food is abundant for the joy of it
Explain the behaviorist perspective of personality
Based heavily on the concepts of operant conditioning whereas personality is simply a reflection of the behaviors that have been reinforced over time
- therefore, therapy should focus on learning skills and changing behaviors through operant conditioning techniques
What is the main idea of the social cognitive perspective
Takes behaviorism one step further, focusing not just on how our environment influences our behavior, but also on how we interact with that environment
- Reciprocal determinism is central to this perspective
What is reciprocal determinism
Reciprocal determinism refers to the idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviors and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions ina given situation
- people choose environments that suit their personalities, and their personalities determine how the will feel about and react to events in those environments
Explain the bilogical perspective of personality
This perspective holds that personality can be explained as a result of genetic expression in the brain
- The biological and trait perspectives are closely linked, as bio theorists maintain that many traits can be shown to result from genes or differences in brain anatomy
What is the difference between dispositional approach and situational approach
Dispositional approach posits that behavior is primarily determined by an individual’s personality
Situational approach posits that behavior is determined mostly by environment
