social psychology 2003

Question 1

Humans are … social
Environment has …. effect on socialization eg. SES, country
Our interactions with others shape our ….

lecture 1

Answer 1

innately
large
behaviour (change beh in dif situ)

Question 2

diference between Personality psychologists and Social psychologists ?

Answer 2

1. assess stable traits over time
2. examine environmental influences

Question 3

whats more predictive personality or social psychologists

Answer 3

maybe social (enviro)

Question 4

Defining social psychology

Answer 4

The scientific study of the effects of social and cognitive processes on the way individuals perceive, influence, and relate to others

Question 5

Social vs cognitive processes

Answer 5

Social processes
Our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the people around us, the groups to which we belong, the teachings of our parents, and our culture

Cognitive processes
Our memories, perceptions, **thoughts, and emotions guide our understanding **of the world and our actions

Question 6

what do Sociologists do?
1. PREFERRED
METHODS
2. FOCUS OF
OBSERVATIONS
3. EXAMPLE: THE STUDY
OF AGGRESSION

Answer 6

study society, social behavior, and the structures that govern human interactions.

Surveys, demographic
patterns of data

Group-level behaviors
and social expectations

Group characteristics of aggressive behavior

Question 7

what are Anthropologists? they…
1. PREFERRED
METHODS
2. FOCUS OF
OBSERVATIONS
3. EXAMPLE: THE STUDY
OF AGGRESSION

Answer 7

study humans, cultures, societies, and their development over time

Detailed observations of people in a given culture

A discrete group of
people over time

Cultural habits of
aggression within a
discrete setting

Question 8

Clinical
psychologists
1. PREFERRED
METHODS
2. FOCUS OF
OBSERVATIONS
3. EXAMPLE: THE STUDY
OF AGGRESSION

Answer 8

addresses behavioral and mental health issues

Therapeutic interviews
and tests

Individuals who have
problematic thoughts or behaviors

Individual and
interpersonal causes of
aggression

Question 9

what do Social
psychologists study?
1. PREFERRED
METHODS
2. FOCUS OF
OBSERVATIONS
3. EXAMPLE: THE STUDY
OF AGGRESSION

Answer 9

how peoples thoughts etc are infleunced by the presense of others

Controlled experiments
and observations

Everyday people in
individual or group
settings

Experiments testing the causes and control of
aggression

Question 10

Early breakthroughs
of social psych

Answer 10

Wilhem Wundt’s Völkerpsychologie (1900-1920)
Norman Triplett’s social facilitation experiment (1897)

Question 11

First textbooks published in 1908

Answer 11

William McDougall (cofounder of BPS)
Edward Ross, but they were a sociologist and American (eww)

Question 12

who Published a textbook in 1924
Emphasizing importance of experimentation
what did it argue

Answer 12

Floyd Henry Allport
…the best way to understand groups was by studying the individual, not the group itself (sets us apart from sociology)
brother= gordon allport

Question 13

in the 1920’s psychology was dominated by…. by….

Answer 13

behaviourism…watson and skinner
(what was observed)

Question 14

after behaviourism, then Social psychologists recognized the importance of people’s ….

Answer 14

thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, etc.

Question 15

Hitler’s rise motivated many psychologists to flee to U.S leading to…

Answer 15

Brought other theoretical influences
Gestalt and anti-behaviorist psychologists who emphasized cognition

Question 16

Shifted focus of research
Persuasion techniques during wartime
Authoritarianism
Discoveries of atrocities post-WW2

Question 17

Kurt Lewin
Emigrated from… to … in…
Behaviour as … of individual and environment
Died young, but ….
such as….

Answer 17

Emigrated from Germany to US in 1933
Behaviour as function of individual and environment
Died young, but trained several notable social psychologists
…. Leon Festinger (cognitive dissonance)
Stanley Schachter (physiology and emotion)
Several more (see chapter 2)

Question 18

After WW2…
Emphasis on …
Discoveries of …
why…

Answer 18

how groups impact individual behavior
atrocities (violent acts) post-WW2… why?

Social influence and conformity
Bean estimation experiment (Jenness, 1932)
Auto-kinetic effect experiment (Sherif, 1935)
Line study (Asch, 1956)

Question 19

Milgram’s obedience studies (1960s)
asked…

Answer 19

Could a person be pressured by others into committing an immoral act, such as hurting a stranger?

Question 20

Stanford Prison Study (1971) by…
participants were…
the G became… P became…
behav changed on their….

Answer 20

Philip Zimbardo
…randomly assigned to be a prisoner or guard
aggressive, submissive
… expectations of that societal role

Question 21

Social cognition (1970s - 1990s)

Answer 21

Emphasis of cognitive processes and theory
Less reliance on reactionary studies replicating social phenomena
Attribution of behaviors
Automatic versus controlled processes
Motivation and emotion regulation
Introduction of ethical review boards
Advanced statistical analyses introduced

Question 22

Present day

Answer 22

Interdisciplinary and applied approaches
Emphasis of neuroscience methods
Importance of cultural differences
Use of online recruitment for diverse samples
Use of virtual reality (work in progress)
Advanced statistical analyses
Replication issues of classic paradigms
Open science practices

Question 23

Social psychology tends to follow recent events
1. ww2 atrocities…
2. kitty genovese murder…
3. 911 attacks
4. civil rights mov…
5. rise of femanism…
6. police shootings…

Answer 23

(conformity/obedience)
(bystander effect)
(Muslim/Arab prejudice)
(stigma and intergroup conflict)
(sexism and stereotype threat)
(racism and weapon misidentification)

Question 24

Social psychologists value diversity

Answer 24

Began with Western heteronormative standpoint (White dudes)
Culture influences the individual
Importance of intersectionality
We are a combination of ethnicities, religions, sexualities, etc.
Diversifying research is essential to understanding human behavior

Question 25

Is behavior shaped more by biological factors (“nature”) or by environmental factors (“nurture”)?

Answer 25

Behavior is influenced by both in varying degrees
Some view this as a false dichotomy

Question 26

How can we explain why good people do bad things?

Answer 26

Interested in justifications or explanations, not what is good or bad
Behavior is often shaped by our environment and context

Question 27

Why do humans live in groups?

Answer 27

Humans as social animals
Evolutionary perspective
Harm of group decisions
Embedded cultural norms

Question 28

Why do stereotypes and prejudices exist and persist?

Answer 28

Relationship between stereotypes and instincts
Automatic processes and use of heuristics

Question 29

Is science the best way to learn about social behavior?

Answer 29

Replication crisis!
Several classic, foundational studies have failed to produce repeatable results
Data manipulation
False positives
Recent emphasis on replication studies to find “true effects”
Academics need to be more open and honest with their data, sharing their raw data with the public so others can check their work

Question 30

Replication crisis

Answer 30

39% studies replicate in psychology
54% in the very top journals!

Not just psychology!
11% of drug studies replicated
59% of highly cited clinical research studies
44% of genetic studies
25% of studies in economics

Question 31

what is causing the replication crisis?

Answer 31

Under-powered designs
20 participants per cell used to be the “standard”

Stopping collection whenever hypotheses were met

Dropping (and not reporting) conditions if they did not work

Dropping (and not reporting) dependent variables that were not consistent with predictions

Question 32

what is publication bias?

Question 33

What does the replication crisis have to do with social psych?

Answer 33

Self-control failure (ego depletion)
At the heart of the replication crisis in psychology
One of the most studied areas in social psychology
Mass replications have found small or no effects
Meta-analyses mixed…

Question 34

evidence of ego-depletion of replicaiton crisis…

Answer 34

Hagger et al. (2010)
Found evidence of ego-depletion using 83 studies
Studies used in meta-analysis were published
Publication bias!
What about non-published studies?

Question 35

2 types of research
1- basic science is…
2- applied science is…

Answer 35

Research that increases understanding and theory
Tries to understand a given phenomenon

basic knowledge is transformed into practical solutions to adress** real world probelms **

Question 36

basic science is used when in… setting
for example…

Answer 36

universities and research institutes
how im increasing my knowledge in lectures

Question 37

applied science is used in… setting
for example…

Answer 37

Healthcare
Workplace
Communities
… how doctors apply knowledge from uni to find a cure as a solution for a disease in the uk

Question 38

circle summary of the scientific method 4 steps

Answer 38

1. observe a pattern
2. generate a hypothesis
3. scientifically test hypothesis
4. interpret results and refine hypotheis (make more specific)

Question 39

cross-sectional data is data taken at …..
there are …. participants
issues…

Answer 39

one time point
multiple
need to do an experiment to see if cause-and-effect relationship
(if just use obervation could be correlation)

Question 40

Longitudinal data is taken at….
with the …. participants
its better for finding a ….
but if not experimental…

Answer 40

two or more time points
same
… cause and effect relationship
will be correlational not causation…
and may be other variables leading to the cause

Question 41

Structural equation modelling (SEM) is the diagram that…
it allows for…

Answer 41

Maps out complex relations between many factors/variables
… simultaneous analysis of multiple relationships

Question 42

within subject design
is….
between subject design….

Answer 42

when same participants are exposed to all conditions
diferent participants are in dif groups and some do a and some do b

Question 43

Double blind control in experiments is when studies are … to prevent…
its when the …
single blind is …

Answer 43

randomised.. bias
Researcher and participant are oblivious of the condition they are in
..when only participant is unaware of their condition

Question 44

in experimental designs participants are…

in a Quasi-experimental design groups of interest…..

for example they cant control the … of people or whether people …

Answer 44

randomly assigned to one group
… cannot be manipulated, occurs naturally (pre-existing) or unethical to manipulate

race…. smoke

Question 45

Issues with quasi-experimental designs

cant demonstrate…

Answer 45

• **Lack of control **or comparison group, potentially unreliable
  individual differences may have influenced categorization in a group eg. Is behaviour due to belonging to a group or vice versa?

Cannot demonstrate cause and effect!

Question 46

Advantages of quasi-experimental designs

Answer 46

Social psychologists very interested in pre-existing groups
like race… gender… find out more about steryotypes

Question 47

Researcher wants to examine differences in takeaway habits between those who live in the city versus the suburbs…
so quasi-experimental is…
promlem is livign in city dosent CAUSE more takeaways theres …

Answer 47

IV= city vs countryside participent
othere confounding variables like personality.

Question 48

issue with social experiments,
Ecological validity which is

Answer 48

how well a study’s results apply to everyday life situations outside of the controlled experimental environment.

Question 49

issue with social experiments,
Use of confederates (which are…) may…

Answer 49

actors
not be convincing (online better)

Question 50

3 dif types of research designs …

Answer 50

experimental
quasi- experimental
non-experimental

Question 51

experimental design used to…

Answer 51

determine the causes of behaviour that can expain why it occurs

Question 52

quasi-experimental design is used to …

Answer 52

identify the relationship between pre-existing variables

Question 53

non-experimental design is used to…

Answer 53

describe variables and predict the relationship between variables

Question 54

meta- analysis is a …

Answer 54

statistical technique used to combine the results of multiple independent studies on the same topic to arrive at a more comprehensive and reliable conclusion

Question 55

ethical concerns of qualitative methods is that…

Answer 55

…they measure sensitive information and Some individuals may not honestly report sensitive information so ensure its all anonomous

Question 56

a Construct is an ..
eg.

Answer 56

..Attempt to capture pattern of behavior
Hard to capture directly due to vagueness
depression, self-worth…

Question 57

Operational definition is an…
it can be… or ….
eg…

Answer 57

Attempt to identify way to capture construct
Can be quantitative or qualitative
Vary in reliability, but there are usually endless options
eg. stress can be reported in a **questionare **
Exceptions:
Height
Weight
Age

Question 58

Operationalizing constructs is when we….
for example a conceptual def of happiness is…
and a operational def of happiness is…

Answer 58

define constructs in a way that makes them measurable and observable in a specific research context.
… Happiness is a state of well-being
…. Happiness will be measured by the score on the Subjective Happiness Scale, where participants rate their overall happiness on a scale from 1 to 7.

Question 59

ways to operationalise constructs include…

Answer 59

Natural observation
Self-report scales (e.g., questionnaires)
Physiological measures (e.g., EEG, heartrate)
Reaction times (e.g., during Stroop task)
Specialized behavioral tasks
Implicit Association Test (e.g., unconscious biases)
Flanker task (e.g., attention and executive control)
Reading span task (e.g., working memory)

Question 60

2 types of operationalizations
explicit which is… and eg….
implicit which is… and eg….

Answer 60

Conscious and deliberate
Self-reported by participant (e.g., survey)
Unconscious and automatic
Gut reactions or impulsive decisions made by participant
Behavioral tasks, natural observation, facial expressions, etc.

Question 61

operationalizating constructs

why are implicit measures better than explicit
however they both…

Answer 61

because of social desirability and ppl lying on surveys.
… tap into different kinds of information so both helpful

Question 62

operationalize constructs

implicit assosiation test (IAT) is a way to
it measures….
when two concepts are assosiated people… and vise verser
so the RT tells us about the …

Answer 62

Common assessment of attitudes
Captures associations in memory
Assumption these are automatic

strength of automatic associations between concepts

react faster
assosiation of 2 concepts

Question 63

IAT

the D-score is a …

Answer 63

**statistical measure **that represents the difference in response times when participants categorize pairs of stimuli that are either congruent or incongruent with their implicit biases.

