Physio-Psychopharm Flashcards
Amygdala & Kluver-Bucy Syndrome
the amygdala is a substructure of the limbic system and is involved in the control of emotional activities, including the mediation of defensive-aggressive behaviors and the attachment of emotions to memories. Bilateral lesions in the amygdala and temporal lobes of primates produces Kluver-Bucy Syndrome, which is characterized by reduced fear and aggression, increased docility and compulsive oral exploratory behaviors, altered dietary habits, hypersexuality and “psychic blindness”; an inability to recognize the significance or meaning of events or objects.
Anticholinergic Effects
caused by several drugs including the antipsychotics and tricyclic antidepressants; dry mouth, blurred vision, tachycardia, urinary retention, constipation, memory impairment & confusion.
Aphasia
Aphasia = impairments in production and/or comprehension of language.
Broca’s Aphasia
Broca’s = difficulty in producing written or spoken language with little difficulty understanding it. Often includes anomia and impaired repetition.
Wernike’s Aphasia
inability to comprehend written or spoken language along with the production of rapid, seemingly effortless speech that is lacking in in content. May also include anomia, paraphasia & impaired repetition.
Conduction Aphasia
produced by damage to the arcuate fascisulus. Does not significantly affect language comprehension but does result in anomia, paraphasia & impaired repetition.
Atypical Antipsychotics
Clozapine
Clozapine and other atypical (newer) AP Drugs affect receptors for several neurotransmitters including dopamine, serotonin & glutamate. They are effective for both the positive and negative Sxs of Schz and are less likely to produce tardive diskenesia than the traditional AP drugs. However, they can produce agranulocytosis and other blood dyscrasias as well as neuroleptic malignant syndrome.
Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic & Parasympathetic Branches
the ANS is a div of the peripheral nervous sys and is involved in the control of visceral functions (blood pressure, heart rate, respiration, digestion and sweating). The Sympathetic branch: Fight or flight; activation leads to increased heart rate, pupil dilation, increased blood sugar and inhibition of the digestive system. Parasympathetic: conservation of energy and relaxation leads to slowing heart rate, lower blood pressure increased activity of the digestive Sys.
Basal Ganglia
are subcortical structures (caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus and substantia nigra) that are involved in planning, organizing and coordinating voluntary movements. BG Pathology has been linked to Huntington’s, Parkinson’s, Tourette’s OCD & ADHD.
Beta-Blockers
Propranolol
Propranolol and other B-Bs block or diminish the cardiovascular excitatory response to the hormones epinephrine & norepinephrine. They are used to treat cardiovascular D/Os glaucoma and Migraines. Also help reduce Sxs of anxiety. Common S/fx include bradycardia, nausea, diarrhea, dizziness, decreases sexual ability and trouble sleeping.
Brain Lateralization
“Split Brain” patients
although there is shared responsibility of each side, they tend to specialize. The specialization of the two hemispheres is referred to as brain lateralization and was initially studied in split-brain patients, who’s corpus callosums had been severed to control severe epilepsy.
Left Hemisphere Dominant
Dominates in Verbal activities, analytical, logical thought; and positive emotion states.
Right Hemisphere Non-Dominant
dominates in visual-spatial activities such as facial recognition, spatial interpretation and in memory for shapes; also dominates negative emotions.
Cerebellum and Ataxia
The cerebellum is a large structure on the dorsal aspect of the hind brain. It is involved in the extrapyramidal control over motor activities (coordination, balance, posture). Damage can result in ataxia, which is characterized by slurred speech, severe tremors and a loss of balance.
Cerebral Ventricles
Hydrocephalus
are the four cavities of the brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid. Blockage and the resulting build-up of fluid can cause hydrocephalus.
Cerebrovascular Accident (CVS)
aka CV Stroke; refers to brin damage that occurs when a blood clot or other obstruction or hemorrhage disrupts blood flow to the brain. Common Sxs include: contralateral hemiplegia, hemianesthesia involving the face, arm and leg; and contralateral visual field loss.
