social psychology 2003 Flashcards
Humans are … social
Environment has …. effect on socialization eg. SES, country
Our interactions with others shape our ….
lecture 1
innately
large
behaviour (change beh in dif situ)
diference between Personality psychologists and Social psychologists ?
- assess stable traits over time
- examine environmental influences
whats more predictive personality or social psychologists
maybe social (enviro)
Defining social psychology
The scientific study of the effects of social and cognitive processes on the way individuals perceive, influence, and relate to others
Social vs cognitive processes
Social processes
Our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the people around us, the groups to which we belong, the teachings of our parents, and our culture
Cognitive processes
Our memories, perceptions, **thoughts, and emotions guide our understanding **of the world and our actions
what do Sociologists do?
1. PREFERRED
METHODS
2. FOCUS OF
OBSERVATIONS
3. EXAMPLE: THE STUDY
OF AGGRESSION
study society, social behavior, and the structures that govern human interactions.
Surveys, demographic
patterns of data
Group-level behaviors
and social expectations
Group characteristics of aggressive behavior
what are Anthropologists? they…
1. PREFERRED
METHODS
2. FOCUS OF
OBSERVATIONS
3. EXAMPLE: THE STUDY
OF AGGRESSION
study humans, cultures, societies, and their development over time
Detailed observations of people in a given culture
A discrete group of
people over time
Cultural habits of
aggression within a
discrete setting
Clinical
psychologists
1. PREFERRED
METHODS
2. FOCUS OF
OBSERVATIONS
3. EXAMPLE: THE STUDY
OF AGGRESSION
addresses behavioral and mental health issues
Therapeutic interviews
and tests
Individuals who have
problematic thoughts or behaviors
Individual and
interpersonal causes of
aggression
what do Social
psychologists study?
1. PREFERRED
METHODS
2. FOCUS OF
OBSERVATIONS
3. EXAMPLE: THE STUDY
OF AGGRESSION
how peoples thoughts etc are infleunced by the presense of others
Controlled experiments
and observations
Everyday people in
individual or group
settings
Experiments testing the causes and control of
aggression
Early breakthroughs
of social psych
Wilhem Wundt’s Völkerpsychologie (1900-1920)
Norman Triplett’s social facilitation experiment (1897)
First textbooks published in 1908
William McDougall (cofounder of BPS)
Edward Ross, but they were a sociologist and American (eww)
who Published a textbook in 1924
Emphasizing importance of experimentation
what did it argue
Floyd Henry Allport
…the best way to understand groups was by studying the individual, not the group itself (sets us apart from sociology)
brother= gordon allport
in the 1920’s psychology was dominated by…. by….
behaviourism…watson and skinner
(what was observed)
after behaviourism, then Social psychologists recognized the importance of people’s ….
thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, etc.
Hitler’s rise motivated many psychologists to flee to U.S leading to…
Brought other theoretical influences
Gestalt and anti-behaviorist psychologists who emphasized cognition
Shifted focus of research
Persuasion techniques during wartime
Authoritarianism
Discoveries of atrocities post-WW2
Kurt Lewin
Emigrated from… to … in…
Behaviour as … of individual and environment
Died young, but ….
such as….
Emigrated from Germany to US in 1933
Behaviour as function of individual and environment
Died young, but trained several notable social psychologists
…. Leon Festinger (cognitive dissonance)
Stanley Schachter (physiology and emotion)
Several more (see chapter 2)
After WW2…
Emphasis on …
Discoveries of …
why…
how groups impact individual behavior
atrocities (violent acts) post-WW2… why?
Social influence and conformity
Bean estimation experiment (Jenness, 1932)
Auto-kinetic effect experiment (Sherif, 1935)
Line study (Asch, 1956)
Milgram’s obedience studies (1960s)
asked…
Could a person be pressured by others into committing an immoral act, such as hurting a stranger?
Stanford Prison Study (1971) by…
participants were…
the G became… P became…
behav changed on their….
Philip Zimbardo
…randomly assigned to be a prisoner or guard
aggressive, submissive
… expectations of that societal role
Social cognition (1970s - 1990s)
Emphasis of cognitive processes and theory
Less reliance on reactionary studies replicating social phenomena
Attribution of behaviors
Automatic versus controlled processes
Motivation and emotion regulation
Introduction of ethical review boards
Advanced statistical analyses introduced
Present day
Interdisciplinary and applied approaches
Emphasis of neuroscience methods
Importance of cultural differences
Use of online recruitment for diverse samples
Use of virtual reality (work in progress)
Advanced statistical analyses
Replication issues of classic paradigms
Open science practices
Social psychology tends to follow recent events
1. ww2 atrocities…
2. kitty genovese murder…
3. 911 attacks
4. civil rights mov…
5. rise of femanism…
6. police shootings…
(conformity/obedience)
(bystander effect)
(Muslim/Arab prejudice)
(stigma and intergroup conflict)
(sexism and stereotype threat)
(racism and weapon misidentification)
Social psychologists value diversity
Began with Western heteronormative standpoint (White dudes)
Culture influences the individual
Importance of intersectionality
We are a combination of ethnicities, religions, sexualities, etc.
Diversifying research is essential to understanding human behavior
Is behavior shaped more by biological factors (“nature”) or by environmental factors (“nurture”)?
Behavior is influenced by both in varying degrees
Some view this as a false dichotomy
How can we explain why good people do bad things?
Interested in justifications or explanations, not what is good or bad
Behavior is often shaped by our environment and context
Why do humans live in groups?