Question 64

IAT

the D-score equation is…

Answer 64

dif in reaction times/ pooled standard deviation of the response times

Question 65

interpreting the d-score IAT

postive d-score=
negative d-score=

Answer 65

congruent bias (responded faster when the pairing matched their implicit biases or stereotypes) eg. white ppl=good and black ppl=bad (steryotype)
incongruent bias (participants responded faster when the pairing went against common stereotype)

Question 66

Issues with IAT

Answer 66

forces categorization
prime participants with stereotypes rather than assess them

Question 67

contempoarary approaches help to improve the reliability, credibility and replicability of studies by focusing on….

Answer 67

Design
Protocols
Hypotheses
Materials
Analyses
Exclusions

Question 68

contemporary issues

Exploratory analyses is …
its problem is…

Answer 68

…a set of statistical techniques and methods used to analyze data to uncover patterns etc.. without having a pre-defined hypothesis basically…. Hypothesizing after results are known (aka. HARKing)
that Findings may be **type I error ** (false positive)

Question 69

exploratory research is …
and a confirmatory hypothesis is… which invloves…

Answer 69

gathering info/building theories
testing the theory …. a directional and prior prediction

Question 70

Exploratory research questions have…

Answer 70

open-ended hypotheses
You think something is going to happen, but unsure what
- Conflicting theories
- Not enough literature
pre-registered along with hypotheses/analyses
- which means formally documenting the research questions, planned analyses, and hypotheses before conducting the study to increase credability

Question 71

the confirmatory research process steps

Answer 71

1. form hypothesis and analysis plan
2. collect data
3. analyse data acording to analysis plan
4. interpret and report results
5. publish and distrobute research output
6. replicae results

Question 72

Controlled processes are ..
they are… for eg….
they are also … and require an …
they are normally captured by..

lecture 3

Answer 72

Deliberate and intentional behaviors
potentially limited … mental fatigue and working memory constraints.
goal-dependant
awareness of behaviour
explicit measures

Question 73

controlled process are dependant on…
…. theory

Answer 73

motivations
self-determination theory

Question 74

automatic processes are… for example…
they tend to be captured by..
they are influenced by 3 things…

Answer 74

uncontrollable or unconcious processes
.. gut reactions/ knee jerk responces
implicit measures
priming, facial cues and environment

Question 75

Gilbert & Hixon (1991)

found that cognitive busyness may decrease the…
but increase the liklihood that …

Answer 75

liklihood that a particular steryotype will be activated
.. an activated steryotype will be applied

Question 76

startle eyeblink responce and self report, david m amodio

individual diferences in the activation and control of affective race bias

Answer 76

high internal and those with low external motivation exibited less affective race bias in blink responces.
high internal motiv less racial bias then low IM.

Question 77

Payne (2001)

Weapons identification task
participants are shown an image of either a …… (the prime) followed by a picture of either …..
participents asked to identify whether imagine is a … or not
participants more likley to press yes if its a … face before
Incongruent pairings harder to categorize for example…

Answer 77

black or white face, a gun or harmeles object , gun, black

eg. Black-Tool
White-Gun

Question 78

payne 2001

what did payne find from the weapon iddentification task?
he distinguished between …. and … processes

Answer 78

automatic and controlled.
The racial bias that led to quicker identification of guns after seeing Black faces was thought to be **driven by automatic processes **

Question 79

the motivated tacticians continnum
is a continuum between … and … processes
where u land depends on 2 factors…. and ….
if …. and …. is low we use …..
if … and … is high we use….

Answer 79

automatic and controlled
motivation and cognitive resources
M and CR are low= auto
M and CR are high= controlled

Question 80

an important social cue is….
FF and eye…
another is… so you can determine appropriate… and can alter ther perceptions like…

Answer 80

faces
facial features, contact
environment , behaviour , dangerous situations

Question 81

ruth mayo

face-name matching effect is when people can guess somones …. (in a list) by looking at a picture of their ..
….. produce this effect

Answer 81

name, face
existing name steryotypes ..

Question 82

shooter bias task is when presented with a ….
which contain people who are either … or ….
and are either carrying a … or …
participents have to decide if they are or not, and …. is measured

Answer 82

scene, black or white, gun or other object, reaction time

Question 83

results for shooter bias task show that faster …for … when a … person and more mistakes for …
showing …

Answer 83

reaction time, shoot, black
black ppl
racial bias

Question 84

the dangerous context video game task is a variation of the …. , but it incorporates specific …. eg…

it found that the dangerous context seems to amplify ….. , leading to a higher rate of false positives (…) when the target is ….

Answer 84

Shooter Bias Task, environmental cues, dangerous or safe contexts

implicit racial bias ,shooting an unarmed person, black

Question 85

social memory is when we… eg.. which helps to… and …

this information is stored in…

Answer 85

store information relevant to ourselves and others.. remembering stuff about others .. form oppions on others and navigate novel situations
assosiative networks, spresing activation and semantic network model

Question 86

spreading activation is when…

Answer 86

When a concept or node is activated in your mind (e.g., you think of “summer”), this activation spreads out along the network to related concepts (e.g., “sun,”

Question 87

Social-cognitive approach to personality is when ..

Answer 87

personality is not a fixed trait but rather a dynamic system influenced by interactions between a person’s thoughts, behaviors, and social context.

Question 88

a self- schema is

Answer 88

Cognitive representations of oneself that one uses to organize and process self-relevant information
Consists of the important behaviors and attributes

Question 89

self schemas

People behave differently due to …. in self-schemas

Provide a framework for organizing and storing information about our …

Answer 89

individual diferences, personality

Question 90

Self-reference effect is when …

Answer 90

information related to oneself is processed more deeply, encoded more effectively, and recalled more easily than information not related to the self.

Question 91

Self-perception theory:
Things that seem to occur frequently …
theory is particularly relevant in situations where our….
Situational factors may determine:

Answer 91

we make judgments about our own thoughts and attitudes the same way we make judgments about others’ behaviors—by interpreting our actions in various situations.

enter self schema Unless situational factors can account for the behavior
internal states are weak
Intrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation

Question 92

Self-determination theory is the role of…
2 types of motivations=
which one increases motivations to repeat behaviour again?

Answer 92

role of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations in influencing behavior.
extrinsic and intrinsic

Question 93

Looking-glass self is when..
We sometimes …. what others think about us which can be..

Answer 93

Other’s perceptions of us feed into our self-schema
assume, inaccurate

Question 94

Social comparison theory is..
2 types of social comparision are..
we compare ourselves more to people who are…
we tend to do …

Answer 94

innate drive to evaluate their own abilities, opinions, and emotions by comparing themselves to others.

upward= When we compare ourselves to someone who is better than us, often to improve on a particular skill

downward= When we compare ourselves to someone who is worse than us, often to feel better

close to us
downward comparisson

Question 95

multiple selves?
All of these sources suggest that we are different people:

Answer 95

At different times
Around different people
In different settings

Question 96

When selves don’t align we…
we have Three simultaneous selves=

Answer 96

experience emotional discomfort

Actual self
Ideal self
Ought self

Question 97

actual self=
ideal self=
ought self=

Answer 97

The person we think we are right now
The person we hope to become
What other people want us to be.

Question 98

Self-Presentation Theory is when one…
we use…

Answer 98

Adapt to fit into the situation
Present ourselves to make an impression on others
Impression management and self-monitoring

Question 99

What is self-control?

its used to balance…

Answer 99

Ability to override thoughts, emotions, and behaviors
Implement behaviors which are appropriate for the situation
Self-expression: Actions consistent with self-concept (actual self)
Self-presentation: Actions shape others’ impressions of us in positive ways (ought or ideal self)

Question 100

self - control is required to…
self control is dependant on… what depletes this resources?
prolonged use causes..
resources need to be…

Answer 100

shift from actual to ideal self.
limited resources like eg. gluecose
stress

Prolonged use of self-control causes “fatigue”
Resources need replenished before further use

Question 101

Strength model of self-control is when
time 1=
time 2 after engaging self control=

Answer 101

high self control resources
low self control resources

Question 102

Inzlicht et al. (2014)

Process model of self-control:
Controlling your behavior shifts motivation….
Motivation temporarily shifted towards …

basically increase motiv for… and decreased for…

Answer 102

.. away from further control
.. rewarding behavior
Resources not depleted, just redirected
Fatigue leads to reward seeking

want to tasks, have to tasks

Question 103

Excess use of self-control leads to:
Increased motivations to engage in …
…. response to rewarding stimuli
Lack of attention to engage in any…

Answer 103

rewarding behaviour
Exaggerated emotional ..
effortful behavior

Question 104

Self-Discrepancy Theory

eg.

Answer 104

discrepancies among these selves can lead to emotional discomfort and influence personal motivation.
Can lead to mental health problems
Depression
Social phobia
Eating disorders
Poor self-esteem
eg. someone feels they should be more responsible or successful based on external expectations, failing to meet these standards can lead to feelings of guilt, anxiety, or inadequacy.

Question 105

Self-esteem is ones…
enhancing self esteem can be done with a few methods…
upward comp may lead to…

Answer 105

Confidence in one’s abilities
Self-worth or respect
self - serving bias, the better than average effect, downward social comparison
improvements but requires effort so use downward to compensate

Question 106

protecting self esteem
when get feedback…

Answer 106

.. like good feedback and take on board and bad feedback just ignore eg a quiz on personality

Question 107

Dark side of protecting self-esteem
Inflating self-esteem may lead to:

Answer 107

Narcissism
False confidence
Lack of empathy
Academic problems
And more!

Question 108

cultural diferences in self esteem

Answer 108

collectivist cultures (e.g., many Asian, African, and Latin American societies) prioritize group harmony, family, and community over individual achievement.

Question 109

What is an attitude?

lecture 4

Answer 109

cognitive representation that summarizes evaluation of an attitude object (e.g., belief)
Attitude objects may be the self, other people, things, actions, events, or ideas

Attitudes have
direction
intensity

Question 110

Measuring attitudes

Answer 110

Self report on attitude scales

Observation of behavior

Physiological measures (e.g., EEG, heartrate, skin conductance)

Reaction time measures

The Implicit Association Test!

Question 111

Attitude functions, We evaluate everything we encounter almost instantly:
Attitudes help people navigate the environment which….

Answer 111

Provides shortcuts to guide behavior
Reduce cognitive effort needed to make decisions

Question 112

Attitude formation acrynim

Answer 112

CAB
cog, beh, affective

Question 113

attitude formation:
Affective information:
Behavioral information:
Cognitive information:

Answer 113

Feelings and emotions about the object
: Information about past, present, or future interactions with the object
: Facts and beliefs about the object

Question 114

CAB book example of lady gaga book
cognitive info=
thoughts=
affective info=
feelings=
nbehavioural info=
behaviours

Answer 114

she endows youth foundations
shes amazing
i feel pumped when i hear her music
feel happy when i see her music videos
i download all her songs and would drive 1000 miles to see her
downloading her new track

Question 115

We form attitudes consistent with the information we have about the attitude object
….. information is weighted more heavily in forming the attitude than is …. information
Attitudes reflect those parts of the information that are currently ….
Often dependent on ….
May vary …

Answer 115

negative , positive , accessible or salient, context/environment, over time

Question 116

Associative-Propositional Evaluation (APE) model shows us that:
Learning occurs through:…. a and b

Answer 116

Learning occurs through:
Associative learning
Propositional learning

Question 117

Associative learning:

Semantic Network Model
mental links form….

Answer 117

Mental links form between concepts based on shared properties
Shorter path between concepts = stronger association in memory
Nearby concepts also activated
Spreading activation!

Question 118

APE model, assosiative learning
when 2 stimuli are …. paired together=
hebbian law=
example=
Merely co-occurrence of stimuli can influence behavior… eg…

Answer 118

frequently..
=Creates semantic link in memory
Hebbian law
“Neurons that fire together, wire together!”
Classical conditioning (e.g., Pavlov’s dog)
….
Flowers
Pleasantness
and Black Americans
Violence (e.g., media exposure)

Question 119

ape model

Propositional learning
is when….

Answer 119

Mental links are elaborated upon, requires conscious effort
Creation of causal relations between associations
Attempt to validate associations

Question 120

APE model summary=
Associative learning = creates…
Propositional learning =explains…

Answer 120

Associative learning = Creates simple links in memory
Black Americans-Violence
Alcohol-Positive emotions
Propositional learning = Explains simple links in memory
Black Americans are violent
Alcohol causes me to feel happy

Question 121

Associative information ….

Propositional information

Answer 121

Co-activation of concepts
Spontaneous emotional response (captured via implicit measures)
Can be rejected (if you have the energy)

Validation and explanation of associations
These associations are further strengthened (if validated)
More deliberate judgments (require energy, captured via self-report)

Question 122

Conflict and independence among these two processes (gut responces)

Answer 122

Associative information can be activated (e.g., gut response) regardless of whether you believe the response as appropriate
Propositional information may override gut responses if they are inconsistent and you have the motivation (and resources) to do so

Question 123

Associative processes examples=

Propositional processes
Validate associative information
eg=

Answer 123

“I dislike insects”
vs

“Bugs look disgusting”
“Insects in the house make me uncomfortable ”
“I dislike insects”

Question 124

Changing attitudes via APE model
Target …. learned information
Avoid activation of ….. associations
e.g.

Answer 124

associative
negative associations
e.g., well-known, admired Black Americans reduce racial bias
Associations are hardwired into memory and difficult to change

Question 125

Changing attitudes via APE model:
Evaluative conditioning aims to replace or create…..

