Industrial / Organizational Psychology Flashcards
Absolute Techniques (Critical Incident Technique, Forced-Choice Rating Scale, BARS)
the method of subjective performance assessment that indicates a ratee’s performance in absolute terms (not in terms related to other employees). Uses a list of the critical incidents to rate each employee. Each item in forced-choice rating scale consists of 2-4 alternatives that are about equal in desirability, and the rater selects the alternative that best or least describes the ratee. BARS is a graphic rating scale that requires the rater to choose the 1 behavior for each dimension of job performance that best describes the employee.
Adverse Impact Rule
80% Rule
adverse impact occurs when use of a selection test or other employment procedure results in substantially higher rejection rates of legally protected (minority) group than for the majority. Majority hire results x .80; result should be same or lower than minority hiring rate.
Americans with Disabilities Act
ADA
requires companies with 15 or more employees to avoid using procedures that discriminate against people with physical or mental disabilities. Also, when a disabled person is able to perform the essential functions of the job, the employer will make reasonable accommodations to help individual complete the job. As long as it does not result in hardship for the employer.
Big Five Personality Traits
Factor analyses have identified five basic personality traits; Narcism, extraversion, openness to the experience, agreeableness and conscientiousness. Of these, conscientiousness has been found to be the best predictor of job performance across different jobs, job settings and criterion measures.
Brainstorming
method of generating creative ideas that requires individuals or group members to freely suggest any idea or thought without criticism, evaluation, or censorship. Research suggests that individuals brainstorming alone do better than the same number brainstorming together.
Centralized and Decentralized Networks
Centralized communication networks are best for simple tasks; while decentralized communication networks are better for complex tasks and are associated with greater overall satisfaction.
Comparable Worth
AKA pay equity; refers to the principle that jobs that require the same education, experience and skills should pay the same wage/salary regardless of the employees age/gender/race/etc.
Compressed Workweek
an alternative work schedule that involves decreasing the number of work days by increasing the number of hours worked each day. It is associated with better supervisor ratings of employee performance, employee overall job satisfaction and employee satisfaction with the work schedule, with the effects being strongest for employee attitudes.
Consideration and Initiating Structure
Ohio State University studies found that the behavior of leaders can be described in terms of two independent dimensions; Consideration (person-centered) and initiating structure (task-oriented style).
Contingency Theory
Fielder
proposes that a leader’s natural effectiveness is related to an interaction between the leader’s style and the nature (favorableness) of the situation. Low LPC (leaders who describe their least preferred coworker in negative terms) are most effective in very unfavorable or very favorable situations; High LPC leaders are better in moderately favorable situations.
Criterion Contamination
occurs when a criterion measure assesses factors other than those it was designed to measure. I.e. when a rater’s knowledge of a ratee’s performance on a predictor affects hoe the rater rates the rater on the criterion. It can artificially inflate the criterion-related validity coefficient.
Dawis and Lofquist’s Theory of Work Adjustment
describes the satisfaction, tenure and other job outcomes as the result of the correspondence between the worker and his work environment on two dimensions; satisfaction and satisfactoriness. Satisfaction: depends on the degree to which the characteristics of the job correspond to his needs and values. Satisfactoriness: depends on the extent to which the workers skills correspond to the skill demands of the job.
Demand-Control Model
Karasek
predicts that job demand and job control are the primary contributors to job stress. Jobs associated with the highest levels of stress are characterized by high job demand and low job control and include machine:paced and service jobs.
Differential Validity and Unfairness
when the validity coefficient of a predictor is significantly different for one subgroup than another. Unfairness occurs when members of the minority group consistently score lower on a predictor but perform approx the same on the criterion as members of the majority group. Differential validity and unfairness are potential causes of adverse impact.
Downsizing / Survivor Syndrome
Workers who are not downsized may exhibit survivor syndrome; depression, anxiety, guilt, stress-related illness, and decreased job satisfaction and organizational commitment.
Equity Theory
an employees motivation is related to employee’s comparison of input/output ratio contrasted against other employees ratios.
Expectancy Theory
regards job motivation as the result of 3 elements; 1) expectancy 2) instrumentality 3) valence. The highest levels of motivation occur when an employee believed that high job effort result in high task success (expectancy), that high success leads to the attainment of certain outcomes (high instrumentality), and that outcomes are desirable (positive valence). Valence = positive / attractiveness, negative / aversiveness
Flextime
an alternative work schedule that allows workers to choose the times they will begin and end work. It is associated with increased employee productivity, overall job satisfaction, satisfaction with the work schedule and decreased absenteeism.