Humans as social animals
Evolutionary perspective
Harm of group decisions
Embedded cultural norms
Why do stereotypes and prejudices exist and persist?
Relationship between stereotypes and instincts
Automatic processes and use of heuristics
Is science the best way to learn about social behavior?
Replication crisis!
Several classic, foundational studies have failed to produce repeatable results
Data manipulation
False positives
Recent emphasis on replication studies to find “true effects”
Academics need to be more open and honest with their data, sharing their raw data with the public so others can check their work
Replication crisis
39% studies replicate in psychology
54% in the very top journals!
Not just psychology!
11% of drug studies replicated
59% of highly cited clinical research studies
44% of genetic studies
25% of studies in economics
what is causing the replication crisis?
Under-powered designs
20 participants per cell used to be the “standard”
Stopping collection whenever hypotheses were met
Dropping (and not reporting) conditions if they did not work
Dropping (and not reporting) dependent variables that were not consistent with predictions
what is publication bias?
What does the replication crisis have to do with social psych?
Self-control failure (ego depletion)
At the heart of the replication crisis in psychology
One of the most studied areas in social psychology
Mass replications have found small or no effects
Meta-analyses mixed…
evidence of ego-depletion of replicaiton crisis…
Hagger et al. (2010)
Found evidence of ego-depletion using 83 studies
Studies used in meta-analysis were published
Publication bias!
What about non-published studies?
2 types of research
1- basic science is…
2- applied science is…
Research that increases understanding and theory
Tries to understand a given phenomenon
basic knowledge is transformed into practical solutions to adress** real world probelms **
basic science is used when in… setting
for example…
universities and research institutes
how im increasing my knowledge in lectures
applied science is used in… setting
for example…
Healthcare
Workplace
Communities
… how doctors apply knowledge from uni to find a cure as a solution for a disease in the uk
circle summary of the scientific method 4 steps
- observe a pattern
- generate a hypothesis
- scientifically test hypothesis
- interpret results and refine hypotheis (make more specific)
cross-sectional data is data taken at …..
there are …. participants
issues…
one time point
multiple
need to do an experiment to see if cause-and-effect relationship
(if just use obervation could be correlation)
Longitudinal data is taken at….
with the …. participants
its better for finding a ….
but if not experimental…
two or more time points
same
… cause and effect relationship
will be correlational not causation…
and may be other variables leading to the cause
Structural equation modelling (SEM) is the diagram that…
it allows for…
Maps out complex relations between many factors/variables
… simultaneous analysis of multiple relationships
within subject design
is….
between subject design….
when same participants are exposed to all conditions
diferent participants are in dif groups and some do a and some do b
Double blind control in experiments is when studies are … to prevent…
its when the …
single blind is …
randomised.. bias
Researcher and participant are oblivious of the condition they are in
..when only participant is unaware of their condition
in experimental designs participants are…
in a Quasi-experimental design groups of interest…..
for example they cant control the … of people or whether people …
randomly assigned to one group
… cannot be manipulated, occurs naturally (pre-existing) or unethical to manipulate
race…. smoke
Issues with quasi-experimental designs
cant demonstrate…
- **Lack of control **or comparison group, potentially unreliable
individual differences may have influenced categorization in a group eg. Is behaviour due to belonging to a group or vice versa?
Cannot demonstrate cause and effect!
Advantages of quasi-experimental designs
Social psychologists very interested in pre-existing groups
like race… gender… find out more about steryotypes
Researcher wants to examine differences in takeaway habits between those who live in the city versus the suburbs…
so quasi-experimental is…
promlem is livign in city dosent CAUSE more takeaways theres …
IV= city vs countryside participent
othere confounding variables like personality.
issue with social experiments,
Ecological validity which is
how well a study’s results apply to everyday life situations outside of the controlled experimental environment.
issue with social experiments,
Use of confederates (which are…) may…
actors
not be convincing (online better)
3 dif types of research designs …
experimental
quasi- experimental
non-experimental
experimental design used to…
determine the causes of behaviour that can expain why it occurs
quasi-experimental design is used to …
identify the relationship between pre-existing variables
non-experimental design is used to…
describe variables and predict the relationship between variables
meta- analysis is a …
statistical technique used to combine the results of multiple independent studies on the same topic to arrive at a more comprehensive and reliable conclusion
ethical concerns of qualitative methods is that…
…they measure sensitive information and Some individuals may not honestly report sensitive information so ensure its all anonomous
a Construct is an ..
eg.
..Attempt to capture pattern of behavior
Hard to capture directly due to vagueness
depression, self-worth…
Operational definition is an…
it can be… or ….
eg…
Attempt to identify way to capture construct
Can be quantitative or qualitative
Vary in reliability, but there are usually endless options
eg. stress can be reported in a **questionare **
Exceptions:
Height
Weight
Age
Operationalizing constructs is when we….
for example a conceptual def of happiness is…
and a operational def of happiness is…
define constructs in a way that makes them measurable and observable in a specific research context.
… Happiness is a state of well-being
…. Happiness will be measured by the score on the Subjective Happiness Scale, where participants rate their overall happiness on a scale from 1 to 7.
ways to operationalise constructs include…
Natural observation
Self-report scales (e.g., questionnaires)
Physiological measures (e.g., EEG, heartrate)
Reaction times (e.g., during Stroop task)
Specialized behavioral tasks
Implicit Association Test (e.g., unconscious biases)
Flanker task (e.g., attention and executive control)
Reading span task (e.g., working memory)
2 types of operationalizations
explicit which is… and eg….
implicit which is… and eg….