Answer 125

Aims to replace or create new links between concepts in memory
Co-activation of emotional stimuli and target stimuli
Stigmatized groups
Alcohol

Question 126

APE model interventions
important things to consider for evaluative conditioning:

…. stimuli do not need to be related to target stimuli
Conditioning is not meant to …..
Only targeting ….. responses

Answer 126

Emotional stimuli do not need to be related to target stimuli
Conditioning is not meant to create causal relationships
Only targeting “gut” or immediate emotional responses

Question 127

APE model interventions
From associative to propositional learning:
During ….., some notice the odd pairings
Contingency awareness
….
What happens?
…..

Answer 127

evaluative conditioning, “I think this is supposed to make me like alcohol”, Effectiveness increases

Question 128

APE model interventions

Why is knowing about something make it more effective?
Creates…
Propositional learning!
Instead of simple Black-Positive or Alcohol-Positive associations, contingency awareness leads to an elaboration of this simple link

Answer 128

causal explanation between concepts

Question 129

what is evaluative learning
individuals learn to associate a particular stimulus with ……
its a type of …
unlike… which…

Answer 129

a positive or negative emotional value based on past experiences.
- assosiative learning
- propositional learning, which involves understanding facts or logical relationships, evaluative learning is more about emotional responses rather than factual knowledge.

-

Question 130

Changing attitudes via APE model
why doe these changes occur? through…

Answer 130

cognitive dissonance

Question 131

what is cognitive dissonance?

Answer 131

Discomfort from conflict between attitudes and behavior, uncomfortable tate of arousal
We aim to resolve this discomfort by resolving conflict
Change behavior to match new associations/ attitude

Question 132

cognitive dissonance example
smoking

Answer 132

Imagine you know that smoking is bad for your health (belief), but you smoke anyway (behavior). This conflict creates cognitive dissonance. To reduce it, you might try to quit smoking, convince yourself that smoking isn’t that harmful, or ignore the risks.

Question 133

when changing attitudes you have to make sure…

Answer 133

that the change is freely chosen, self determination theory, external or internal motivation?
external= somone wants u to quit smoking
internal= want to quit to improve health.
internal is best

Question 134

Festinger and Carlsmith (1959)

study-
what happened?
found

Answer 134

participants in lab
‘somethings gone wrong with experiment can you help with this task’
boring task for an hour
after told the next particiapnt was coming in, asked if they could lie to the next and say they loved it.
offered 1$ or 20$
if payed 1 not enough justification to lie, but 20$ would defo lie.

when we do something that dosent match our feelings, we change our feelings to account for that as we dont like ot be inconsistent.

Question 135

Daryl Bem

Self-perception theory
is it similar to cognitive dissonance?

Answer 135

Our own behavior as a basis for inference for self-schema
Depends whether behavior intrinsically or extrinsically motivated

(similar Change in attitudes NOT due to…
Uncomfortable states
Anxiety/arousal)

Question 136

applying self- perception theory to the APE model..

Answer 136

1. assosiative info promotes new automatic behaviour (shop- more likley to buy a salad then sandwich)
2. recognise that behaviour is inconsistent with propositional information regarding attitude object
3. change propositional info to match new behaviour
4. now assosiative/ proppositional info match, furthur strenghtening the liklihood of this nehaviour to occur in the future.

Question 137

changing attitudes:
priming

Answer 137

Activate information to change behaviour
Conscious or unconscious
May activate nearby concepts to alter perceptions
Spreading activation
APE model

Question 138

priming example=
social questionare

Answer 138

developed Questionare
brought students in, lied to them and said computers not working but can u just fill in this questionare ‘how common is it for ppl to drink to socialise with others’ positive vs ‘ now common is it to drink and drive an automobile’ negative consequence

priming them…
prime with social= no avoidance of alcholol
prime with drive= avoidance went up, less likley to drink

Question 139

changing attitudes:
Elaboration likelihood model

Answer 139

When do people accept or reject information?
Elaboration = critical evaluation of arguments, some do and some dont depedns on dif things..
Some arguments accepted as is with no elaboration
Other arguments may elicit high elaboration
If inconsistent with already learned information
If relevant to your self-schema
These arguments critiqued and may be rejected!

Question 140

How do we reduce resistance? (e.g., no elaboration)
2 diferent routes of persuasion….

Answer 140

Central routes of persuasion
Scientific evidence
Logic-based arguments

Peripheral routes of persuasion
Highly emotional (e.g., use of fear)
Aim to change associations in memory

Question 141

peripheral routes are best changing ….
eg…

not enough if…

Answer 141

Peripheral (emotional) routes may be effective in preventing … maladaptive health behaviors from forming
Tobacco packaging-
- somone has a long held belief.

Question 142

peripheral routes dont always work
for example…

Answer 142

But implementation of plain packaging did not stop everyone from smoking… right?
Peripheral routes not effective in changing persistent behaviors

Emotion-based interventions may promote high elaboration when they are counterintuitive to our longstanding beliefs and attitudes

Enter… central routes!

Question 143

central routes use…
to reduce elaboration….

Answer 143

logical arguments to change behavior
Still may be met with high elaboration if counter to attitudes
…
Combine with peripheral route
Promote trustworthiness of information or source

Question 144

if argument comes form ‘experts’ in the field…

Answer 144

more likley to trust central routes
Typically elicit lower elaboration (leads to less deep thinking)
More effective in changing persistent behaviors

Question 145

elaboration liklihood model

example= calender
found…

Answer 145

swimsuit of cheerleading students
manipulated a couple things
listen to recordeig to either justify it or not
strong argument of central route= sexist attitudes, tarnish rep
vs weak advertising= free advertsiing (not convicing)

stronger argument= less elaboration
doctor who was expert= less elaboration

Question 146

elaboration liklihood model
strong arguments alone….
However, experts may change attitudes even if….

Answer 146

…. may be sufficient in changing attitudes, regardless of the source of information

…. arguments or statements are weak!
These effects depend on personality/individual differences
Some may be skeptical regardless of expertise!

Question 148

elaboration

central routes…
peripheral routes…

Answer 148

higher
lower elaboration

Question 149

Stereotypes are…

Prejudice:

Discrimination:

week 5

Answer 149

Stereotypes:
Impressions of groups that people form by associating the groups with particular characteristics
Prejudice:
Positive or negative evaluations of a social group or its members
Discrimination:
Positive or negative behavior directed toward a social group or its members

Question 150

theories of bias

Answer 150

Social Identity Theory
Realistic Conflict Theory
Intergroup Threat Theory

Question 151

importance of groups

Social identity theory (Tajfel, 1971)

and

Self-categorization

Answer 151

Social identity theory (Tajfel, 1971)
We derive self-esteem from our valued group memberships
Share and adopt opinions with our in-group to feel validated
Develop belief that “outgroups” are inferior

Seeing oneself as a member of a social group
Often associate ourselves with several social groups, eg. gender, race, age etc..

Question 152

Sources of group membership
all lead to…

Answer 152

direct members, precence of out-group members, being a minority, intergroup conflict
all lead to
accecibility of social identity as a group number

Question 153

Group membership influences self-esteem

Answer 153

When our group wins we feel great
Refer to group as “we” more after a win
Basking in reflected glory (Cialdini et al., 1976)
We tend to rely on group’s successes to hide our failures
Group membership can protect self-esteem

Question 154

Social identity theory
in group and out group

Answer 154

In-group
Those who belong to our social group
Viewed as similar to ourselves
View members as unique and novel

Out-group
Those who belong to other social group
Viewed as dissimilar to ourselves
View members as similar/homogenous (e.g., stereotypes)- driven by lack of knowlage of what people are like

Question 155

How group membership shapes us

Answer 155

We use group memberships to emphasize what is novel about ourselves, may bolster certain group identities
If our in-group is a minority, that may become central to us
If our in-group is a majority, we may discount that membership

Minority and majority status also changes the functions of upward/downward comparisons (Brewer & Weber, 1994)

Question 156

Brewer and Weber (1994)

Randomly assigned via “perceptual estimation task”

Answer 156

Consistent with large amount of student population (majority)
Consistent with small amount of student population (minority)

Shown video with either majority or minority member performing well or poorly on academic task

How does being in the majority versus minority affect social comparisons based on performance?

Question 157

Minimal group paradigm

Answer 157

Groups can be made arbitrarily
Over versus underestimation of items
Color of shirt
Preference of paintings
Coin toss
Etc.

Allows to study effects of groups in a “vacuum”
Suggests intergroup conflict is innate

Question 158

Brewer and Weber (1994)

if you are in the majority/minority and performance is good/bad we feel….

Answer 158

If you are in the majority…
If majority performance is good = we feel bad
If majority performance is bad = we feel good
Minority performance does not affect majority

If you are in the minority…
If minority performance is good = we feel good
If majority performance is bad = we feel bad
Pattern is reversed!

Question 159

Function of group memberships triangle

Answer 159

social comparisons, self- catorazation, self-esteem

Question 160

I” Becomes “We”

Activated group membership changes the self-schema
and
in group favoratism

Answer 160

Thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (attitudes) move toward in-group
Changes in attitudes stronger among those with higher group identity

In-group favoritism
Initial positivity towards in-group based on membership alone
Anything negative about group members could reflect poorly on you!

Question 161

Others Become “They”

Out-groups treated more negatively
Out-group homogeneity effect:

Answer 161

Seeing out-group as less diverse than in-group
Fewer out-group members known
Interactions with out-group more constrained

Focus on group membership with out-group as opposed to individual characteristics with in-group

Question 162

billig and tajfel 1973

school boys study:
Is it all in-group favoritism?

Answer 162

Billig and Tajfel (1973)
Schoolboys divided into arbitrary groups
Divide points between in vs out-group
Generally favored in-group members
No surprise!
But…
Were they seeking to maximize benefits for the in-group?
Boys sometimes discriminated even when it cost the in-group
Example:
Took 11 points for in-group, 7 for out-group over 17 for each
In-group will take a loss if it means out-group is worse off

Question 163

Sources of outgroup bias
theories and hypothesis

Answer 163

Social identity theory
Categorization-Competition Hypothesis
Self-Esteem Hypothesis

Realistic Group Conflict Theory

Intergroup Threat Theory

Question 164

Categorization-Competition Hypothesis

Answer 164

Viewing people in terms of ingroups and outgroups is sufficient to generate intergroup competition

Evidenced by minimal group paradigms
Arbitrary assignment to groups creates biases

Competition between groups seems innate
Evolutionary function?

Question 165

Self-Esteem Hypothesis

Answer 165

When your in-group does well, it makes you feel good
Basking in reflective glory (Cialdini)
Intergroup bias supports that your group is better than the outgroup
Low self-esteem promotes intergroup bias to raise self-esteem

Question 166

Realistic Group Conflict Theory

Answer 166

Evolutionary and economic account for group conflict
Groups tend to compete when resources are contested
Israel and Palestine (land)
Mexico and U.S. (welfare)
Gulf War (oil)

Supported by Robber’s Cave (and other) experiments
We are motivated to maximize the rewards for in-group, even if it means taking those rewards away from others

Question 167

Realistic Group Conflict Theory

Answer 167

Majority groups view competition as zero-sum game
Finite amount of resources
Gains in minority lead to equal losses in majority
Fear of losing influence and power

Threats increase if groups are seen as equal
Affirmative action policies
Equality/diversity initiatives

Question 168

Intergroup Threat Theory

Answer 168

Biases come from two types of perceived threats
Symbolic threats (e.g., loss of status or authority)
Realistic threats (e.g., loss of physical resources)

Previous theory emphasized realistic threats
Threat of losing positive source of self-esteem just as important
Bias may result from combination of threats

Question 169

Intergroup Threat Theory
Realistic threats

Answer 169

Threaten to reduce power or resources of group
Physical or material harm to group members
Pain
Death
Loss of power
Economic loss

*The conflict between the Israelis and Arabs provides a stark illustration of the various
types of threat. For both groups, realistic group threats are omnipresent in the form of the
possibility of open warfare. This is a struggle involving land, economics, power, and blood
where each group threatens the very existence of the other. Symbolic group threats are nearly as
obvious. The two groups differ in religion and culture and speak different languages. Each group
is perceived to pose a fundamental threat to the cultural worldview and way of life of the other.
Threats also exist at the individual level. Realistic individual threats exist in the form of terrorism
for the Israelis. For the Arabs, such threats are present as targeted assassinations in which
civilians are often casualties. Individual symbolic threats occur when individuals feel they are
being dishonored, disrespected, or dehumanized by members of the other group.
*

Question 170

Intergroup Threat Theory
Symbolic threats

Answer 170

Threaten to reduce status, beliefs, or ideologies of group
Undermining source of self-identity or self-esteem
Disrespected
Social standing diminished
Loss of perceived importance

*The conflict between the Israelis and Arabs provides a stark illustration of the various
types of threat. For both groups, realistic group threats are omnipresent in the form of the
possibility of open warfare. This is a struggle involving land, economics, power, and blood
where each group threatens the very existence of the other. Symbolic group threats are nearly as
obvious. The two groups differ in religion and culture and speak different languages. Each group
is perceived to pose a fundamental threat to the cultural worldview and way of life of the other.
Threats also exist at the individual level. Realistic individual threats exist in the form of terrorism
for the Israelis. For the Arabs, such threats are present as targeted assassinations in which
civilians are often casualties. Individual symbolic threats occur when individuals feel they are
being dishonored, disrespected, or dehumanized by members of the other group.
*

Question 171

Intergroup Threat Theory
Perceived actions or intentions of outgroups often elicit threat

Answer 171

Threatening status quo maintained by majority group
Anticipating changes to status quo may elicit feelings of threat
Does not need to be real or actualized
Mere perception of threats enough to promote con

Tov, and Schmidt (2004). This study examined four variables: 1) the actual proportion of
immigrants in counties across Germany, 2) the respondents’ perceptions of the proportion of
immigrants in their counties, 3) the respondents’ perceptions of the threats posed by immigrants,
and 4) the respondents’ exclusionary attitudes toward immigrants. It was found that the actual
proportion of immigrants in the respondents’ localities did not predict exclusionary attitudes
toward immigrants. Instead, the perceived proportion of immigrants predicted both perceived
threats and exclusionary attitudes.