Force Field Analysis
Lewin
model of planned change; organizational change involves 3 stages: 1) unfreezing 2) changing 3) refreezing
Formative and Summative Evaluation
Formative: conducted while a training program is being developed, their results are used to make necessary modifications to the program; Summative: is conducted after the program has been implemented in order to assess outcomes.
Four Levels of Criteria
Kirkpatrick
4 levels of criteria for evaluating the effects of a training program: 1) reaction 2) learning 3) behavioral 4) results.
Frame-of-Reference Training
emphasizes the multidimensional nature of job performance and focuses on the ability to distinguish between good and poor work-related behaviors. It is useful for eliminating rater biases.
Gender Differences in Leadership
Eagly and Johnson 1990
meta-analysis of the research found that male and female leaders do not consistently differ in terms of consideration or initiating structure. However, female leaders are more likely to rely on democratic (participative) decision-making style.
Goal Setting Theory
proposes that employees will be more motivated to achieve goals when they have explicitly accepted those goals and are committed to them. It also proposes that assigning specific, moderately difficult goals and providing employees with feedback about their progress towards achieving goals increases productivity.
Group Norms / Idiosyncrasy Credits
Group norms are the standard rules of conduct that maintain uniformity of behavior among group members. Idiosyncrasy credits are positive sentiments within a group toward a member that allow the member to occasionally deviate form group norms. A person accumulates idiosyncrasy credits when he has a Hx of conforming to group norms, has contributed in some special way to the group, or has served as the group leader.
Group Polarization
tendency to make more extreme decisions than individual members would have made alone
Groupthink
occurs when the desire of group members for unanimity and cohesiveness overrides their ability to realistically appraise or determine alternative courses of action. It can be alleviated when the group leader encourages dissent, has someone play the devil’s advocate and refrains from stating his idea or solution too quickly.
Hawthorne Effect
refers to an improvement in job performance resulting from participation in a research study (i.e. due to the novelty of the situation, increased attention, etc.)
Holland
Riasec Differentation
career theory emphasizes importance of a good personality/ work environment match and distinguishes between 6 personality and environment types: 1) realistic 2) investigative 3) artistic 4) social 5) enterprising 6) conventional. A personality / environment match is most accurate as a predictor in job outcomes when a person exhibits a high degree of differentiation -i.e. has clear interests as evidenced by a high score on one type and low scores on the others.
Identical Elements
ensuring that training and performance environments are similar in terms of materials, conditions, etc. maximizes the transfer of training.
Incremental Validity
Selection Ratio / Base Rate
refers to the increase in decision-making accuracy resulting from the use of a new predictor. It is maximized when the predictor’s validity coefficient is high, the selection ratio is low and the base rate is moderate.
Selection Ratio
Number of jobs per applicant
Base Rate
proportion of successful decisions without the new predictor.
Internal & External Change Agents
A change agent is a person who is responsible for guiding a change effort. Internal Agent: member of the organization who is already familiar w/ company’s norms, culture, power structure; and has a personal interest in the change effort. External: “consultant” is often able to see more objectively, bring a new perspective and to be better received by members due to impartiality.
Job Analysis
a systemic process of determining how a job differs from other jobs; i.e. required responsibilities, activities and skills. Often the first step in the development of a predictor or criterion and also used for: identifying training needs, determining the cause of accidents.
Job Evaluation
Not to be confused with analysis, it is conducted for the purpose of setting wages and salaries.
Job Burnout
caused by accumulated stress associated with overwork. Px Sxs include; feeling of low personal accomplishment, depersonalization, and emotional exhaustion. An early sign of burnout is sudden increase in work effort without an increase in productivity.
Job Enrichment
method of job redesign based on Hertzberg’s 2-factor theory and involves making a job more challenging and rewarding in order to increase satisfaction and motivation.
Job Enlargement
not to be confused with job enrichment, enlargement involves increasing the number and variety of tasks included in a job without increasing the workers autonomy, responsibility, etc.
Job Satisfaction
Disposition / Age / Pay / Turnover
High levels of satisfaction are associated with certain worker characteristics; i.e. older employees, higher-level employees and employees who use the skills and abilities tend to be most satisfied. Twin studies suggest there is a genetic component to satisfaction. The Rx between pay and satisfaction is complex and seems to be related more to the perception that one is being paid fairly vs the actual amount of pay. Job outcomes: strongest relationship between satisfaction and turnover (r= -.40).
Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory
focuses on career decision-making and proposes that a person’s decisions are influenced by 4 factors: 1)genetic endowment & special abilities 2) environmental conditions and events 3) learning experiences & 4) Task approach skills
Levels of Organizational Culture
Schein
described in terms of 3 basic levels: 1) artifacts 2) espoused values and beliefs 3) basic underlying assuptions
Meditation and Arbitration
methods of alternative dispute resolution that involve the use of a neutral 3rd-party. A mediator can’t dictate an agreement between disputants, but helps clarify issues, facilitates communication, offers alternatives and recommend a solution. In contrast, the arbitrator has more authority, controls both the process and outcome of conflict resolution.
Methods of Training
Job Rotation / Behavioral Modeling / Vestibule Training
can be on-the-job or off-the-job. Job rotation is on-the-job while behavioral modeling & Vestibule are off-the job. Vestibule take place in a simulated work environment and is useful when on-the-job training would be too dangerous or disruptive.
Models of Individual Decision Making
SIMON
rational-economic model: decision makers attempt to maximize benefits by systematically searching for the best decision or solution. Bounded rationality (administrative) model proposes that rational decision-making is limited by internal and external constraints resulting in decision makers often satisficing rather than optimizing (i.e. filling in moderate solution because it does the job and is available vs waiting for the best solution).
Multiple Regression and Multiple Cutoff
methods for for using multiple predictor scores. MR is a compensatory, while MC-O is uncompensatory.
National Culture
Hofstede
culture of nations can be described un terms of 5 dimensions: 1) power distance 2) uncertainty avoidance 3) individualism 4) masculinity 5) long-term orientation
Need for Achievement
McClelland
research using the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) revealed 3 basic needs of work motivation: 1) need for affirmation 2) need for power 3) need for achievement. Employees with high need for achievement (nACH) usually choose tasks of moderate difficulty and risk, apparently because success on the task depends more on effort than uncontrollable factors. They also prefer frequent, concrete feedback; and although their motivation does not depend on $, they view $ rewards as a source of feedback and recognition.
Need Hierarchy Theory
Maslow
People have 5 basic needs: 1) psychological 2) safety 3) social 4) esteem & 5) self-actualization. One need does not serve as motivation until all lower needs have been met. *Research does not been supportive of Maslow.
Needs Assessment
AKA needs analysis; the systematic process of identifying job performance deficits and employee performance deficits to identify training needs and the content of training programs. It includes organizational, task (job), person and demographic analysis.
Normative (Decision-Making) Model (leadership)
Vroom-Yetton-Jago
distinguishes between 5 decision making strategies that vary in terms of degree of employee participation in the decision making process and provides a decision tree to help leaders select the optimal strategy for their situation.
Organizational Commitment
refers to the strength of an employees identification with an organization. Seems to have minimal impact on productivity. Higher levels of affective commitment related to higher levels of satisfaction and motivation, lower absenteeism & turnover, and a greater willingness to make sacrifices for the company.
Organizational Justice
refers to workers evaluations of organizational policies and procedures that are based on their perceived fairness. 3 types are: 1) procedural 2) distributive & 3) interactional.
Overlearning
the practice of studying beyond the point of mastery and is associated with enhanced recall.
Path-Goal Theory
based on the assumption that an effective leader is one who can help carve a path for subordinates that allows them to fulfill personal goals through the achievement of organizational goals. It proposes the best leadership style (directive, supportive, participative or achievement oriented) depends on certain characteristics of the worker and the work.
Person-Machine Fit
a distinguishing characteristic of the human factors psychology is its reliance on general systems theory, which is manifested in its emphasis on the person-machine fit (aka human-machine fit). From this perspective, performance is the result of an interaction between people and machines (or other non-human element in the workplace), and any failure in performance is due to a person-machine mismatch.
Person-Organization (P-O) Fit
refers to the degree to which a person’s values and beliefs match those of the organizations culture. A good fit = higher levels of job satisfaction, motivation and organizational commitment, lower levels of stress and voluntary turnover.
Predictors
General Mental Ability Tests, Biodata, Interviews, Work Samples, Assessment Center.
General Mental Ability Test
a predictor that are considered to be the best predictor of job performance across different jobs and job settings.
Biodata
are good predictors of performance, especially when items are empirically derived.
Interviews
Most commonly used predictor in organizations but generally have low levels of reliability and validity.
Work Samples
require applicants to to perform a task or operation actually required for the job.
Assessment Centers
Assessment centers are used to evaluate and train applicants and current employees at the management or administrative level and incorporate a variety of techniques (e.g. interviews, objective tests, and situational tests).
Process Consultation
an organizational development intervention in which a consultant helps members of the organization perceive, understand and identify ways to improve the processes that are undermining their interactions and the organizations effectiveness.