Conscious and deliberate
Self-reported by participant (e.g., survey)
Unconscious and automatic
Gut reactions or impulsive decisions made by participant
Behavioral tasks, natural observation, facial expressions, etc.
operationalizating constructs
why are implicit measures better than explicit
however they both…
because of social desirability and ppl lying on surveys.
… tap into different kinds of information so both helpful
operationalize constructs
implicit assosiation test (IAT) is a way to
it measures….
when two concepts are assosiated people… and vise verser
so the RT tells us about the …
Common assessment of attitudes
Captures associations in memory
Assumption these are automatic
strength of automatic associations between concepts
react faster
assosiation of 2 concepts
IAT
the D-score is a …
**statistical measure **that represents the difference in response times when participants categorize pairs of stimuli that are either congruent or incongruent with their implicit biases.
IAT
the D-score equation is…
dif in reaction times/ pooled standard deviation of the response times
interpreting the d-score IAT
postive d-score=
negative d-score=
congruent bias (responded faster when the pairing matched their implicit biases or stereotypes) eg. white ppl=good and black ppl=bad (steryotype)
incongruent bias (participants responded faster when the pairing went against common stereotype)
Issues with IAT
forces categorization
prime participants with stereotypes rather than assess them
contempoarary approaches help to improve the reliability, credibility and replicability of studies by focusing on….
Design
Protocols
Hypotheses
Materials
Analyses
Exclusions
contemporary issues
Exploratory analyses is …
its problem is…
…a set of statistical techniques and methods used to analyze data to uncover patterns etc.. without having a pre-defined hypothesis basically…. Hypothesizing after results are known (aka. HARKing)
that Findings may be **type I error ** (false positive)
exploratory research is …
and a confirmatory hypothesis is… which invloves…
gathering info/building theories
testing the theory …. a directional and prior prediction
Exploratory research questions have…
open-ended hypotheses
You think something is going to happen, but unsure what
- Conflicting theories
- Not enough literature
pre-registered along with hypotheses/analyses
- which means formally documenting the research questions, planned analyses, and hypotheses before conducting the study to increase credability
the confirmatory research process steps
- form hypothesis and analysis plan
- collect data
- analyse data acording to analysis plan
- interpret and report results
- publish and distrobute research output
- replicae results
Controlled processes are ..
they are… for eg….
they are also … and require an …
they are normally captured by..
lecture 3
Deliberate and intentional behaviors
potentially limited … mental fatigue and working memory constraints.
goal-dependant
awareness of behaviour
explicit measures
controlled process are dependant on…
…. theory
motivations
self-determination theory
automatic processes are… for example…
they tend to be captured by..
they are influenced by 3 things…
uncontrollable or unconcious processes
.. gut reactions/ knee jerk responces
implicit measures
priming, facial cues and environment
Gilbert & Hixon (1991)
found that cognitive busyness may decrease the…
but increase the liklihood that …
liklihood that a particular steryotype will be activated
.. an activated steryotype will be applied
startle eyeblink responce and self report, david m amodio
individual diferences in the activation and control of affective race bias
high internal and those with low external motivation exibited less affective race bias in blink responces.
high internal motiv less racial bias then low IM.
Payne (2001)
Weapons identification task
participants are shown an image of either a …… (the prime) followed by a picture of either …..
participents asked to identify whether imagine is a … or not
participants more likley to press yes if its a … face before
Incongruent pairings harder to categorize for example…
black or white face, a gun or harmeles object , gun, black
eg. Black-Tool
White-Gun
payne 2001
what did payne find from the weapon iddentification task?
he distinguished between …. and … processes
automatic and controlled.
The racial bias that led to quicker identification of guns after seeing Black faces was thought to be **driven by automatic processes **
the motivated tacticians continnum
is a continuum between … and … processes
where u land depends on 2 factors…. and ….
if …. and …. is low we use …..
if … and … is high we use….
automatic and controlled
motivation and cognitive resources
M and CR are low= auto
M and CR are high= controlled
an important social cue is….
FF and eye…
another is… so you can determine appropriate… and can alter ther perceptions like…
faces
facial features, contact
environment , behaviour , dangerous situations
ruth mayo
face-name matching effect is when people can guess somones …. (in a list) by looking at a picture of their ..
….. produce this effect
name, face
existing name steryotypes ..
shooter bias task is when presented with a ….
which contain people who are either … or ….
and are either carrying a … or …
participents have to decide if they are or not, and …. is measured
scene, black or white, gun or other object, reaction time
results for shooter bias task show that faster …for … when a … person and more mistakes for …
showing …
reaction time, shoot, black
black ppl
racial bias
the dangerous context video game task is a variation of the …. , but it incorporates specific …. eg…
it found that the dangerous context seems to amplify ….. , leading to a higher rate of false positives (…) when the target is ….
Shooter Bias Task, environmental cues, dangerous or safe contexts
implicit racial bias ,shooting an unarmed person, black
social memory is when we… eg.. which helps to… and …
this information is stored in…
store information relevant to ourselves and others.. remembering stuff about others .. form oppions on others and navigate novel situations
assosiative networks, spresing activation and semantic network model
spreading activation is when…
When a concept or node is activated in your mind (e.g., you think of “summer”), this activation spreads out along the network to related concepts (e.g., “sun,”
Social-cognitive approach to personality is when ..
personality is not a fixed trait but rather a dynamic system influenced by interactions between a person’s thoughts, behaviors, and social context.
a self- schema is
Cognitive representations of oneself that one uses to organize and process self-relevant information
Consists of the important behaviors and attributes
self schemas
People behave differently due to …. in self-schemas
Provide a framework for organizing and storing information about our …
individual diferences, personality
Self-reference effect is when …
information related to oneself is processed more deeply, encoded more effectively, and recalled more easily than information not related to the self.