Contralateral Representation
for most sensory and motor functions, the cortex exhibits contralateral representation, which means that the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and vice-versa.
Corpus Callosum
The left and right hemispheres are connected by several bundles of fibers, the largest of which is the corpus callosum. If it is severed, the two hemispheres operate essentially as separate, independent brains.
Depth Perception / Retinal Disparity
depends on a combination of binocular and monocular cues. Retinal disparity is a binocular cue and refers to the fact that our 2 eyes see objects in the world from 2 different views; and the closer and object, the greater the disparity of the two images.
Dopamine Hypothesis
Schizophrenia is due to overactivity at the dopamine receptors either as a result of oversensitivity of the receptors or excess dopamine levels.
Effects of Psychoactive Drugs
1) Agonists- produce FX similar to those produced by a neurotransmitter 2) Inverse Agonists- Px opposite effect Pxd by neurotransmitter 3) Partial Agonists- similar but less FX than NTs or agonist 4) Antagonists- Px no activity in the cell but reduce or block the FXs of a neurotransmitter or agonist.
Emotion Areas of the Brain
1) Amygdala - plays role in the perception and expression of anger, fear, sadness, happiness; attaches emotions to memories. 2) Hypothalamus- involved in the translation of emotions into physical responses. 3) Cerebral Cortex.
Frontal Lobe & Prefrontal Cortex
frontal lobes occupy the major portion of the cortex and includes the primary motor cortex, supplementary motor area, premotor cortex, Broca’s area and prefrontal cortex. Damage to the prefrontal cortex produces personality changes and deficits in higher-level cognitive abilities.
Gate-Control Theory of Pain
there are mechanisms in the spinal cord that mediate the perception of pain.
General Adaptation Syndrome
Selye
The human response to stress is mediated by adrenal-pituitary secretions (e.g. cortisol) and involves 3 stages: 1) Reaction 2) Resistance 3) Exhaustion; Prolonged stress can result in illness or death.
Hippocampus
is a limbic system structure that is important for spatial and explicit memory and the consolidation of declarative memories.
Huntington’s Disease
is an inherited degenerative disease that is transmitted by a single autosomal dominant gene and involves emotional, cognitive and motor Sxs. For many, emotional and cognitive Sxs appear first and include; depression, apathy, anxiety, antisocial tendencies and forgetfulness. Early motor Sxs include fidgeting and clumsiness which are followed by facial grimaces and “piano-playing” movements of the fingers. Huntington’s is believed to be due to a loss of GABA-secreting neurons and glutamate excitotoxicity in the basal ganglia, especially in the caudate nucleus, putamen & globus pallidus.
Hypertension
2 types: Primary (essential) is Dx when high blood pressure is not due to a known physio cause. Secondary: Dx when it is known. Primary accounts for about 85%-90% of all cases of high blood pressure; untreated it can lead to cardiovascular disease and it is the main cause of heart failure, kidney failure and stroke. Prevalence related to age, race and gender: older adults increased; Blacks higher than whites; higher for older black women.
Hyper & Hypothyroidism
Hyper: caused by hyper secretion thyroxine by the thyroid gland and is characterized by a speeded-ip metabolism, elevated body temp, accelerated heart rate, increased appetite with weight loss, nervousness and insomnia. Hypo: caused by Hypo… involves slowed metabolism, etc see above reverse plus impaired concentration, memory & depression.
Hypoglycemia
Low blood glucose: caused by excessive secretion of insulin by the pancreas and is characterized by hunger, dizziness, headaches, blurred vision, palpitations, anxiety, depression and confusion.
Hypothalamus & Suprachaismatic Nucleus (SCN)
HT consists of a cluster of nuclei that control the autonomic nervous sys and endocrine glands, mediate basic drives and regulate emotional expression. The SCN, which is located in the hypothalamus, is involved in regulation of the body’s circadian rhythms.