Question 172

Threatening the status-quo
when a group is threatened….

Answer 172

When in-group is threatened, bias intensifies
Unequal status amplifies intergroup biases
Attempt to maintain inequalities and retain privilege
Often see out-group as “moral exclusion” to justify:
Aggression
Hate crimes
Genocide

Question 173

Threatening the status-quo example

Answer 173

In previous centuries, slavery and exploitation was justified by many Christian slave owners using parts of the Bible

Retained in-group as highest moral authority

Justified hatred and exploitation for out-groups

Question 174

discrimination is…

Answer 174

Behaving differently toward people based on their membership in a social group
Acting in an unfair or demeaning manner toward a disliked group
But can also refer to giving undeserved advantage to a liked group

Question 175

Forms of discrimination

blatant vs subtle

Answer 175

Blatant discrimination
Unequal and harmful treatment that is intentional and visible

Subtle discrimination
Unequal and harmful treatment that is typically less visible and obvious
Often not noticed because people have internalized it as normal
Can be active or passive

Question 176

subtle discrimination

covert discrimination is…
microaggressions are..

Answer 176

Covert discrimination
Unequal and harmful treatment that is hidden, purposeful, and often maliciously motivated
Behavior that attempts to ensure failure in situations

Microaggressions
Small-scale, everyday behaviors that demean other social groups or members of those groups
Behavior can be verbal or nonverbal

Question 177

Small correlations between prejudice and discrimination
what explains these correlations?

Answer 177

Small correlations between prejudice and discrimination
Theory of planned behavior explain small correlations
Prejudice alone not sufficient to promote discrimination
Social norms and perceived control impact behavior

Question 178

Theory of planned behaviour examples

Answer 178

Ajzen (1991)
Behavior is complex and rarely rational
Sex
Smoking
Eating
Substance and alcohol use
Discrimination
Examples of behaviour which may be difficult to control voluntarily

Question 179

what is theory of planned behaviour?

Answer 179

Prejudiced attitudes can influence behavior

Interact with social norms and expectations to act morally
These norms can change based on group identity and context
Serves as an “external brake” on behavior

Interact with availability of self-control to inhibit actions
May be undermined by fatigue or time constraints (e.g., snap judgements)
Serves as an “internal brake” on behavior

Question 180

Motivations to control prejudice
internal vs external

Answer 180

Internal motivation
Stems from a personal belief that prejudice is wrong

External motivation
Is a result of social pressure

These are separate processes
People can experience both at the same time

Question 181

Internal motivations
Associated with lower prejudice….
Even if prejudiced associations are activated….

Answer 181

Associated with lower prejudice
Exposure to members of outgroups implicitly reminds people of their commitment to egalitarianism

Even if prejudiced associations are activated
People high in internal motivation are more likely to recognize conflict between prejudices and actions
Approach interracial interactions with the goals of treating the other person fairly and having a friendly conversation

Question 182

External motivations
Associated with higher prejudice…

Does not necessarily prevent discrimination
…

Answer 182

Associated with higher prejudice
People high in external motivation feel pressured to appear unbiased
Feel irritated and resentful as a result

Does not necessarily prevent discrimination
Only in certain contexts when external influence is present
Interactions with minority group members not always pleasant

Question 183

Losing control

supressing discrimination requires…
when resources are reduced…
howerver…

Answer 183

Suppressing discrimination requires attention and mental effort
When these resources are reduced, people can express their prejudice

However, suppressing behavior is difficult especially when the underlying attitudes are strongly influencing behavior
Prejudice may “leak out” through automatic processes or nonverbal behaviors when trying to control its effects on other behaviors

Question 184

Essay examples

Answer 184

How does group membership affect our self-esteem? How may these effects change when comparing ourselves to in-group versus out-group members?

Discuss the differences between prejudice and discrimination. Using relevant theory, describe when prejudiced attitudes may manifest as discrimination.

Question 185

Social categorization is when we…
beliefs develop….
which are used to…
Motivated by 3 theories previously discussed….

lecture 6

Answer 185

place others (and ourselves) into social groups
Beliefs develop about members of these groups
Are used to guide future interactions with group members

Social identity theory
Realistic group conflict theory
Intergroup threat theory

Question 186

Basic social categories include…
for example…
we use this info to….
important in…

Answer 186

Information which is easily observable for categorization
Gender
Race
Age

We use this information to draw conclusions about a person’s traits, social roles, and physical characteristics
Important in initial interactions

Question 187

Intersectionality/subtypes is when people…
for example…
Subtypes can be ….
Some subtypes may be ….

Answer 187

People belong to more than one basic category at once
Middle-aged White woman
Young Asian man
Older Black woman

Subtypes can be created to incorporate intersectionality
Some subtypes may be less negative than basic categories
However… some may be more negative!

Question 188

Influences on categorization
Bottom-up processing
and
top-down processing

Answer 188

Bottom-up processing
Based on the observable characteristics of an individual

Top-down processing
Based upon prior knowledge people have stored in memory and their expectations about interactions

Question 189

Influences on categorization example

Answer 189

Stereotypic beliefs about librarians and waitresses
.
Top-down processing relies on prior knowledge stored in memory
.
Categorization of the woman as a librarian or a waitress
.
Bottom-up processing is based on the characteristics of the people we encounter
.
The woman’s description of her day

Question 190

Influences on categorization

Bottom-up influences
Prototypicality is the…

example…

Answer 190

Extent to which physical features match basic social category
Categorization faster when observing a prototypical member

example:

People with baby faces (A) are seen as physically weaker and more submissive than those with mature faces (B)

People whose face has a larger width-to-height ratio (C) are seen as less friendly, less trustworthy, and more aggressive than those with smaller ratio (D)

Question 191

Influences on categorization

Bottom-up influences
Body Cues
example

Answer 191

Body size and motion provide cues about group membership
= Example:
When determining biological sex, body shape is the primary cue
People rely on the knowledge that women have narrower waists and a smaller shoulder width (and longer hair) than men

Question 192

Influences on categorization

Bottom-up influences
Categorization of ambiguous faces

Answer 192

When cues are ambiguous, categorization is slower
We tend to classify ambiguous faces as members of the minority or socially subordinate group
These perceptions continue until the majority of their features are stereotypically White

Question 193

Influences on categorization

Top-down influences
Stereotypes
example

Answer 193

Impressions of groups that people form by associating the groups with particular characteristics
The content of these impressions affects categorization

Example:
Gender-atypical versus typical characteristics observed in faces are used to infer sexual orientation (Freeman et al., 2010)

Question 194

Influences on categorization

Top-down influences
Situational Influence
example

Answer 194

The social context can influence categorization
Focus on what makes another person look “different” may shift across varying contexts

Example:
Female student in a group of mostly male students are more likely to be categorized as a woman, rather than student

Question 195

Influences on categorization

Top-down influences
Prejudiced attitudes
example

Answer 195

Prejudiced individuals pay more attention to characteristics consistent with their attitudes and stereotypic beliefs
Racist attitudes = focus on race when categorizing
Sexist attitudes = focus on gender when categorizing

Question 196

Origins of stereotypes
people learn them from…

Answer 196

People learn stereotypes from
Parents
Peers
The media
Their own observations of the world
Role models
Development/socialization

Question 197

people learn steryotypes form Psychological Processes
such as…

Answer 197

Social Role Theory
Illusory Correlations

Question 198

Social role theory is when…
correspondence bias is when…

Answer 198

People observe the social roles others occupy
Associate characteristics of role with those who occupy it

Correspondence Bias
We tend to assume behaviors of others are due to personality, not external or situational factors
Leads to the development and continuation of stereotypic beliefs

Question 199

Illusory correlation is when…

Answer 199

People incorrectly link two characteristics
Overestimate the relationship between two categories when undesirable information stands out
Inaccurate associations become firmly held
Based on inaccurate information processing
APE model…
Associative learning!

Question 200

Influence of media on catogarization

Answer 200

The media expose us to members of majority groups more than minority groups
Representations of minority groups are stereotypic and negative
The more media people are exposed to, the more they hold stereotypic beliefs
Race
Gender
Body size

Question 201

Influence of advertising on catogarization

Answer 201

Women are typically shown in the home
Engage in behaviors that convey their dependence and stereotypical gender roles

Men are typically shown in professional roles
In the U.S., White people appear more frequently in advertisements than any other ethnic or racial group

Question 202

Johar et al. (2003)

Influence of advertising on categorization example
commercials…
findings…

Answer 202

Johar et al. (2003)
Commercials depicting women and men in traditional roles
Undergrads wrote an essay imagining their lives 10 years in future

Findings:
Women who saw traditional commercials described their future as “homemaker” rather than “career woman”
Men’s future was not influenced by type of commercial

Question 203

Accuracy of stereotypes
are steryotypes accurate?

Answer 203

Are stereotypes accurate?
Not a simple answer
Generally, beliefs are not totally unfounded
“A kernel of truth”
But they undermine attempts to individuate outgroup members
Self-fulfilling prophecy

Question 204

Stereotype Knowledge is…
Stereotype Endorsement is…

Answer 204

Stereotype Knowledge
Extent to which a person is familiar with the content of a stereotype

Stereotype Endorsement
Extent to which someone personally believes the societal stereotype accurately describes a social group

Question 205

steryotype Activation versus application
with hig/low cog load

Answer 205

encounter member of steryotyped group->
low cog load= steryotype activates
high cog load= steryotype activation inhibited-> so steryotype application not possible

sterypotype activates->
low cog load=steryotype application inhibited
high cog load= steryotype applied

Question 206

Automaticity- Activation of stereotypes follows categorization
Factors that can facilitate activation

Answer 206

Often occurs without effort or conscious thought
Cues presented subliminally can activate stereotypes
Prototypicality
Situational context
Level of prejudice

Question 207

Prototypicality is the extent…

Answer 207

Extent to which a social group member has the physical features associated with their social group

Question 208

Intersectional “invisibility” is when..
for example…

Answer 208

People with intersectional identities are less likely to be recognized as a prototypical member of either identity
Example: Black women are not seen as prototypical of either women or Black people

Question 209

Intersectional “invisibility”
advantages=
disadvantages=

Answer 209

Advantages:
Stereotypes that are not activated are not used
May explain why Black women typically experience less discrimination than Black men

Disadvantages:
People who are not seen are also not heard
May make “dual identities” feel more stigmatized

Question 210

Intersectional “invisibility”
Minorities with dual stereotyped or stigmatized identities often …
example…

Answer 210

Often more worried about experiencing discrimination
Have less allies or role models in many contexts
Referred to as “double jeopardy”

Example
Black women in STEM

Question 211

Factors which promote automaticity

Answer 211

Situational Context
Context influences if stereotypes are activated
Environment
Time of day

Timing
When we are pressed for time, we tend to rely on stereotypes
When given time to respond, stereotypes may not be activated

Timing
When we are pressed for time, we tend to rely on stereotypes
When given time, we can engage self-control to stop application

Ambiguity
When the situation is unclear, we tend to rely on stereotypes
Example:
Application more likely at night

Question 212

Importance of working memory
Cognitive busyness

Answer 212

When we are busy with one mental task while trying to do another
Lack of space in working memory disrupts stereotype activation
Example:
Cognitively busy people who see an Asian woman use fewer stereotypical words during sentence completion task

Question 213

Importance of working memory Gilbert & Hixon (1991)
activation phase and application phase

Answer 213

Those who engaged working memory during “activation phase” were less likely to complete words stereotypically
Stereotypes likely occupy working memory
Working memory has limited capacity
If engaged, stereotypes unlikely to be activated

Those who engaged working memory during “application phase” were more likely to use stereotypes to describe researcher
Working memory is needed to inhibit application
Working memory has limited capacity
If occupied, stereotypes likely to be applied

Question 214

Stereotype application
Activated stereotypes are likely to be applied…
Activated information is likely to influence behaviour..

Answer 214

Stereotype application is the typically the default option
Unless a person is motivated and able to inhibit a stereotype
Internal motivations
External motivations

Spreading activation triggers behavioral scripts (Loersch & Payne, 2011)
Easily accessible information requires less effort (brain is lazy)

Question 215

Cognitive busyness inhibits…

Answer 215

inhibits stereotype activation
But if activated, cognitive busyness facilitates stereotype application

Question 216

Measuring steryotype application
Weapons identification task (Payne, 2001)

Answer 216

Sort guns versus tools
Primed with Black versus White faces
Incongruent pairings harder to categorize
Black-Tool
White-Gun

Question 217

Promoting steryotype application
Myopia-
what triggers myopia?