Self-perception theory:
Things that seem to occur frequently …
theory is particularly relevant in situations where our….
Situational factors may determine:
we make judgments about our own thoughts and attitudes the same way we make judgments about others’ behaviors—by interpreting our actions in various situations.
enter self schema Unless situational factors can account for the behavior
internal states are weak
Intrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation
Self-determination theory is the role of…
2 types of motivations=
which one increases motivations to repeat behaviour again?
role of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations in influencing behavior.
extrinsic and intrinsic
Looking-glass self is when..
We sometimes …. what others think about us which can be..
Other’s perceptions of us feed into our self-schema
assume, inaccurate
Social comparison theory is..
2 types of social comparision are..
we compare ourselves more to people who are…
we tend to do …
innate drive to evaluate their own abilities, opinions, and emotions by comparing themselves to others.
upward= When we compare ourselves to someone who is better than us, often to improve on a particular skill
downward= When we compare ourselves to someone who is worse than us, often to feel better
close to us
downward comparisson
multiple selves?
All of these sources suggest that we are different people:
At different times
Around different people
In different settings
When selves don’t align we…
we have Three simultaneous selves=
experience emotional discomfort
Actual self
Ideal self
Ought self
actual self=
ideal self=
ought self=
The person we think we are right now
The person we hope to become
What other people want us to be.
Self-Presentation Theory is when one…
we use…
Adapt to fit into the situation
Present ourselves to make an impression on others
Impression management and self-monitoring
What is self-control?
its used to balance…
Ability to override thoughts, emotions, and behaviors
Implement behaviors which are appropriate for the situation
Self-expression: Actions consistent with self-concept (actual self)
Self-presentation: Actions shape others’ impressions of us in positive ways (ought or ideal self)
self - control is required to…
self control is dependant on… what depletes this resources?
prolonged use causes..
resources need to be…
shift from actual to ideal self.
limited resources like eg. gluecose
stress
Prolonged use of self-control causes “fatigue”
Resources need replenished before further use
Strength model of self-control is when
time 1=
time 2 after engaging self control=
high self control resources
low self control resources
Inzlicht et al. (2014)
Process model of self-control:
Controlling your behavior shifts motivation….
Motivation temporarily shifted towards …
basically increase motiv for… and decreased for…
.. away from further control
.. rewarding behavior
Resources not depleted, just redirected
Fatigue leads to reward seeking
want to tasks, have to tasks
Excess use of self-control leads to:
Increased motivations to engage in …
…. response to rewarding stimuli
Lack of attention to engage in any…
rewarding behaviour
Exaggerated emotional ..
effortful behavior
Self-Discrepancy Theory
eg.
discrepancies among these selves can lead to emotional discomfort and influence personal motivation.
Can lead to mental health problems
Depression
Social phobia
Eating disorders
Poor self-esteem
eg. someone feels they should be more responsible or successful based on external expectations, failing to meet these standards can lead to feelings of guilt, anxiety, or inadequacy.
Self-esteem is ones…
enhancing self esteem can be done with a few methods…
upward comp may lead to…
Confidence in one’s abilities
Self-worth or respect
self - serving bias, the better than average effect, downward social comparison
improvements but requires effort so use downward to compensate
protecting self esteem
when get feedback…
.. like good feedback and take on board and bad feedback just ignore eg a quiz on personality
Dark side of protecting self-esteem
Inflating self-esteem may lead to:
Narcissism
False confidence
Lack of empathy
Academic problems
And more!
cultural diferences in self esteem
collectivist cultures (e.g., many Asian, African, and Latin American societies) prioritize group harmony, family, and community over individual achievement.
What is an attitude?
lecture 4
cognitive representation that summarizes evaluation of an attitude object (e.g., belief)
Attitude objects may be the self, other people, things, actions, events, or ideas
Attitudes have
direction
intensity
Measuring attitudes
Self report on attitude scales
Observation of behavior
Physiological measures (e.g., EEG, heartrate, skin conductance)
Reaction time measures
The Implicit Association Test!
Attitude functions, We evaluate everything we encounter almost instantly:
Attitudes help people navigate the environment which….
Provides shortcuts to guide behavior
Reduce cognitive effort needed to make decisions
Attitude formation acrynim
CAB
cog, beh, affective
attitude formation:
Affective information:
Behavioral information:
Cognitive information:
Feelings and emotions about the object
: Information about past, present, or future interactions with the object
: Facts and beliefs about the object
CAB book example of lady gaga book
cognitive info=
thoughts=
affective info=
feelings=
nbehavioural info=
behaviours
she endows youth foundations
shes amazing
i feel pumped when i hear her music
feel happy when i see her music videos
i download all her songs and would drive 1000 miles to see her
downloading her new track
We form attitudes consistent with the information we have about the attitude object
….. information is weighted more heavily in forming the attitude than is …. information
Attitudes reflect those parts of the information that are currently ….
Often dependent on ….
May vary …
negative , positive , accessible or salient, context/environment, over time
Associative-Propositional Evaluation (APE) model shows us that:
Learning occurs through:…. a and b
Learning occurs through:
Associative learning
Propositional learning
Associative learning:
Semantic Network Model
mental links form….
Mental links form between concepts based on shared properties
Shorter path between concepts = stronger association in memory
Nearby concepts also activated
Spreading activation!
