Social Psychology Glossary Flashcards
Actor-Observer Effect
In casual attribution, the tendency for the observer to over-estimate the effects of dispositional factors when making attributions about an actor’s behavior but to overestimate the effects of situational factors when making self-attributions
Attitude Inoculation
A method of reducing the effectiveness of a persuasive message that is based on the medical model. It involves giving the recipient of the message arguments against his own position and weak counterarguments (refutations against those arguments).
Autokinetic Effect
Sherif
a perceptual phenomenon in which a stationary point of light appears to move in a dark room. Used to study conformity to group norms.
Balance Theory
uses principle of cognitive consistency to explain attitude change and focuses on the relations among 3 entities: (P)erson, (O)ther person, and a third person, object or event (X). Relations may be balanced or not depending on the pattern of likes or dislikes among the entities.
Barnum Effect
tendency to accept vague, general descriptions of one’s self (e.g. horoscope) to be accurate.
Base Rate Fallacy
tendency to underutilize or ignore relevant statistical (base rate) data and rely on irrelevant information when making probabilistic judgements about an event or characteristic.
Bases of Social Power
French and Raven
6 bases of social power that induce compliance in another person: 1) coercive 2) reward 3) expert 4) legitimate 5 referent 6) informational
Bystander Apathy
tendency of people to not intervene emergency situations when other people are present. 3 Factors; 1)social comparison 2) evaluation apprehension 3) diffusion of responsibility
Catharsis Hypothesis
predicts that an act of aggression reduces an individual’s arousal level which then decreases the likelihood that he will act aggressively again in the near future. Not backed by research.
Characteristics of the Communicator
research on attitude has confirmed that credible communicators are more persuasive and that 1 factor that contributes to credibility is trustworthiness (e.g., if the person is arguing agains his best interest he may seem more trustworthy).
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Festinger
purposes that inconsistencies in cognition that produce discomfort (dissonance) that motivates the individual to reduce the dissonance by changing his cognitions.
Confirmation Bias
tendency to seek or pay attention to information that confirms one’s hypothesis or current beliefs and to ignore disconfirming information.
Deindividuation Model
state of relative anonymity that allows an individual to feel unidentifiable. Associated with higher levels of anti-social behavior because the deindividuated person’s behavior is no longer controlled by guilt, fear or evaluation, or other inhibitory controls.
Effects of Crowding
Crowded conditions tend to enhance positive experiences and increase the unpleasantness of negative experiences. Men seem to be more stressed by crowded conditions than women and are more likely to react with increased aggressiveness. apparently because men require more personal space.
Effects of Media Violence
research generally confirms that viewing media violence increases aggression by providing viewers with models for aggressive behaviors. Impacts attitude as well; frequent viewing of violent media linked to overestimating the likelihood that one will be a victim.
Effects of Pornography
exposure to mild erotica may reduce aggressiveness; exposure to violent themes tends to increase aggressive behaviors towards women as well as increase acceptance of rape myths and the adoption of callous attitudes towards sexual violence.
Elaboration Likelihood Model
ELM
cognitive theory of attitude change that distinguishes between 2 information processing routes: Central & Peripheral. Use of Central Route is likely when listener is motivated and has ability to process the information contained in the message and the listener is neutral or slightly negative in mood. Peripheral is used when listener is unmotivated and lacks ability to process the information, and or is in a positive mood.
Emotion-in-Relationship Model
provides an explanation for the experience of strong emotions in close relationships and proposes that there is an innate mechanism that generates emotion in response to unexpected events that disrupts ongoing sequences of behaviors.
Epinephrine Studies
Singer & Schachter
supported the predictions of self-perception theory by confirming > when internal cues are insufficient or difficult to interpret, people acquire information about themselves by observing their external behaviors and/or the context in which those behaviors occur.
Equity Theory
predicts that motivation (i.e. motivation to remain in a relationship) is affected by a comparison of the input/outcome ratios of oneself and one’s partner.
Field Theory
Lewin
describes human behavior as being a product of interdependent factors in the person and his physical and social environment.
Fundamental Attribution Bias
the tendency for an observer to overestimate dispositional causes and underestimate situational causes when making attributions about an actor’s behavior.
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
aggression is motivated by by frustration, and predicts that frustration leads to aggression in the presence of aggressive cues.
Gain-Loss Effect
predicts that people tend to be most attracted to individuals who show increasing for liking them and tend to be least attracted to individuals who show decreasing liking for them.
Gender Differences in Affiliation
research shows women generally spend more time than men engaged in conversation; are more likely to talk to people of the same gender; may affiliate more than men do in public places.