Quality Circles
consists of small voluntary group of employees who work together on a particular job and meet regularly to discuss job-related problems and solutions. Representatives of the quality circle then present their solutions to management.
Rater Biases
are contaminating factors in the rating process that are related to the way the rater assigns ratings. Central tendency, leniency / strictness, & halo. Best way to reduce is through training that helps raters observe and distinguish between different levels of performance (frame of reference training).
Realistic Job Preview
method of providing accurate and complete information about the job and the organization to job applicants. Primary goal is to reduce turnover by reducing disillusionment caused by unrealistic expectations about the job.
Relative Techniques
Paired Comparison, Forced Distribution
subjective measures of an employees job performance to that of other employees. Forced distribution: rater assigns ratees to a limited number of categories based on a predefined normal distribution on one or more dimensions of job performance.
Scientific Management
Taylor
A) Scientifically analyzing jobs into their component parts, then standardizing those parts; B) scientifically selecting, training and placing workers in jobs for which they are mentally and physically suited; C) Fostering cooperation between supervisors and workers to minimize deviation from scientific methods of work; D) having managers and workers assume responsibility for their own share of work.
Self-Managed Work Teams
autonomous work groups whose members are trained in the skills needed to effectively perform the group task. Their function is to make hiring, budget and other decisions that were previously made by managers.
Situational Leadership
Hersey & Blanchard
the best leadership style depends on the job maturity of the workers, which is a function of ability and willingness to assume responsibility. It distinguishes between 4 leader styles: 1) telling 2) selling 3) participating 4) delegating
Social Cognitive Theory
Bandura
theory of motivation emphasizes the self-regulation involves 4 processes: 1) goal-setting 2) self-observation 3) self-evaluation & 4) self-reaction.
Social Facilitation and Inhibition
Facilitation: increase in learning and performance that occurs in the presence of others, most likely to occur when the task is simple or well-learned.
Inhibition: decrease in learning and performance that occurs in the presence of others; most likely to occur when the task is new or complex.
Social Loafing
tendency of an individual to exert less effort when acting as a member of a team than when working alone. Alleviated by ensuring the individual’s contributions is identified and rewarded.
Stages of Group Development
Tuckerman & Jensen
5 stages of group development: 1) forming 2) storming 3) norming 4) performing 5) adjourning
Self-Concept, Career Maturity, Life-Career Rainbow
Super
finding a job that matches self-concept (reflects one’s values, etc). Also importance of career maturity (dealing with developmental tasks of one’s life stage). Rainbow relates person’s major life roles to 5 stages for planning purposes.
Taylor-Russell Tables
are used to estimate a predictors incremental validity when the criterion-related validity coefficient, selection ratio and base rate are known.
Theory X and Y
McGreggor
X managers believe that employees dislike work and avoid it whenever possible, as a result must be directed and controlled. Y managers view work as being “as natural as play” and assume employees are capable of self-control and self-direction.
Tiedeman and O’hara’s
Career Decision-Making Model
describes vocational identity development as an ongoing process that is tied to ego identity development and distinguishes between 2 phases of decision-making: 1) anticipation & 2) implementation / adjustment
TQM Total Quality Management
management theory that emphasizes customer service, employee involvement (especially teamwork), and continuous improvement in goods and services.
Transformational and Transactional Leaders
Transformational “we are going to revolutionize…“to create a vision for change. Contrasted against transactional leaders who tend to maintain the status quo and rely on rewards and punishments to motivate behavior.
Two-Factor Theory
Hertzberg
both motivation and satisfaction; 2 separate spectrums. Motivating factors (increased autonomy, responsibility, control, etc.) contribute to satisfaction and motivation when they are present. Hygiene factors(pay, pleasant working conditions) contribute to dissatisfaction when they are absent.
Types of Group Tasks
can be classified in terms of 5 types; 1) additive 2) compensatory 3) disjunctive 4) conjunctive & 5) discretionary.
Utility Analysis
used in organizations to evaluate the effectiveness of training programs and other programs and procedures and involves using a mathematical equation to obtain an estimate of the program’s financial return on investment.
Work-Family Conflict
conflicts caused by incompatible work and family role demands. It’s associated with a number of negative consequences including reduced job, marital & life satisfaction; job burnout, job turnover, decreased job productivity; mental and physical health problems.
Work Shifts
3 fixed: Days, Swings & Graveyard. Graveyard is associated with the most problems, but may be alleviated if worker voluntarily chooses the shift. The rotating shift is associated with even more problems than the graveyard shift (higher accident rates, lower productivity).
Yerkes-Dodson Law
predicts the highest levels of performance are associated with moderate levels of arousal. inverted U shape.