Answer 217

Behavior based on immediate, readily available information
Long-term consequences not considered
Promotes self-preservation

-Tiredness/fatigue
Alcohol (cues alone)

Question 218

Activation versus application
how do we measure each?

Answer 218

Difficult to disentangle
Processes happen very quickly
Activation = cognitive processes (e.g., IAT)
Application = observed behaviors (e.g., shooter bias, WIT)

Question 219

Beyond errors and reaction times…
Behavioral tasks often activate stereotypes via primes..

Answer 219

Activated stereotypes (associations in memory) differ in their strength
Whether we apply these activated stereotypes (regardless of strength) relies on controlled versus automatic processes
Controlled processes = engaging inhibition to reduce application
Automatic processes = strength of activated stereotypes on behavior

Question 220

Automaticity versus control
If strength of activated stereotypes are strong….
If strength of activated stereotypes are weak…

Answer 220

If strength of activated stereotypes are strong
Increased control needed to suppress application
Availability (and willingness) to engage control depends on context and individual differences (e.g., motivations)

If strength of activated stereotypes are weak…
Little control is needed to suppress application
We may not apply stereotypes, even when control is limited

Question 221

Petzel et al. (2022)
Alcohol-related cues promote myopia…

Answer 221

Stronger influence of automatic processes (activated stereotypes)

We can inhibit enhanced automaticity via control
Under normal circumstances…
When control is diminished via ego-depletion, automaticity leads to greater application of stereotypes promoted by alcohol myopia

Question 222

Essay examples

Answer 222

Describe the processes underlying stereotype activation versus application. How does cognitive busyness impact these processes?

Discussing relevant theory, how may we acquire stereotypes? How does group membership prime stereotypes in working memory and how may we prevent their application?

Question 223

Increasing control

when people are becoming unprejudiced they include this as part of their …..
which requires
issues of this is that…

lecture 7

Answer 223

… “ideal self”
self control
Issues with this:
Stereotype activation/application relatively automatic
May not be aware of these effects on our behavior
Unable to inhibit relatively unconscious behaviors
Limitations of self-control- egopletion

Question 224

Petzel et al. (2022)
shows that when we are ….. steryotypes slip out
gun task eg.

Answer 224

if tired,
eg. more likley to see image on a gun (its a tool) more lilley to be racist when tired

Question 225

Increasing control

good to …..
to help ….
however can lead to ….
for example
engaging in control also requires…. and …..
theories such as ….

Answer 225

its good to increase control
to supress steryotypes

However, actively engaging control to suppress prejudice can lead to automatic inhibition of stereotypes

Example: Negating stereotypes
Becomes easier with practice
Reduces stereotype activation
Develop cues for control

effort and motivation
ego-depletion theories

Question 226

2 types of Motivations to control prejudice

Answer 226

Internal motivation
Stems from a personal belief that discirmiantion is wrong

External motivation
Is a result of social pressure

These are separate processes
People can experience both at the same time

Question 227

Internal motivations
assosiated with…
exposure to outgroups reminds ppl….
more likley to….

Answer 227

Associated with lower prejudice
Exposure to members of outgroups implicitly reminds people of their commitment to egalitarianism (equal rights)

Even if prejudiced associations are activated
People high in internal motivation are more likely to recognize conflict between prejudices and actions
Approach interracial interactions with the goals of treating the other person fairly and having a friendly conversation

Question 228

External motivations
assosiated with….
people high in external motiv feel… and feel … asa result
doesnt prevent ….

Answer 228

Associated with higher prejudice
People high in external motivation feel pressured to appear unprejudiced
Feel irritated and resentful as a result

Does not necessarily prevent discrimination
Only in certain contexts when external influence is present
Interactions with minority group members not always pleasant

Question 229

Consequences of suppression

Answer 229

What happens when suppression stops?
- steryotype rebound
Or if we are too fatigued to inhibit our actions?

Question 230

Stereotype rebound is when…
there is a …..
Stereotypes are used to a…..
Can exceed…..

why does it occur?

Answer 230

Unwanted thoughts return in greater strength after suppression

There is a “rebound effect”

Stereotypes are used to a greater extent after suppression stops
Can exceed typical stereotype use (e.g., ironic effects)\

Why does rebound occur?
Suppression takes cognitive effort
When resources are depleted, people cannot continue suppression
Stereotypes break through due heightened salience in memory
Priming!
Loersch and Payne (2011
While suppressing stereotypes, people are looking for potential use of stereotypes in their thoughts and actions
This requires knowledge and conscious awareness of stereotypes
Incidentally activates stereotypes in working memory
Activated stereotypes are then applied in rebound effect
Limited resources to further suppress application

Question 231

Perspective taking is when people….
an example is when…
those who did this had a poorer ….
because….

facilitated by writing an ….
after listening to….
having a ….. meeting

Answer 231

• Making active effort to take someone else’s perspective
• white american takes the perspective of a day in the life of a black american
• those who took perspective of black had poorer working memory after,
• because….engaging is effortfull, if too tired and dont have motivation it wont work you wont be able to put yourself in their perspective.

“Imagine a day in the life of this person, looking at the world through their eyes and walking in their shoes.”

Facilitated by:
Writing “a day in the life” essay about a social group member
Listening to interview based on someone’s experiences with discrimination
Having a face-to-face meeting with an outgroup member

Question 232

perspective taking

effective perspective taking leads to ….
why is it effective? - because it strengthens…. leading to….
however it can backfire for people who…..
and people who….. because of their …

Answer 232

Effective perspective taking…
…..Leads to more positive attitudes about the outgroup overall
Perspective takers exhibit less bias on explicit and implicit evaluations

Why is it effective?
Perspective takers see their experiences overlap with outgroup
…..Strengthens associations between ingroup and outgroup
Leads to internal motivations to reduce bias
However…
……Can backfire for people who strongly identify with their ingroup
Taking the perspective of outgroup may not change prejudiced attitudes

…..lack the depth of knowledge concerning what members of outgroups experience on a daily basis
Can you walk a mile in someone’s shoes… without their shoes?
Lacking knowledge and …….ignorance of injustices

Question 233

Petzel et al. (2024)
perspective taking needs…..
if we dont know the extent of …. we may not fully ….
when writing …. we are therefore…..

Answer 233

Perspective-taking needs context!

If we do not know extent of the bias experienced by outgroup, we may not fully emulate their perspective
Traditional manipulations (writing essay) are limited by our imagination and do not recreate first-hand experiences

Question 234

Social identity model of collective action
(van Zomeren et al., 2008)
collective action is when…
3 componensts needed for people to change …

Answer 234

• when an entire group comes together to make change
  Actions taken by group to achieve goal (e.g., reducing biases/barriers)
  e.g., engagement with equality initiatives, allyship

Precursors to collective action
1- Perceived injustices
2- Strong social identity
3- Self-efficacy/confience

Question 235

Petzel et al. (2024)
perspective taking
experiment 1 they took the perspective taking of ….
emphasising….
the next experiemnt they blamed….
strenghtening….
and promoting…. which leads to ….

male scientists exposed to…. made the biggest difference
concluding that you do need …

Answer 235

Experiment 1
Perspective-taking (male vs female scientist)
Emphasizing perceived injustices

Experiment 2
Strengthening men’s social identity via blame/guilt (blamed men for these injusticies)
Promoting confidence to address gender inequalities (gave them tools to help with these injusticies) leads to increasing support. (men exposed to tools made more effort to stop injesticies)

exposed to context of inequalities and taking persepctive of a women
context

Question 236

Petzel et al. (2024) – beyond van Zomeren
also applied to 2 theories
ELM and APE model
ELM=
APA=

Answer 236

Elaboration likelihood model
Central routes- logic based
Peripheral routes- emotion based

APE model
Associative learning-
Propositional learning

Question 237

Elaboration likelihood model applied to changing steryotypes
2 diferent routes
1) expert used to deliver message was…. which provides evidence for…
2) person delivering message was….

Answer 237

Central routes
Expert sources of information- a white male
Empirical evidence on gender bias

Peripheral routes
Promotion of empathy- female spoke about perspective
Taking perspective of female scientist

Question 238

APE model applied to changing steryotypes

Answer 238

Changes in propositional beliefs may change associations
- presentation changed their propositional reasoning ( women are stigmatized and shouldnt be)
- cahnging their assosiations
Changes in associations may change propositional beliefs
- taking persepctive of a woman breaks down barriers of in group and out group, leading to stronger connections inn memory of women being in science. sexism is wrong.

Question 239

Intergroup contact theory is when being in….

Answer 239

• being in contact from somone in an outgroup can reduce prejudice, positive change

Question 240

limitations of Intergroup contact theory:
may not be effective for people in …
for example=
may not work as people may….
people with high intergroup ….
and people who lack ….

conditions for sucess in intergroup contact include….

Answer 240

may not be effective for people high in prejuduce
= trump, people exp[osed to so much bad stuff about him but because of their extreme prejucice of women/black they still voted for him

avoid contact with members of groups they dont like

anxiety

confidence

Conditions for success in intergroup contact
Equal status between groups
Cooperation in achieving common goals
Acquaintance potential
Institutional support

Question 241

conditions for sucess in intergroup contact:
Equal status

Answer 241

Groups must have equal status within the contact situation
If status is unequal, members of ingroup may devalue or stigmatize the lower-status outgroup
This is context dependent
E.g., some societies or organizations are more committed to egalitarianism and correcting social inequities than others

Question 242

conditions for sucess in intergroup contact:
Cooperation

Answer 242

Having members of ingroup and outgroup cooperate on tasks to achieve same goal improves intergroup attitudes
Cooperative contact in team sports leads to improved attitudes
For individual sports, attitudes are unrelated to amount of contact

Question 243

conditions for sucess in intergroup contact:
Acquaintance potential

Answer 243

Opportunity for members of interacting groups to get to know each other as individuals
Ideally, acquaintance leads to friendship
Intergroup friendships are related to lower prejudice
Quality of friendship more important than quantity

Question 244

conditions for sucess in intergroup contact:
Institutional support

Answer 244

Authorities or organizations must establish expectation for lower prejudice and less discrimination
Can create structures that facilitates positive intergroup relations
Creates cognitive dissonance
Attitudes can change to match behaviors

But… external motivations?

Question 245

Effectiveness of intergroup contact
intergroup contact increases….

Answer 245

Increases
Knowledge about outgroups
Empathy for outgroup
Interest in other cultures
Motivation to control prejudice

Question 246

Limitations of intergroup contact
positive contact is …. and more ….
when its negative can be….

Answer 246

Positive contact is clearly more effective
Is also more common

But when negative contact occurs…
It can be harmful
Reinforces stereotypes
Increases stereotype application

Question 247

Indirect contact
Three forms of indirect contact

Answer 247

Extended Contact
Media Contact
Imagined Contact

Question 248

indirect contact:
Extended contact is…
assosiated with lower … and reduced….
demonstrates ….
shows outgroup members are …

Answer 248

Having an ingroup friend who has outgroup friend(s) is associated with lower prejudice and reduced intergroup anxiety
Demonstrates intergroup relationships are permissible and possible
Shows outgroup members are open to such relationships

Question 249

Indirect contact
Media contact is…
positive portrayals in media can ….
woekds for …
its a form of …

Answer 249

Seeing outgroups in media is a form of extended contact
Positive portrayals in the media can improve intergroup attitudes
Works for “real life” and fictional characters
Watching characters in media is a form of perspective taking

Question 250

Indirect contact:
Imagined contact is …
rehearsal plays a key role in…
allows people to develop…

Answer 250

Mentally practicing a “positive, relaxed, and comfortable” first meeting with an outgroup member
Rehearsal these interactions plays a key role in self-regulation of emotions and planning of behavior during potential contact
Allows people to develop a script for the interaction

Question 251

Imagined contact reduces…
negative….
physiological….

imagined contact increases….

but is less effective than …

Answer 251

Negative intergroup emotions and anxiety
Physiological arousal in response to intergroup contact
Increases perspective-taking
May be less effective than face-to-face contact

Question 252

How does contact work?:
Personalization
- Intergroup contact reduces prejudice if people see members of the outgroup as ….
- leads to more … and less…
- Awareness that members of both ingroup and outgroup have complex social identities lessens the….

Answer 252

Intergroup contact reduces prejudice if people see members of the outgroup as individuals (i.e., individuation)
Leads to more liking and less prejudice toward the outgroup
Awareness that members of both ingroup and outgroup have complex social identities lessens the importance of group boundaries

Question 253

How does contact work?:
Salient categorization
- Positive attitudes generated by contact will generalize to the group only if the outgroup members are seen as ….
- Categories must remain salient if….
- Outgroup members must be seen as ….

Answer 253

Positive attitudes generated by contact will generalize to the group only if the outgroup members are seen as … typical of their group
Categories must remain salient if positive attitudes are to apply beyond the immediate contact situation
Outgroup members must be seen as typical of their group and still disconfirm aspects of the group stereotype

Question 254

How does contact work?:
Common ingroup identity is when…
however majority group members may assume… …

Answer 254

Ingroup and outgroup members recategorize themselves into a single group that shares a common identity

However…

Assume other (minority) group will take on their group’s norms and values (assimilation perspective)

Question 255

Essay examples

Answer 255

Using relevant theory, propose an effective strategy to reduce bias towards outgroup members. How may you best promote engagement with this intervention?