APE model, assosiative learning
when 2 stimuli are …. paired together=
hebbian law=
example=
Merely co-occurrence of stimuli can influence behavior… eg…
frequently..
=Creates semantic link in memory
Hebbian law
“Neurons that fire together, wire together!”
Classical conditioning (e.g., Pavlov’s dog)
….
Flowers
Pleasantness
and Black Americans
Violence (e.g., media exposure)
ape model
Propositional learning
is when….
Mental links are elaborated upon, requires conscious effort
Creation of causal relations between associations
Attempt to validate associations
APE model summary=
Associative learning = creates…
Propositional learning =explains…
Associative learning = Creates simple links in memory
Black Americans-Violence
Alcohol-Positive emotions
Propositional learning = Explains simple links in memory
Black Americans are violent
Alcohol causes me to feel happy
Associative information ….
Propositional information
Co-activation of concepts
Spontaneous emotional response (captured via implicit measures)
Can be rejected (if you have the energy)
Validation and explanation of associations
These associations are further strengthened (if validated)
More deliberate judgments (require energy, captured via self-report)
Conflict and independence among these two processes (gut responces)
Associative information can be activated (e.g., gut response) regardless of whether you believe the response as appropriate
Propositional information may override gut responses if they are inconsistent and you have the motivation (and resources) to do so
Associative processes examples=
Propositional processes
Validate associative information
eg=
“I dislike insects”
vs
“Bugs look disgusting”
“Insects in the house make me uncomfortable ”
“I dislike insects”
Changing attitudes via APE model
Target …. learned information
Avoid activation of ….. associations
e.g.
associative
negative associations
e.g., well-known, admired Black Americans reduce racial bias
Associations are hardwired into memory and difficult to change
Changing attitudes via APE model:
Evaluative conditioning aims to replace or create…..
Aims to replace or create new links between concepts in memory
Co-activation of emotional stimuli and target stimuli
Stigmatized groups
Alcohol
APE model interventions
important things to consider for evaluative conditioning:
…. stimuli do not need to be related to target stimuli
Conditioning is not meant to …..
Only targeting ….. responses
Emotional stimuli do not need to be related to target stimuli
Conditioning is not meant to create causal relationships
Only targeting “gut” or immediate emotional responses
APE model interventions
From associative to propositional learning:
During ….., some notice the odd pairings
Contingency awareness
….
What happens?
…..
evaluative conditioning, “I think this is supposed to make me like alcohol”, Effectiveness increases
APE model interventions
Why is knowing about something make it more effective?
Creates…
Propositional learning!
Instead of simple Black-Positive or Alcohol-Positive associations, contingency awareness leads to an elaboration of this simple link
causal explanation between concepts
what is evaluative learning
individuals learn to associate a particular stimulus with ……
its a type of …
unlike… which…
a positive or negative emotional value based on past experiences.
- assosiative learning
- propositional learning, which involves understanding facts or logical relationships, evaluative learning is more about emotional responses rather than factual knowledge.
-
Changing attitudes via APE model
why doe these changes occur? through…
cognitive dissonance
what is cognitive dissonance?
Discomfort from conflict between attitudes and behavior, uncomfortable tate of arousal
We aim to resolve this discomfort by resolving conflict
Change behavior to match new associations/ attitude
cognitive dissonance example
smoking
Imagine you know that smoking is bad for your health (belief), but you smoke anyway (behavior). This conflict creates cognitive dissonance. To reduce it, you might try to quit smoking, convince yourself that smoking isn’t that harmful, or ignore the risks.
when changing attitudes you have to make sure…
that the change is freely chosen, self determination theory, external or internal motivation?
external= somone wants u to quit smoking
internal= want to quit to improve health.
internal is best
Festinger and Carlsmith (1959)
study-
what happened?
found
participants in lab
‘somethings gone wrong with experiment can you help with this task’
boring task for an hour
after told the next particiapnt was coming in, asked if they could lie to the next and say they loved it.
offered 1$ or 20$
if payed 1 not enough justification to lie, but 20$ would defo lie.
when we do something that dosent match our feelings, we change our feelings to account for that as we dont like ot be inconsistent.
Daryl Bem
Self-perception theory
is it similar to cognitive dissonance?
Our own behavior as a basis for inference for self-schema
Depends whether behavior intrinsically or extrinsically motivated
(similar Change in attitudes NOT due to…
Uncomfortable states
Anxiety/arousal)
applying self- perception theory to the APE model..
- assosiative info promotes new automatic behaviour (shop- more likley to buy a salad then sandwich)
- recognise that behaviour is inconsistent with propositional information regarding attitude object
- change propositional info to match new behaviour
- now assosiative/ proppositional info match, furthur strenghtening the liklihood of this nehaviour to occur in the future.
changing attitudes:
priming
Activate information to change behaviour
Conscious or unconscious
May activate nearby concepts to alter perceptions
Spreading activation
APE model
priming example=
social questionare
developed Questionare
brought students in, lied to them and said computers not working but can u just fill in this questionare ‘how common is it for ppl to drink to socialise with others’ positive vs ‘ now common is it to drink and drive an automobile’ negative consequence
priming them…
prime with social= no avoidance of alcholol
prime with drive= avoidance went up, less likley to drink
changing attitudes:
Elaboration likelihood model
When do people accept or reject information?
Elaboration = critical evaluation of arguments, some do and some dont depedns on dif things..
Some arguments accepted as is with no elaboration
Other arguments may elicit high elaboration
If inconsistent with already learned information
If relevant to your self-schema
These arguments critiqued and may be rejected!