Learning and Memory Areas of the Brain
1) Temporal Lobes: essential for encoding, storage and retrieval of long term declarative 2) Hippocampus: consolidation of long-term declarative (txr from STM to LTM) 3) Amygdala: fear conditioning, rewards and punishments, adding emotional significance 4) Prefrontal Cortex: STM, episodic memory and prospective memory. 5) Thalamus: process information / Txr to neocortex
Learning and Memory
Neutral Mechanisms
NM’s mediate LTM; include LT potentiation, and protein/RNA synthesis. (1) LTP is a physiological process involving modification of nerve synapses, esp at glutamate receptors in the hippocampus. (2) Inhibiting the synthesis of protein or RNA at the time of learning prevents formation of LT memories.
MAOI’s and Hypertensive Crisis
MAOIs are the antidepressants that work by inhibiting the enzyme monoamine oxidase, which is involved in deactivating dopamine, norepinephrine & serotonin. The most dangerous SFX is hypertensive crisis, which can occur when MAOIs are taken with barbiturates, amphetamines, or foods containing the amino acid tyramine (aged cheeses, meats, beer, chicken liver, avocados, bananas, fava beans). Sxs: severe headache, stiff neck, rapid HR, nausea, vomiting, sweating and sensitivity to light.
Medulla
is a hind brain structure that controls the flow of information between spinal cord and brain; regulates a number of vital functions including breathing, heartbeat and blood pressure.
Menopause / Hormone Replacement Therapy
decreased estrogen levels that accompany menopause produce a variety of emotional and physical Sxs including: hot flashes, mood swings, and vaginal dryness; reduces the risk for bone loss.
Methylphenidate
Ritalin / Concerta / Metadate
used to treat ADHD. Common SFX include: decreased appetite, insomnia, dysphoria and growth suppression.
Migraine Headache
recurrent vascular headache characterized by severe throbbing pain, usually on one side of the head. Triggers: certain foods, alcohol, bright lights and relaxation following physical or psychological stress. May be preceded by an aura (classic) or gastrointestinal or other Sxs (common).
Mood Stabilizers
Lithium & anticonvulsants (carbamazepine)
used t alleviate Sxs of Bipolar D/O; Lithium is usually the drug of choice; anticonvulsants for patients with rapid cycles or have dysphoric mania.
Multiple Sclerosis MS
a progressive disease of the nervous sys that involves the degeneration of the myelin that surrounds nerve fibers in the central nervous sys (CNS). Common initial Sxs: optic neuritis, motor impairments, sensory abnormalities and fatigue. As it progresses: tremors, speech Pxs, mood sxs, and cognitive impairment.
Naltrexone
ReVia / Vivitrol
opioid antagonist that blocks the craving for and reinforcing effects of alcohol; used in abuse treatment. SFX: abdominal cramping, nausea, vomiting, insomnia, nervousness, headache, and joint and muscle pain.
Narcotic Analgesics (opioids)
have both sedative and analgesic properties. Same use for centuries: analgesics, diarrhea, cough suppressant. Chronic use results in tolerance; Withdrawal Sxs: like having a bad case of the flu.
Neuroimaging Techniques
Structures: (CT) Computed tomography (MRI) Magnetic Resonance Imaging; Functional Activities: (PET) Positron-Emission Tomography (SPECT) Single Proton Emission Computer Tomography & (fMRI) Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrom NMS
NMS is a rare, but potentially fatal side effect of the antipsychotic drugs. Involves rapid onset of motor, mental,and autonomic Sxs including: muscle rigidity, tachycardia, hyperthermia and altered consciousness. DRUG MUST BE STOPPED AS SOON AS SXS DEVELOP
Neuron Action Potentiation
All-Or-None Principle
predicts action potentiation will always be of the same magnitude regardless of amount of stimulation as long as minimum threshold is reached.