How does increasing intergroup contact reduce prejudiced attitudes? Discuss how real versus imagined contact may improve interactions with outgroup members.

Question 256

social factors which may affect health

lecture 8

Answer 256

macro-social influences
Poverty and SES
Social capital and loneliness

Question 257

mechanisms for gender and racial health disparities

Answer 257

Stereotype threat
Discrimination (experienced and anticipated)
Confounding variables (e.g., low SES among Black Americans)

Question 258

impact of daily stressors on our health and self-control

Answer 258

Daily hassles
Self-control failure/ego-depletion

Question 259

social factors which may affect health:
Macro-social influences

what are they?
examples?

baby example=

Answer 259

Large-scale social, economic, political, and cultural forces that influence the life course of people simultaneously/ everyone at the same time :

Actions and policies of governmental organizations
Cultures eg. gender roles
Historical legacies eg. Civil Rights Movements
Organized religions eg. ramadam
Multinational corporations and banks eg. global trade
Unpredictable, large-scale environmental events eg. natural disasters/climate change

baby= Where a baby is born and mother’s access to water, food and education, determine whether the baby lives or dies
Sierra Leone baby has only 72% chance of reaching age 5 compared to Japanese with 96% chance.
Each individual human is a creation of genetics, environmental experience, and the interaction between the two

Question 260

real world issue with macro-social influences

Answer 260

Dominant public health policy assumes individuals are responsible for their own health
Illness due to personal lifestyle is seen as fault of the individual, not a consequence of macro-social influences

Question 261

social factors which may affect health:
poverty
what % of the worlds population live in low or middle income countries?
what % of the worlds population lack access to medical care and essential drugs?
major impacts of poverty caused by the absense of…….

Answer 261

Approximately 70% of world’s population live in low or middle income countries
Half of the world’s population lack access to medical care and essential drugs
Other major impacts of poverty caused by the absence of:
Safe water
Sanitation
Adequate diet
Housing
Basic education

Question 262

social factors which may affect health::
socio-economic status (SES)
what is it?
higher =

Answer 262

Measure of wealth, education, and status
Higher SES = better health and longer life expectancy

Question 263

social factors which may affect health:
Social capital and lonliness
what is it?
eg=
it provides=

greater social capital=

Answer 263

its the Social relationships you have as resources
eg=
Community engagement eg. A neighborhood organizing a fundraiser for local schools.

it provides:
Trust and safety
Reciprocity (if i help you now will you help me later?)
Diversity ( thrives wit diversity, ppl from diferent backgrounds)

Certain communities have greater social capital and often have more positive health outcomes

Question 264

gender differences:
lifespan=
illness type=

Answer 264

Men die earlier than women, but women have poorer health
In less developed countries, men still live longer than women

Women suffer more non-fatal illnesses and hospitalized more often
Women have twice the rate of depression compared to men
Men have higher rates of injuries, suicides, homicides, and heart disease

Question 265

Gender differences
Psychosocial and lifestyle differences among women:
aka. what do women have to go through that med dont?

Answer 265

Childbirth
Rape
Domestic violence
Sexism
Work inequalities
Concern about weight
Divided attention between roles of parent and worker

Question 266

mechanisms for gender and racial health disparities
Gender stereotypes
men are more likley to ….
women are more likley to ….

Biological justifications for these social constructs?

Answer 266

Social constructs of masculinity and femininity affect health behaviors
…Men are more likely than women to adopt risky behaviours
…Women are more likely to engage in health-protective behaviours

Neurosexism

Question 267

why is gender steryotyes a thing?

what is Neurosexism?

its used to ….

Answer 267

Assumption that differences between males and females from brain development and Socialization (culture and environment) are not responsible.

…justify and explain stereotypes
Not just for gender!
Biology used as justification for several biases

Question 268

why is gender steryotyes a thing?
assumption behind Neurosexism is that
specific hypothesis is that =
also evidence that = ….. however….

Answer 268

sex hormones in the brain shape your ability

= High levels of fetal testosterone inhibit the physical growth of the left hemisphere, making it smaller than the right hemisphere (men have smaller left hemishphere making worse at language) BUT THIS IS NOT ALWAYS THE CASE

The corpus callosum has been observed to be larger in females compared to males but then more info came out saying:
Differences in corpus callosum size may be explained by the total size of the brain, rather than biological sex
Individuals with smaller-sized brains have larger corpus callosum compared to individuals with larger brains, regardless of sex

So if you get a man who’s shorter with a smaller sized brain, they’re indistinguishable from a female brain of the same height and brain size.

Question 269

mental rotation:
is when you …
whos better at it? men or women?
is it because of biology?

Answer 269

show image then rotate it and have to guess which one is the same

men are better

no! it depends on whether or not you played with lego when you were younger. boys are given them more than girls.

women in stem more likley to have been given those toys compared to women in arts.

Question 270

neurosexism vs socialisation
the role of socialization
eg.

Answer 270

Brain development affected by social interactions and culture

Several sex differences can be eliminated with learning

• Males’ spatial skills advantage can be eliminated by training females with tools such as building blocks and video games
• Encouraging boys to create imaginary social situations using action figures or dolls can reduce gender differences in emotionality

Importance of early childhood socialization in gender differences in skills, namely toys
- Important figures in children’s lives enforce gender stereotypes by offering their approval or disapproval of toy preference
- Many girls choose to play with dolls and toy houses, engaging in stereotypically domestic-related activities
- Boys are encouraged to engage in physical activities such as building blocks, designing racetracks for toy cars

• These gendered play behaviors support the development of gender stereotyped skills and traits
  Emotion expressivity and language development in females from caring for dolls and interacting with friends in games of fantasy
  Boys develop spatial skills from building and manipulating objects

Question 271

Race/ethnicity
the health of minority groups is generally……
due to:

Answer 271

The health of minority groups is generally poorer than that of the majority of the population
Racism- direct experience of discrimination
Ethnocentrism- expected to adorpt majority ingroups norms, removing what makes you unique
SES- lower ses
Genetics-

Question 272

Racism is when….
discrimination in the health care system….
being discriminated is….

Answer 272

Minority racial and ethnic groups are the subject of discrimination at a number of different levels

Discrimination in the health care system reduces access to the system and poorer levels of communication- immigrant, may be bias that doctors have agaisnt you, and barriers to communication eg. language. may not be motivated to communicate effectivley.

Racism-related stress a predictor of poor health- being discriminated agsinst is a stresfull experience

Question 273

Racism and stress

(activation of HPA axis)

what is HPA axis?
short term consequences=
long term consequences=

Answer 273

Direct, short-term consequences- direct discrimination to you
Activation of HPA axis- HPA axis= our stress responce, releases cortisol in blood, causing increase BP, HR, stops insulin increasing blood glucose. (HPA activity is good, gives you extra energy when needed, eg, spike in morning to get you out of bed) however if all the time, long term consequences. Heightened blood pressure and Excess cortisol release.

Chronic, long-term consequences of this causes:
Blunted stress response- dont release enough cortisol overtime to stressful situations
Changes in HPA responsiveness, body gives up with HPA axis…
Chronic inflammation (interleukins)- makes immune system weaker. fatigue. develop more of a tolerance to stress.

Question 274

Racism and stress
Behavioral adaptations
Maladaptive coping mechanisms include….

Answer 274

Maladaptive coping mechanisms
Alcohol and substance abuse- help you feel better, low SES also effects this.
it Has received most attention However, research mixed.

Question 275

Sources of stress

Acute stress response via discrimination….
Anticipation of future discrimination…

Answer 275

Acute stress response via discrimination
Fight or flight
Cardiovascular activity (HPA axis)

Anticipation of future discrimination… (just as damaging)
Anxiety for future racism/sexism
Anticipatory stress and rumination (constantly thinking of same negative thoughts)
Dysregulates homeostasis

Question 276

Other issues related to health

Health services and health promotion unofficially favors the needs of …..
Race is strongly linked with….
environment= Minority ethnic groups are more likely to live in and work in….
genetics= Genetic differences between groups that lead to… eg. …

Answer 276

…..majority over minority groups, Often ignore cultural, lifestyle and language differences

…. with SES
Studies of race and health generally control for SES, and race-related differences frequently disappear after adjustment for SES

Environment
…. unhealthy environments because of their lower SES. eg cheaper food worse for you.

Genetics:
…. differing inheritance of disease or health-related traits
Inherited epigenetic changes for stress response
Sickle cell disorder affecting people of African-Caribbean descent (due to its evolutionary link to malaria resistance.)
asian, enzymes related to alchahol, to develop alchahol use disorder.

Question 277

Stigma is a …
if you have a stigma more likley to have….
through ….

this all leads to….

Answer 277

…. Devalued social identity

…. Unfavourable reactions towards people when they are perceived to possess attributes that are undesirable
Source of:
Physical and psychological stress
Denial of employment opportunities
Restricted access to services eg. health care, black vs white get given different meds for heart disease, white get better with less side effects.
Social exclusion

steryotype threat

Question 278

Stigma can affect health and lead to …
which is the fear of …. being…
it leads to …

tested amougst …. and ….

Answer 278

Stereotype threat
Fear of confirming to negative stereotype about group(… self concious to confirming to steryotypes, because you care so much you tend to confirm the steryotype anyway by accident)

Heightened cardiovascular reactivity, Disengagement and anxiety

… Often experienced among women in STEM/racial minorities
Stereotypes about math ability (women) or intelligence (racial minorities)
Undermine performance and can promote maladaptive stress responses

Question 279

Stereotype threat exampple study
Spencer et al. (1999)
maths test=
tell them no gender differences… this….
tell them there are gender differences… this…

Answer 279

Spencer et al. (1999) – Study 2
tell Men and women before they do a test theres no gender differences= they do the same, disconfirming steryotypes

then tell them that men do better= women did alot worse (steryotype threat, started second guessing themselves) and booste in performance in med ( steryotype lift, promote confidence if there told their better)

Question 280

Physiological stress response
HPA axis
Vick et al. (2008)
looked at blood pressure

in the gender bias maths test=
in the gender neutral test=

Answer 280

Vick et al. (2008)
Similar paradigm as Spencer et al. (1999)
Stereotype threat impacts physiology,

looking at blood poressure before maths test

tell men there rlly good (gender differences in test) , their BP dropped and little increase in womens BP

gender neurtral test= womens BP lowered and mens went up rappidly ( as we removed their saftey blanket of them being better)

Question 281

The cost of caring
When do we experience stereotype threat?

Answer 281

When do we experience stereotype threat?

if women didnt care about there gender, their performace wasnt much different to men, the more you care and value social idendityy, the more likley you will be effected by steryotypes.

Highly identify with gender/race
Situation which highlight stereotypes

Question 282

Stereotype threat example
(Stricker & Ward, 2004)

Marking gender after (as compared to before) an AP test (e.g., A levels) led to ….

Answer 282

…. led to 33% reduction in the gender gap in performance (Stricker & Ward, 2004)

Question 283

Environmental cues

how masculine environment vs neutral effects women in stem
showing…

Cheryan et al. (2009) – Study 1
looked at….
found….

Answer 283

womens in a neutral enviromnent interest in STEM went up

womens interest in STEM went down when in masculine environment.

dont reduce mens interests in neutral, men dont get impacted only women. women have acctually more interest than men in neutral enviroment

… Gendered environments are non-inviting
Underrepresentation of stigmatized groups in marketing

Cheryan et al. (2009) – Study 1
Men and women
Computer science classroom
Stereotypical versus non-stereotypical
found= women: Showed less interest in computer science when exposed to the stereotypical classroom, likely due to feeling that they did not “fit” the stereotype associated with the environment.

Question 284

Further costs of stereotype threat includes…
steryotype threat requires high….
prolonged suppresion leads to….

example= Inzlicht et al. (2006)

Answer 284

Self-control failure
Stereotype threat requires high self-monitoring and prolonged suppression of emotions and behavior, impacting subsequent control egodepletiion

Inzlicht et al. (2006)
Women told to complete math test after being told men do better…
if women were threatened , less likley to hold onto a hand grip after, because dealing with steryotypes requires mental effort, need self control, so it diminishes this after the test.

Question 285

Other sources of stress
Holmes and Rahe Social Readjustment Rating Scale

Answer 285

Holmes and Rahe Social Readjustment Rating Scale is a scale of all the things which cause stress eg. divorce, dealth to stuff like going on holiday….

Daily hassles
Everyday inconveniences or frustrations
Experience several of these throughout the day
Low-levels of stress which are additive
Accounts for majority of stress we experience

Question 286

Examples of daily hassles

Answer 286

Daily Hassles Scale= Concern about weight
Concern about health of family member
Not enough money for housing

College Daily Hassles Scale= Increased class workload
Review for exams
Troubling thoughts about the future
Fight with partner

Acculturative Daily Hassles for Children= it bothers me when people force me to be like everyone else
i dont feel at home here in the uk

Question 287

Other sources of stress
too much stress leads to…. which is when….
causes of this can be….

Answer 287

Burnout
Exhaustion and depletion of emotional and physical resources
Pessimism, demonstrating negative or overly detached attitudes

Causes of burnout
Overwhelming amount of work
Feeling lack of control
Large emotional component of job

Question 288

Self-control failure

what can cause self control failure?
it leads to …
promotes rewarding behaviours such as…

Answer 288

Extended stress can reduce self-control
Poor decision making
Promotes rewarding behaviors:
Overeating
Alcohol use
Risk-taking

Question 289

Why is self-control important?