How do we reduce resistance? (e.g., no elaboration)
2 diferent routes of persuasion….
Central routes of persuasion
Scientific evidence
Logic-based arguments
Peripheral routes of persuasion
Highly emotional (e.g., use of fear)
Aim to change associations in memory
peripheral routes are best changing ….
eg…
not enough if…
Peripheral (emotional) routes may be effective in preventing … maladaptive health behaviors from forming
Tobacco packaging-
- somone has a long held belief.
peripheral routes dont always work
for example…
But implementation of plain packaging did not stop everyone from smoking… right?
Peripheral routes not effective in changing persistent behaviors
Emotion-based interventions may promote high elaboration when they are counterintuitive to our longstanding beliefs and attitudes
Enter… central routes!
central routes use…
to reduce elaboration….
logical arguments to change behavior
Still may be met with high elaboration if counter to attitudes
…
Combine with peripheral route
Promote trustworthiness of information or source
if argument comes form ‘experts’ in the field…
more likley to trust central routes
Typically elicit lower elaboration (leads to less deep thinking)
More effective in changing persistent behaviors
elaboration liklihood model
example= calender
found…
swimsuit of cheerleading students
manipulated a couple things
listen to recordeig to either justify it or not
strong argument of central route= sexist attitudes, tarnish rep
vs weak advertising= free advertsiing (not convicing)
stronger argument= less elaboration
doctor who was expert= less elaboration
elaboration liklihood model
strong arguments alone….
However, experts may change attitudes even if….
…. may be sufficient in changing attitudes, regardless of the source of information
…. arguments or statements are weak!
These effects depend on personality/individual differences
Some may be skeptical regardless of expertise!
elaboration
central routes…
peripheral routes…
higher
lower elaboration
Stereotypes are…
Prejudice:
Discrimination:
week 5
Stereotypes:
Impressions of groups that people form by associating the groups with particular characteristics
Prejudice:
Positive or negative evaluations of a social group or its members
Discrimination:
Positive or negative behavior directed toward a social group or its members
theories of bias
Social Identity Theory
Realistic Conflict Theory
Intergroup Threat Theory
importance of groups
Social identity theory (Tajfel, 1971)
and
Self-categorization
Social identity theory (Tajfel, 1971)
We derive self-esteem from our valued group memberships
Share and adopt opinions with our in-group to feel validated
Develop belief that “outgroups” are inferior
Seeing oneself as a member of a social group
Often associate ourselves with several social groups, eg. gender, race, age etc..
Sources of group membership
all lead to…
direct members, precence of out-group members, being a minority, intergroup conflict
all lead to
accecibility of social identity as a group number
Group membership influences self-esteem
When our group wins we feel great
Refer to group as “we” more after a win
Basking in reflected glory (Cialdini et al., 1976)
We tend to rely on group’s successes to hide our failures
Group membership can protect self-esteem
Social identity theory
in group and out group
In-group
Those who belong to our social group
Viewed as similar to ourselves
View members as unique and novel
Out-group
Those who belong to other social group
Viewed as dissimilar to ourselves
View members as similar/homogenous (e.g., stereotypes)- driven by lack of knowlage of what people are like
How group membership shapes us
We use group memberships to emphasize what is novel about ourselves, may bolster certain group identities
If our in-group is a minority, that may become central to us
If our in-group is a majority, we may discount that membership
Minority and majority status also changes the functions of upward/downward comparisons (Brewer & Weber, 1994)
Brewer and Weber (1994)
Randomly assigned via “perceptual estimation task”
Consistent with large amount of student population (majority)
Consistent with small amount of student population (minority)
Shown video with either majority or minority member performing well or poorly on academic task
How does being in the majority versus minority affect social comparisons based on performance?
Minimal group paradigm
Groups can be made arbitrarily
Over versus underestimation of items
Color of shirt
Preference of paintings
Coin toss
Etc.
Allows to study effects of groups in a “vacuum”
Suggests intergroup conflict is innate
Brewer and Weber (1994)
if you are in the majority/minority and performance is good/bad we feel….
If you are in the majority…
If majority performance is good = we feel bad
If majority performance is bad = we feel good
Minority performance does not affect majority
If you are in the minority…
If minority performance is good = we feel good
If majority performance is bad = we feel bad
Pattern is reversed!
Function of group memberships triangle
social comparisons, self- catorazation, self-esteem
I” Becomes “We”
Activated group membership changes the self-schema
and
in group favoratism
Thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (attitudes) move toward in-group
Changes in attitudes stronger among those with higher group identity
In-group favoritism
Initial positivity towards in-group based on membership alone
Anything negative about group members could reflect poorly on you!
Others Become “They”
Out-groups treated more negatively
Out-group homogeneity effect:
Seeing out-group as less diverse than in-group
Fewer out-group members known
Interactions with out-group more constrained
Focus on group membership with out-group as opposed to individual characteristics with in-group
billig and tajfel 1973
school boys study:
Is it all in-group favoritism?
Billig and Tajfel (1973)
Schoolboys divided into arbitrary groups
Divide points between in vs out-group
Generally favored in-group members
No surprise!
But…
Were they seeking to maximize benefits for the in-group?