Hardiness
Kobassa et al.
personality trait of hardiness acts as a protective factor against stress and has 3 primary characteristics: 1) commitment (sense of purpose and involvement in one’s life events/relationships) 2) Challenge (openness to new experiences and change) 3) Control (belief that one has the ability to control or manage life’s events)
Heuristics
are short mental shortcuts people use when making attributions and other social judgements and include: representativeness, availability, simulation, anchoring and adjustment heuristics. May result in errors.
Intraindividual Conflict
Lewin & Miller
4 motivational conflicts: 1) approach-approach 2) avoidance-avoidance 3) approach-avoidance 4) double approach-avoidance. Double approach-avoidance (having to choose between 2 goals both having positive and negative affects) is most difficult.
Jigsaw Method
method of learning in which assignments must be completed by teams when each team member is assigned a different part of the project. Improves intergroup relations / self-esteem / cooperation / and academic achievement esp for members of minority groups.
Law of Attraction
Byrne
we are attracted to others who have similar attitudes because interacting with those individuals is more rewarding than interacting with people who have dissimilar attitudes. Therefore, more likely to generate positive effect.
Levels of Racism
to understand the effects of racism, it is necessary to recognize that it operates on multiple levels. Cultural/ Institutional / Interpersonal & Internalized
Minority Influence
Research shows that a minority can influence the majority by maintaining a consistent (but not dogmatic) position.
Misery Loves Miserable Company
Schachter
people like to affiliate with others who are in similar circumstances
Obedience to Authority
Milgram
famous studies that people would obey direct order or command from person in authority even at risk of harming others
Overjustification Hypotheisis
predicts that when people are externally rewarded for a task they previously found intrinsically interesting, their intrinsic interest in the task will decrease
Prison Study
Zimbardo
Simulation study demonstrated that people alter their behaviors to fit their assigned roles.
Pseudo Patient Study
Rosenhan
demonstrated the effects of social context on impression formation. Once admitted to a mental hospital, the pseudo patients were viewed, especially by hospital staff, as being schizophrenic without demonstrating any of the symptoms or abnormal behaviors.
Psychological Reactance
tendency to resist being influenced or manipulated by others. Usually by doing the opposite of what is requested or expected. DJ Request.
Robber’s Cave Study
Sherif
research with boy’s summer camp demonstrated that the most effective way to reduce group hostility is having members of the group cooperate to achieve a mutual (superordinate) goal.
Schemata
Schemata (Schemas) are cognitive structures that organize past information into a framework for processing and understanding new information and experiences.
Self-Monitoring
refers to need for and ability to manage the impression that others form of us. High self-monitors most concerned about their “public self” - strive to match attitudes and behaviors to the situation. Low self-monitors are guided by their own beliefs and values; attempt to alter situation to match their “private-self”
Self-Perception Theory
predicts that people make attributions about their own attitudes and behaviors on the basis of observations of their behaviors and other external cues.
Self-Serving Bias
tendency to attribute our own successes to dispositional (internal) factors and failures to situational (external) factors.
Self-Verification Theory
predicts that people prefer to receive feedback from others that is consistent with their own self-evaluations.
Social Comparison Theory
predicts that people use other (similar people) as sources of comparison to evaluate their own attitudes and behaviors.
Social Exchange Theory
predicts that a person’s decision to leave a relationship depends on the costs and rewards i.e. person is likely to stay int a relationship when rewards outweigh the costs.
Social Learning Theory
predicts that learning can occur simply by observing the behavior of a model. it has been used to explain acquisition of aggressive behaviors. i.e. media violence
Social Judgement Theory
predicts that people have 3 categories of judgement by which they evaluate persuasive messages; 1) a latitude of acceptance 2) a latitude of non-acceptance 3) latitude of rejection. People are likely to be persuaded when the message is within their latitude of acceptance.
Superordinate Goals
can only be achieved when members of different groups work together cooperatively and have been found useful (the goals) in reducing intergroup conflict.
Symbolic Racism
Sears et al.
Symbolic (modern) racism has taken the place of “old-fashioned” racism. Symbolic racists believe that African American and other minorities such American values as: individualism, self-reliance, and work ethic. They also deny their prejudice and attribute the social economic problems of minority group members to internal factors (lack of effort /discipline/ etc.)
Theory of Planned Behavior
predicts that attitudes are predictors of behavior when the attitude measure all 3 components of behavioral intention: 1) personal attitude towards the behavior 2) what the person believes other people thinks he should do 3) person’s perceived behavior control
Zeigarnik Effect
tendency to remember interrupted and unfinished tasks better than completed ones; especially in non-stressful situations.