Muraven et al. (2002)
Thought suppression (i.e., white bear)
conclusion=

Muraven et al. (2005)
Participants kept daily diary
conclusion=

Answer 289

Muraven et al. (2002)
Thought suppression (i.e., white bear)
Simple arithmetic (control condition)
Assessed alcohol consumption
those doing more taxing tasks drank more

Muraven et al. (2005)
Participants kept daily diary
Assessed:
Daily hassles
Alcohol consumption
Intended limits on drinking
if self control demands exceeded expectations, more likley to drink even when they wanted to limit drinking compared to those who didnt have demads exceeded.

Question 290

Essay examples

Answer 290

Why might stigmatized social groups experience poorer health compared to privileged social groups? Discuss relevant evidence and theory to support your answer.

Discuss how daily stressors may undermine our attempts to make health decisions. What processes may explain our inability to resist temptation?

Question 291

who invented the term social neuroscience -

lecture 9

Answer 291

john cacioppo

Question 292

social neuroscience:

we can rely on behavioural tasks to capure some aspects of ….
but limited….
outcomes make ….
other measures that assess sensitive topics are ….
because of …..
…… biases not always captured by ….

Answer 292

Behavioral tasks useful in capturing some aspects of attitudes
Limited in the ability to capture processes leading up to behavior
Outcomes make assumptions about the underlying processes

Other measures which assess sensitive topics are limited
Self-reports plagued with social desirability issues
Unconscious/implicit biases not always captured by explicit measures

eg drugs.
eg. gender inequality,

Question 293

Social neuroscience is - using brain to measure….
less concerned with….
applies….
allows for…
avoids….
and has ….

Answer 293

Using the brain to measure social behavioral processes
Less concerned with complex cognitive processes and theory
Applies basic cognitive neuroscience to understand the underlying processes of social behaviors (e.g., stereotyping)

Allows for measuring processes before and after behavior
No social desirability
Greater accuracy

Question 294

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (tms)
is…..
uses…..
can deactivate….
clarifies roles ….

Answer 294

non-invasive technique that can be applied to humans
Uses magnetic coil to induce voltage in brain tissue
Can deactivate areas of the cortex
Clarifies role of these areas in addiction

Question 295

Transcranial direct stimulation (tDCS)
what does it do?
can be used to ….
eg.
eg. Sellaro et al. (2015)
tried to make ppl less….. by…
found if you have an annodal stim=
tells us =

Answer 295

new, similar to tms but easier to use.
put annode and cathode on head, and transfers an electrical current between the two spots in your head. can be used to increase or decrease electrical activity.
use for substance use disorders, depression

eg. in netherlands, how to make ppl less prejuduce by adding this electrical current to parts of the brain assosiated with control- PFC.
if you have annodal stimulation (positive) increasing AP= it scores go down, less prejudice because increasing strenght of self control.
stopping orejucide requires self-control,

Question 296

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans ….
gives a detailed …..
does not tell you….

Answer 296

Scans measure the radio-frequency waves emitted by hydrogen atoms when they are subjected to a strong magnetic field
Gives detailed structure of the brain, does not tell you which parts of the brain are necessarily active in the moment

Question 297

Functional MRI (fMRI) indirectly measures…. through…
measures….
not immediate it measures ,…
bold

Answer 297

Using MRI methodology, fMRI indirectly measures brain activity through changes in blood follow that accompany neural activity
Measures activation of brain regions during tasks or after perceiving stimuli

After something has happened. within seconds

Increase in oxygen consumption in area of the brain active
There is increased blood flow to the oxygen deficient area
Wherever this increase is found, we assume that part was active
BOLD (Blood Oxygen Level Dependent) response

Question 298

Dehumanization is when….
we process on a neural level ppl…..
could be reason for..
measure this in lab using…….. scale
given dif …
to prevent ….. we then use:
- FFA=
located in…
it ….
damage causes…

dehumanization severs the….
triggers….
leads to …..

Answer 298

Outgroups are not believed to share the basic human physical features that characterize the ingroup eg. outgroups not human

differently based on group membership and we dont encode members of outgroup as humans so treat them different.
Could be reason for moral exclusion

Ascent-Dehumanization Scale
Social groups rated from 0 (Least Human) to 100 (Most Human)
if rate below human- dehumanize them.

social desirability

Fusiform face area (FFA) (face processing area)
Located in temporal lobe
Processing facial information
Damage causes inability to recognize:
Faces
Shapes
Objects

severs the empathic bonds that people usually feel for one another
Triggers indifference, callousness, and inattention to others’ pain
Leads to dislike or hatred of dehumanized group
Moral justification/exceptions

Question 299

Electroencephalogram (EEG)
is good as its ….
it records…..
good … resolution but bad ….. resolution
instant…..
best used to detect changes in ….

alpha waves means your ….

Answer 299

Electroencephalogram (EEG)
affordable
Records combined activity from many neurons using electrodes
Good temporal resolution but poor spatial resolution
Instant neural activity
No idea where it is coming from
Best used to detect changes in emotions, motivation, or arousal

delta gamma= slow

beta alpha= faster

.. awake

Question 300

using eeg to measure motivation:
difference in activity between…..
assessed via….
greater left activity=
greater right activity=
using … waves

Answer 300

Difference in activity between the left and right frontal lobes
Assessed via EEG frequencies
Greater LEFT activity = approach (reward)
Greater RIGHT activity = avoidance (inhibition)

using alpha waves

Question 301

using eeg to measure motivation:
Schmeichel et al. (2016)
Manipulated …..
participents viewed…..
looked at how….

increased…. when people are fatigued.

Answer 301

Manipulated self-control
Participants viewed positive versus negative images
look at how then people’s brains shifted when they looked at positive or negative images.
increase in left frontal cortical activity when people fatigued
Measured approach (reward) motivations via EEG

Question 302

Event related potentials (ERPs)
pattern of an…..
average of the ….
cancels out…..
payttern of activity which …..

Answer 302

Pattern of an electrical response recorded after an event (eg viewing image), which can include the perception of a stimuli or a response to a stimuli
Average of the EEG over several stimulus presentations
Cancels out the “noise” of the brain’s other activity
Pattern of activity which represents cognitive process

Question 303

ERP=
Error-related negativity (ERN)
links to …
occurs ….. ms after response
negative…..
greater …..
index of engagement….
controlled..
reflects use of …

eg used in the ….

Answer 303

self- control
Occurs 50-80 milliseconds after response
Negative deflection ( when you realise you have done something wrong, ahhhh moment)
Greater amplitudes after errors
Index of engagement of inhibition
Controlled processes!
Reflects use of self-control- slower reaction times.
higher amplitude= more control

weapons identification task.
‘oh no ive just been racist’

Question 304

N170
Occurs ~……. milliseconds after viewing stimuli
Negative ……
Index of …..
Higher amplitude =……
Not just humans, anything with f……
Dog experts = enhanced N170 to …..
Me = enhanced N170 to …..

N170
similart aplitudes for ….. but when they were told to just focus on racial categorisation……
When we’re motivated to individuate someone…..

But when we’re using top down processing, which people who are highly….

Answer 304

N170
Occurs ~170 milliseconds after viewing stimuli
Negative deflection
Index of facial processing
Higher amplitude = greater processing
Not just humans, anything with familiarity
Dog experts = enhanced N170 to dogs
Me = enhanced N170 to guitars/cats

So they had similar amplitudes for black and white faces.But when they were told to just focus on racial categorisation, We have an increased and 170 amplitudes, white faces and a decreased amplitude to black faces.

When we’re motivated to individuate someone, we’re going to engage this facial processing for anyone. But when we’re using top down processing, which people who are highly prejudiced tend to do,the first thing they categorise is probably race or whatever overarching category they have these prejudice attitudes in,

Question 305

Peripheral nervous system
autonomic….
controls…
….. movements

Answer 305

Autonomic nervous system:
Controls smooth muscles
Stomach
Blood vessels
Heart
And more!

Involuntary movements

Question 306

dont need ti know

hpa axis Sympathetic-Adrenal-Medullary (SAM) axis is a….
it stimulates….
electrical impulses down….
stimulates….
such as …. and ….
short term release to ….
fights agaisnt the …. nerve
…. activity

Answer 306

is a short term stress responce

Stimulates sympathetic nervous system (fight/flight)
QUICK!
Electrical impulse down spinal cord
Stimulates hormone release
Adrenaline (epinephrine)
Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)
Short-term response to stress

Fights against the vagus nerve!
Parasympathetic activity

Question 307

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) axis
Stimulates ……..(fight/flight)
SLOW!
……. response to stress
Hormones released into ……..
……. (slow)
Stimulates hormone release …….

Answer 307

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) axis
Stimulates sympathetic nervous system (fight/flight)
SLOW!
Long-term response to stress
Hormones released into bloodstream from pituitary gland
Neuropeptides (slow)
Stimulates hormone release in adrenal glands
Cortisol!

Question 308

Cortisol

Promotes release of ……
Inhibits …….
Narrows ….. increases ….
Epinepherine (adrenaline) released, causing ……..
Requires heart to pump blood with……
Usually …. under normal circumstances
Prolonged/chronic stress can extend …..

Answer 308

Promotes release of glucose (blood sugar)
Inhibits insulin, which helps store glucose
Narrows arteries (increases blood pressure)
Epinepherine (adrenaline) released, causing heart to beat faster
Requires heart to pump blood with more force (and faster)
Usually temporary under normal circumstances
Prolonged/chronic stress can extend activation

Question 309

Extended cortisol release…
Supresses …..
Suppresses functions of ……
a…..
d……
Sexual …..
Cardiovascular ….
Heart begins to ….
Blood vessel …..

Answer 309

Extended cortisol release…
Supresses immune system
Suppresses functions of parasympathetic nervous system
Anxiety
Digestion
Sexual dysfunction
Cardiovascular disease
Heart begins to wear
Blood vessel damage

Question 310

Electrocardiogram (ECG) measures …

Answer 310

heart rate
and heart rate variability (fluctuation of heart)

Heart produces electrical signals
Electrodes capture depolarization of ventricles
Represented as points on ECG waveform
QRS complex

Question 311

Impedance cardiography (ICG)
Estimates changes in …….
How much …….
Volume of ……

Electrodes placed on……
Outer sensors send ……
Inner sensors detect ……
As blood volume…….

Answer 311

Estimates changes in blood flow in the heart
How much blood ejected during each heart beat
Volume of blood (stroke volume)

Electrodes placed on torso
Outer sensors send electrical current
Inner sensors detect resistance of current
As blood volume increases, resistance increases!

Question 312

blood pressure
Systolic blood pressure=

Diastolic blood pressure=

Answer 312

Systolic blood pressure
Peak arterial pressure
Amount of effort

Diastolic blood pressure
Lowest arterial pressure
Resting pressure

Question 313

Challenge versus threat

physiological responce=
stressor vs resources

Answer 313

Challenge:
Positive physiological stress response
Resources exceed demands of stressor

Threat:
Negative physiological response
Demands of stressor exceed resources

Question 314

essay examples

Answer 314

What are common issues which affect self-report and behavioral measures? How may neuroscience methods address these issues?

Compare and contrast two neuroscience methods and how they may be applied to research in social psychology. What are the potential advantages and limitations of these methods?

Question 315

Industrial/Organizational Psychology (I/O) is…
its…
uk call it…

lecture 10

Answer 315

psychology of the work place
its fast growing
uk call it occupational psychology

Question 316

the I is ….
the O is….

examples=

Answer 316

• industrial (personnel) =practical day to day stuff

(Job Analysis
Legal issues in Employee Selection
Recruiting & Interviewing
Psychological Testing
Performance Evaluation
Training Systems
Design of Workspaces
Work Motivation
Job Stress)

• organizational= aethereal theoretical stuff

(Workplace Diversity
Individual Differences
Organizational Structure, Culture, Change
Communication
Leadership & Management Style
Work Teams & Group Dynamics
Decision Making & Problem Solving
Power, Politics, Conflict,
Negotiation
Job Satisfaction)

Question 317

SIOP conference=

Answer 317

biggest conference in this field

most topics about EDI, inclusion, personality and 100’s more.

Question 318

prevelence of I/O psychology:

approx…% of psychologists work in I/O
….. proffesional members of SIOP in ….
gender ratio=
lots of …
one of the …
projected growth rate of …
still is …
its …. in most…

highest….
M.s=
PHD=

Answer 318

Approximately 6% of psychologists work in I/O

10,000 professional members of SIOP in 2017

50%male/female

Many international members

One of the fastest growing careers between 2012-2022

Projected growth rate of 53% (U.S. Department of Labor, 2014)

However, still a widely ‘unknown’ career path

I/O is underrepresented in most undergraduate curriculums

Highest average income of all psychology disciplines in US
M.S. = $85,000 per year
PhD = $119,000 per year

Question 319

carrer in I/O has:

Answer 319

4 Broad career options (although, many more exist)
Consulting (1- Internal/ 2- external)
3- Academia
4- Government / Research

Question 320

Training in I/O
degree needed?
dont need…

Answer 320

BPA qualification- masters from approved programme.

an I/O degree to practice I/O?