Boys sometimes discriminated even when it cost the in-group
Example:
Took 11 points for in-group, 7 for out-group over 17 for each
In-group will take a loss if it means out-group is worse off
Sources of outgroup bias
theories and hypothesis
Social identity theory
Categorization-Competition Hypothesis
Self-Esteem Hypothesis
Realistic Group Conflict Theory
Intergroup Threat Theory
Categorization-Competition Hypothesis
Viewing people in terms of ingroups and outgroups is sufficient to generate intergroup competition
Evidenced by minimal group paradigms
Arbitrary assignment to groups creates biases
Competition between groups seems innate
Evolutionary function?
Self-Esteem Hypothesis
When your in-group does well, it makes you feel good
Basking in reflective glory (Cialdini)
Intergroup bias supports that your group is better than the outgroup
Low self-esteem promotes intergroup bias to raise self-esteem
Realistic Group Conflict Theory
Evolutionary and economic account for group conflict
Groups tend to compete when resources are contested
Israel and Palestine (land)
Mexico and U.S. (welfare)
Gulf War (oil)
Supported by Robber’s Cave (and other) experiments
We are motivated to maximize the rewards for in-group, even if it means taking those rewards away from others
Realistic Group Conflict Theory
Majority groups view competition as zero-sum game
Finite amount of resources
Gains in minority lead to equal losses in majority
Fear of losing influence and power
Threats increase if groups are seen as equal
Affirmative action policies
Equality/diversity initiatives
Intergroup Threat Theory
Biases come from two types of perceived threats
Symbolic threats (e.g., loss of status or authority)
Realistic threats (e.g., loss of physical resources)
Previous theory emphasized realistic threats
Threat of losing positive source of self-esteem just as important
Bias may result from combination of threats
Intergroup Threat Theory
Realistic threats
Threaten to reduce power or resources of group
Physical or material harm to group members
Pain
Death
Loss of power
Economic loss
*The conflict between the Israelis and Arabs provides a stark illustration of the various
types of threat. For both groups, realistic group threats are omnipresent in the form of the
possibility of open warfare. This is a struggle involving land, economics, power, and blood
where each group threatens the very existence of the other. Symbolic group threats are nearly as
obvious. The two groups differ in religion and culture and speak different languages. Each group
is perceived to pose a fundamental threat to the cultural worldview and way of life of the other.
Threats also exist at the individual level. Realistic individual threats exist in the form of terrorism
for the Israelis. For the Arabs, such threats are present as targeted assassinations in which
civilians are often casualties. Individual symbolic threats occur when individuals feel they are
being dishonored, disrespected, or dehumanized by members of the other group.
*
Intergroup Threat Theory
Symbolic threats
Threaten to reduce status, beliefs, or ideologies of group
Undermining source of self-identity or self-esteem
Disrespected
Social standing diminished
Loss of perceived importance
*The conflict between the Israelis and Arabs provides a stark illustration of the various
types of threat. For both groups, realistic group threats are omnipresent in the form of the
possibility of open warfare. This is a struggle involving land, economics, power, and blood
where each group threatens the very existence of the other. Symbolic group threats are nearly as
obvious. The two groups differ in religion and culture and speak different languages. Each group
is perceived to pose a fundamental threat to the cultural worldview and way of life of the other.
Threats also exist at the individual level. Realistic individual threats exist in the form of terrorism
for the Israelis. For the Arabs, such threats are present as targeted assassinations in which
civilians are often casualties. Individual symbolic threats occur when individuals feel they are
being dishonored, disrespected, or dehumanized by members of the other group.
*
Intergroup Threat Theory
Perceived actions or intentions of outgroups often elicit threat
Threatening status quo maintained by majority group
Anticipating changes to status quo may elicit feelings of threat
Does not need to be real or actualized
Mere perception of threats enough to promote con
Tov, and Schmidt (2004). This study examined four variables: 1) the actual proportion of
immigrants in counties across Germany, 2) the respondents’ perceptions of the proportion of
immigrants in their counties, 3) the respondents’ perceptions of the threats posed by immigrants,
and 4) the respondents’ exclusionary attitudes toward immigrants. It was found that the actual
proportion of immigrants in the respondents’ localities did not predict exclusionary attitudes
toward immigrants. Instead, the perceived proportion of immigrants predicted both perceived
threats and exclusionary attitudes.
Threatening the status-quo
when a group is threatened….
When in-group is threatened, bias intensifies
Unequal status amplifies intergroup biases
Attempt to maintain inequalities and retain privilege
Often see out-group as “moral exclusion” to justify:
Aggression
Hate crimes
Genocide
Threatening the status-quo example
In previous centuries, slavery and exploitation was justified by many Christian slave owners using parts of the Bible
Retained in-group as highest moral authority
Justified hatred and exploitation for out-groups
discrimination is…
Behaving differently toward people based on their membership in a social group
Acting in an unfair or demeaning manner toward a disliked group
But can also refer to giving undeserved advantage to a liked group
Forms of discrimination
blatant vs subtle
Blatant discrimination
Unequal and harmful treatment that is intentional and visible
Subtle discrimination
Unequal and harmful treatment that is typically less visible and obvious
Often not noticed because people have internalized it as normal
Can be active or passive
subtle discrimination
covert discrimination is…
microaggressions are..
Covert discrimination
Unequal and harmful treatment that is hidden, purposeful, and often maliciously motivated
Behavior that attempts to ensure failure in situations
Microaggressions
Small-scale, everyday behaviors that demean other social groups or members of those groups
Behavior can be verbal or nonverbal
Small correlations between prejudice and discrimination
what explains these correlations?
Small correlations between prejudice and discrimination
Theory of planned behavior explain small correlations
Prejudice alone not sufficient to promote discrimination
Social norms and perceived control impact behavior
Theory of planned behaviour examples
Ajzen (1991)
Behavior is complex and rarely rational
Sex
Smoking
Eating
Substance and alcohol use
Discrimination
Examples of behaviour which may be difficult to control voluntarily
what is theory of planned behaviour?