Neurotransmitters:
Acetylcholine
Mediates neuromuscular transmission, parasympathetic arousal and memory (i.g. memory loss in Alzheimer’s dementia)
Neurotransmitters:
Dopamine
involved in inhibitory motor regulation and motivational/emotional functions. Insufficient levels in basal ganglia is believed to underlie Parkinson’s disease; excessive amount linked to schizophrenia and tourette’s.
Neurotransmitters:
Serotonin
Ordinarily inhibits behavior and is involved in regulation of mood, hunger, arousal, sleep, temperature, and pain in the affective D/Os, Schizophrenia and OCD.
Neurotransmitters:
GABA
is the most common inhibitory neurotransmitter and is believed to be involved with anxiety, sleep and seizures. Low levels in the motor region are associated with Huntington’s disease.
Occipital Lobe and
Visual Agnosia / Prosopagnosia
Damage to this lobe can result in visual agnosia (inability to recognize familiar objects), color agnosia, word blindness, and scotomas (blind spots). Lesions at the junction of the occipital, temporal and parietal lobes can produce prosopagnosia: the inability to recognize familiar faces.
Papez’s Circuit
proposed as a brain mechanism (circuit) that mediates the experience and expression of emotion. It includes the hippocampus, mammillary bodies, anterior nuclei of the thalamus and cingulated gyrus.
Parietal Lobe &
Apraxia / Anosognosia / Gerstmann’s Syndrome
contains the somatosensory cortex. Damage can cause apraxia (inability to perform skilled motor movements in the absence of impaired motor functioning), anosognosia (inability to recognize one’s own neurological Sxs or other D/O), or Gerstmann’s Syndrome (combination of finger agnosia, right-left confusion, agraphia and acalculia.
Parkinson’s Disease
A progressive degenerative disease characterized by tremor, muscular rigidity, akathisia, akinesia, and speech difficulties; it may eventually include dementia. Sxs are temporarily relieved by L-dopa, a dopamine agonist. It’s believed to be due to a degeneration of dopamine-containing cells, especially in the substantia nigra.
Postconcussional D/O
requires (A) Hx of head trauma that caused significant cerebral concussions as evidenced by loss of consciousness, post-traumatic amnesia and/or post-traumatic seizures; (B) disturbances in attention or memory; and (C) 3 or more Sxs that have lasted for at least 3 months (headaches, fatigue, irritability, or anger without provocation.
Psychophysical Laws
Attempt to predict the relationship between perception and sensation. (1) Weber’s Law (2) Fechner’s Law (3) Steven’s Power Law
Weber’s Law
just noticeable differences in stimulus intensity is a constant proportion of the initial stimulus intensity
Fechner’s Law
physical stimulus changes are logarithmically related to their psychological sensations
Steven’s Power Law
the magnitude of a sensation is equal to the physical magnitude of the stimulus producing the sensation raised to a certain power (exponent) which varies; depending on the specific sensation being measured.
Reticular Activating System RAS
network of nerve fibers involved in wakefulness, arousal and consciousness.
Secondary Sex Characteristics /
Hypothalamatic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis
puberty = increase in gonadal hormones influences the emergence of secondary sex characteristics and the development of the reproductive Sys. Although the mechanisms that trigger the development are not well understood, it occurs when the hypothalamus secretes chemicals that stimulate the anterior pituitary gland which then releases the gonadotropic hormones that stimulate testosterone and sperm production by the testes, or ovulation and estrogen by the ovaries. The system is referred to as the H-P-G Axis.
Sedative-Hypnotics
Benzodiazepines
include barbiturates, anxiolytics & alcohol. They are generalized CNS depressants and are usually dose dependent: low doses = reduce arousal and motor activity; High doses = anesthesia, coma & death. Benzos are a type of anxiolytics; alleviate anxiety, treat sleep disturbances, seizures, CP. SFX: drowsiness, dizziness, lethargy, slurred speech, ….