Question 321

usual carrer path needs…

Answer 321

bachelors degree (3 years)
masters degree (1 year)
doctoral degree (3 years+)

Question 322

example of different programmes

I/O vs Business postgrad training

Answer 322

I/O psychology:

Research methods
Quantitative methods
Employee selection
Organizational psychology
Psychometrics
Employee training and development
Performance appraisal
Job analysis

typical business programmes:

Finance
Marketing
Organizational behavior
Corporate strategies & policies
Accounting
Information systems
Economics
Operations management

Question 323

Thinking like an I/O

being an I/O involves….

model used…

factors that undermine this…

Answer 323

being a scientist and also practicing and applyying to real world settings.

use…

Scientist-practitioner model:

The scientific method as basis for knowledge generation and development of interventions
The medical/clinical field is a good example of this

Several factors undermine scientist-practitioner model:

Lack of data for practitioners
Academics not answering applied questions
Practitioners not being rewarded for research
Real-world time pressures

Question 324

So what is the point of I/O?

to help….
decisions surrounding..
to make company…
have to balance…

Answer 324

Help organizations make good decisions
Decisions surrounding human capital eg:

Skills, expertise, wellbeing, etc. of workforce
to make company more profitable
… this cost and efficiency

Question 325

Early I/O work

the first studies=
partnership between ….
looked at….
found….
explain?…
takaway?…

Answer 325

The Hawthorne Studies

Partnership between Harvard psychologists and Western Electric
Studies aimed at applying science to increase efficiency without raising costs:

looked at:
- lighting

found:
- Productivity increased when light increased, decreased, or held constant!

what? explain?
- productivity only increased because they were being observed! - confounding variable.

Not many takeaways… but demonstrated feasibility of I/O!

Question 326

Job attitudes

I/O can measure….

Answer 326

Commonly studied job attitudes
Job satisfaction
Commitment
Employee engagement or involvement
Organizational support/justice

Question 327

Job satisfaction is the…
an overal…
a good predictor of….

Answer 327

The degree of pleasure an employee derives from their job
An overall evaluation of favorability

A good predictor of:
Job performance
Turnover/absences
Overall health (depression, anxiety, psychological distress)

Question 328

Commitment

3 types of job attatchment=

Answer 328

3 types of job attachment (Allen & Meyer, 1990)

1- Affective- acceptance of the organisational goals and values, taking those on as your own/ internalising of the organisation. (internal motivation)

2- Calculative/continuance- It’s this idea that you’re better off continuing on because of the time you’ve invested is better than starting over somewhere else. (cost effect)

3- Normative- social pressures, external motivation drilled into you, So you act in a way because you feel pressured to, not because necessarily you feel like you want to. (external motivation)

Correlated with:
Job satisfaction
Turnover
Job performance

Question 329

Selection:

is the process of…
goal is…
sucess…
stable…
presence of…

could be…

Answer 329

The process of learning about an individual to make an inference
Goal is prediction of future behaviors
Success in past situations = success in future
Stable, individual differences predict future behavior
Presence of suitable motivations

Anticipated performance a function of motivation and ability
Could be most skilled applicant, but must also demonstrate motivation!

Question 330

Selection:

Accurate prediction based on:

Data should be collected to empirically show linkages:

Answer 330

Accurate prediction based on:

• Correctly linking predictors with job criteria
• Relies on job analysis (list of required tasks and knowledge/skills)
• Theoretical linkage between must be made between constructs
• Accurately measuring predictors and criteria
• Reliability, validity, contamination, deficiency

Data should be collected to empirically show linkages:

• Needs theory to guide interpretation of results
• Real-world pressures may undermine empirical approach

Question 331

selection:

how to pick the right candidate?
factors include…

Answer 331

Approaches to measuring knowledge/skills:

Past experiences/accomplishments
- Education, rewards, job experience, references

Direct demonstration
- Job knowledge tests, job simulations, assessment centers, job try-out/internship

Indirect construct measurement
- Personality tests, cognitive ability tests, integrity tests, interviews

Future-oriented skill assessment
- Measuring for the potential to develop skills in the future
- Cognitive ability, adaptability, flexibility, learning orientation

Question 332

selection:

common measures=

Machiavellianism=
Narcissism=
psychopathy=

Answer 332

Cognitive ability
‘g’, intelligences, logical reasoning
Job knowledge
Personality
Big 5 (NEOAC), dark triad (Machiavellianism, narcissism, psychopathy)
Integrity
Physical ability
Emotional intelligence
Situational Judgement

Machiavellianism – get your way by manipulating others, acquire and use political power
Narcissism – high degree of self importance, control others and be admired
Psychopathy – lack of concern for others

Question 333

selection=

other measures

Answer 333

Other measures
Resumes
Employment references
Drug testing
Work samples
Job tryouts (e.g., internship, probation, apprenticeship)
Polygraph
Social network data mining

Question 334

personality inventories=
eg=

Answer 334

myers-briggs (low validity)
trade off is its much cheaper.

Question 335

The big five in the workplace

OCEAN

Answer 335

Desirable traits for good person-job fit:

Openness: willingness to embrace new ideas and new situations
May adjust better to organizational change
Linked to higher creativity and adaptability

Conscientiousness: follows through and gets things done
Strongest predictor of job performance
Too much can be a bad thing

Extraversion: A outgoing, talkative, and sociable as well as enjoys social situations
Linked to higher performance in sales and management
Related to social interactions and persuasion

Agreeableness: Being a nice person in general
Effective in jobs requiring cooperation and helpfulness

Neuroticism: tendency to be anxious or moody
Emotional stability relates to stress coping
Also strong predictor of job performance

Question 336

working in teams

Answer 336

Recently, many organizations are moving to team-based structures

Technology much better now because of covid

Work distributed across time and location

Many organizations need to be adaptive and respond quickly to changes

Pooling knowledge/skills has many advantages

Working with others can be motivating and fulfilling

Teams have advantages; however they require effort, planning, and monitoring to succeed!

Question 337

Working in teams

advantages=
challanges=

Answer 337

Advantages:

Can make better decisions, products/services
Better information sharing
Increase employee motivation/engagement
More flexibility
More motivation

Challenges:

Extra resources needed for team maintenance
Social loafing – members potentially exert less effort in teams than alone
Groupthink and polarization – shifting to extreme options, maintaining harmony
Potential for unhealthy conflict

Question 338

Working in teams:

Social loafing is…

why?…

Answer 338

Effort reduced when performing in group rather than alone

Why?
Low accountability
High expected effort from others
High perceived dispensability
Tasks that lack personal meaning

Question 339

working in groups:

Group polarizationis …

Groupthink is…

Answer 339

Group polarization:

The tendency for group discussion to shift group members toward an extreme position

Groupthink:

The tendency toward flawed group decision-making when group members are so intent on preserving group harmony they fail to analyze a problem completely

Question 340

What is an effective team member?

5 C’s

Answer 340

Effective team members must be willing to work on team

Effective members possess specific competencies(5 C’s in diagram):

• coorperating
• conflict resolving
• comforting
• comunicating
• coordinating

Question 341

Improving teams:

Use of team roles…

Answer 341

• A set of behaviors that people are expected to perform
• Some formally assigned; others informally
• Informal role assignment occurs during team development and is related to personal characteristics

eg the producer, the organiser etc…

Question 342

Designing the best team depends on the type of task:

Answer 342

Type of task:
Complex tasks= divisible people with specialized roles (if assigned)

Well-structured tasks = easier to coordinate (requires resources)

Higher task interdependence=
Team members must share materials, information, or expertise
Teams usually perform better because high interdependence (a) requires better communication/coordination and (b) motivates team membership

Question 343

Levels of task interdependence

Answer 343

high = reciprocal
middle= sequential
low= pooled

Question 344

Designing the best team:

team size:

…. are better as…

Answer 344

Smaller teams are better because:

Need less time to coordinate roles and resolve differences
Require less time to develop
More engaged with team – know the members
Feel more responsible for team’s success

But team must be large enough to accomplish task
The role of an I/O to figure this out…

Question 345

Designing the best team:

diversity

Answer 345

diversity is good because:

View problems/alternatives from different perspectives

Broader knowledge base

Better representation of team’s constituents

However… may take longer to become a high-performing team

Question 346

Leadership:

Being a good leader requires

Answer 346

-Recognition and monitoring of the situation

-Adapting behaviors and style to meet current demands

-This requires having many tools/approaches at your disposal

Leadership is not a role, it is a set of behaviors and skills
A team can have one leader who is held accountable for leadership OR
Everyone can engage in different aspects of leadership (shared)

We often distinguish between leadership and management
Both are important, but have different connotations

Question 347

leadership:
Early leadership research focused on two ideas

Answer 347

Trait theories:

Leaders are born, not made
We identify specific traits that make someone a good leader
E.g., intelligence, personality, being energetic, charismatic, etc

Behavioral theories:

Leaders can be made
Leadership is about applying behaviors which can be learned
E.g., organizing ideas, setting goals, monitoring performance and providing feedback

Maybe both?
Integrated model of leadership

Question 348

Types of leadership

Answer 348

Power and influence approaches= lead by telling people what to do

Contingency approach= need to be flxecible and adaptive, dif leadership styles.

Transformational Leadership
Leader-Member Exchange Theory
Authentic vs servant leadership

Developed by Social Psychologists

Question 349

Power and influence approaches to leadership:

Answer 349

French and Raven (1960s)

power is important:
differentiate different Types of power

Coercive Power= This is when forcing someone, even though, they don’t want to do it. Many dictators uses this power. It is also a form of power that allows someone to be advanced in their career. Demands should be legal and respectful, this helps the employee to accomplish, what they didn’t want to do.

Reward Power= This can be a promotion or raise. These people give reward, when someone has worked hard. The sacrifice has to be worth it.

Legitimate Power= It is a person who is credible. In a company, the longer you were in company means the higher ranking you are in. People shows power by showing how capable to take onresponsibilitiesin the company.

Expert Power= This power is based on someone’s education, skills and knowledge. Professionals have to develop skills that makes them an ‘expert’.They need to bemaintainedand keep educating themselves to order to succeed.

Influence is applying power to change attitudes or behavior

Question 350

Contingency approach to leadership

Answer 350

Fielder (1972)

Leadership approaches assuming fixed styles were least effective

Situations and employees variable, adjustment and flexibility needed!

Question 351

Transformational Leadership Theory

describes 3 types of leadership:

Transformational Leadership is…
Transactional Leadership is…
Laissez-faire Leadership is…

its basically….

Answer 351

Transformational Leadership:

leadership through a process of inspiring a group to pursue goals and attain results
Leadership builds and communicates a clear vision, empowers followers to make transformations
Leaders instil confidence and high self-expectations in followers

Transactional Leadership:

Leadership through allocation of rewards/consequences in exchange for behaviors
More effective if clear goals and expectations, constant monitoring of performance, and consistent continencies

Laissez-faire Leadership:

Non-leadership, where responsibility is deflected and followers are on their own
Only linked to negative outcomes

self- determination theory

Question 352

Transformational Leadership Theory
examples of 3 types leaderships

Answer 352

transformational:

• charming, able to inspire – generate emotional reactions in followers. Transcends logic alone

-Leading by example – doing while saying

• Motivate and inspire to pursue challenging work.
• Stimulate followers intellect, creativity, and questioning assumptions
• Pay attention to each follower’s needs

transactional :

• Self explanatory
• Actively seek problems/mistakes and provide punishment

laizze-faire:

• Wait for mistakes, then punish

Question 353

Leader-Member Exchange Theory of leadership

we have social ….
make … and ….
focuses on…
does not assume…
1).
2).
what leads to …/…..?
high quality relationships related to….

Answer 353

we have social groups outside of work, in an organization we also have diferent social groups.
make in-groups and out-groups

Focuses on the dyadic relationship between leaders and followers
Does not assume that the leader has the same relationship with each “follower”

1) Members of “in-group” have high-quality relationship with leader
- In group members are highly empowered and motivated
- In exchange they get more attention and support from leaders

2) Members of “out-group” have a more formal relationship with leader
- Leader more likely to use formal sources of authority
- Members take on routine tasks

What leads to in-group/out-group relationship?
- Competence and skill
- Trustworthiness
- Perceived similarity

High-quality relationships related to:
- Positive work attitudes, pro-organizational behaviors, less turnover
- Less likely to resist organizational change

But what about “out-group” members?…

Question 354

Authentic leadership=
Servant leadership=

Answer 354

Authentic leadership
Good leaders are genuine and transparent in their actions
Make decisions in unbiased ways, solicit other opinions and ideas
Strong morals/values, even when posed with ethical dilemmas

Servant leadership
Good leaders put the needs of others ahead of their own
Lead to more loyalty to leader than the organization

Question 355

Organizational Culture=

Answer 355

Organizational Culture aka. the environment/culture

The language, values, attitudes, beliefs, and customs of organization

eg. innovation, stability, respect etc…

Question 356

Cultural artifacts are…
examples=

Answer 356

tangible or intangible elements that represent and influence a company’s culture

Stories and legends
Social prescriptions of desired (or dysfunctional) behavior
“Realistic” example of organization’s expectations
Most effective stories and legends:
Describe real people
Assumed to be true
Known throughout the organization
Are prescriptive

Question 357

cultural artifacts
examples=

Answer 357

Rituals
- Routines of employees (e.g., how visitors are greeted)

Ceremonies
- Planned activities (e.g., award ceremonies)

Language
- How employees address each other, express emotions, describe stakeholders
- Leaders use language to anchor or change culture

Question 358

Language can be harmful

Answer 358

if women were told the ideal candidate was masculine, they had increased arousal in interview, and poorer performance.