Prejudiced attitudes can influence behavior
Interact with social norms and expectations to act morally
These norms can change based on group identity and context
Serves as an “external brake” on behavior
Interact with availability of self-control to inhibit actions
May be undermined by fatigue or time constraints (e.g., snap judgements)
Serves as an “internal brake” on behavior
Motivations to control prejudice
internal vs external
Internal motivation
Stems from a personal belief that prejudice is wrong
External motivation
Is a result of social pressure
These are separate processes
People can experience both at the same time
Internal motivations
Associated with lower prejudice….
Even if prejudiced associations are activated….
Associated with lower prejudice
Exposure to members of outgroups implicitly reminds people of their commitment to egalitarianism
Even if prejudiced associations are activated
People high in internal motivation are more likely to recognize conflict between prejudices and actions
Approach interracial interactions with the goals of treating the other person fairly and having a friendly conversation
External motivations
Associated with higher prejudice…
Does not necessarily prevent discrimination
…
Associated with higher prejudice
People high in external motivation feel pressured to appear unbiased
Feel irritated and resentful as a result
Does not necessarily prevent discrimination
Only in certain contexts when external influence is present
Interactions with minority group members not always pleasant
Losing control
supressing discrimination requires…
when resources are reduced…
howerver…
Suppressing discrimination requires attention and mental effort
When these resources are reduced, people can express their prejudice
However, suppressing behavior is difficult especially when the underlying attitudes are strongly influencing behavior
Prejudice may “leak out” through automatic processes or nonverbal behaviors when trying to control its effects on other behaviors
Essay examples
How does group membership affect our self-esteem? How may these effects change when comparing ourselves to in-group versus out-group members?
Discuss the differences between prejudice and discrimination. Using relevant theory, describe when prejudiced attitudes may manifest as discrimination.
Social categorization is when we…
beliefs develop….
which are used to…
Motivated by 3 theories previously discussed….
lecture 6
place others (and ourselves) into social groups
Beliefs develop about members of these groups
Are used to guide future interactions with group members
Social identity theory
Realistic group conflict theory
Intergroup threat theory
Basic social categories include…
for example…
we use this info to….
important in…
Information which is easily observable for categorization
Gender
Race
Age
We use this information to draw conclusions about a person’s traits, social roles, and physical characteristics
Important in initial interactions
Intersectionality/subtypes is when people…
for example…
Subtypes can be ….
Some subtypes may be ….
People belong to more than one basic category at once
Middle-aged White woman
Young Asian man
Older Black woman
Subtypes can be created to incorporate intersectionality
Some subtypes may be less negative than basic categories
However… some may be more negative!
Influences on categorization
Bottom-up processing
and
top-down processing
Bottom-up processing
Based on the observable characteristics of an individual
Top-down processing
Based upon prior knowledge people have stored in memory and their expectations about interactions
Influences on categorization example
Stereotypic beliefs about librarians and waitresses
.
Top-down processing relies on prior knowledge stored in memory
.
Categorization of the woman as a librarian or a waitress
.
Bottom-up processing is based on the characteristics of the people we encounter
.
The woman’s description of her day
Influences on categorization
Bottom-up influences
Prototypicality is the…
example…
Extent to which physical features match basic social category
Categorization faster when observing a prototypical member
example:
People with baby faces (A) are seen as physically weaker and more submissive than those with mature faces (B)
People whose face has a larger width-to-height ratio (C) are seen as less friendly, less trustworthy, and more aggressive than those with smaller ratio (D)
Influences on categorization
Bottom-up influences
Body Cues
example
Body size and motion provide cues about group membership
= Example:
When determining biological sex, body shape is the primary cue
People rely on the knowledge that women have narrower waists and a smaller shoulder width (and longer hair) than men
Influences on categorization
Bottom-up influences
Categorization of ambiguous faces
When cues are ambiguous, categorization is slower
We tend to classify ambiguous faces as members of the minority or socially subordinate group
These perceptions continue until the majority of their features are stereotypically White
Influences on categorization
Top-down influences
Stereotypes
example
Impressions of groups that people form by associating the groups with particular characteristics
The content of these impressions affects categorization
Example:
Gender-atypical versus typical characteristics observed in faces are used to infer sexual orientation (Freeman et al., 2010)
Influences on categorization
Top-down influences
Situational Influence
example
The social context can influence categorization
Focus on what makes another person look “different” may shift across varying contexts
Example:
Female student in a group of mostly male students are more likely to be categorized as a woman, rather than student
Influences on categorization
Top-down influences
Prejudiced attitudes
example
Prejudiced individuals pay more attention to characteristics consistent with their attitudes and stereotypic beliefs
Racist attitudes = focus on race when categorizing
Sexist attitudes = focus on gender when categorizing
Origins of stereotypes
people learn them from…
People learn stereotypes from
Parents
Peers
The media
Their own observations of the world
Role models
Development/socialization
people learn steryotypes form Psychological Processes
such as…
Social Role Theory
Illusory Correlations
Social role theory is when…
correspondence bias is when…
People observe the social roles others occupy
Associate characteristics of role with those who occupy it
Correspondence Bias
We tend to assume behaviors of others are due to personality, not external or situational factors
Leads to the development and continuation of stereotypic beliefs
Illusory correlation is when…
People incorrectly link two characteristics
Overestimate the relationship between two categories when undesirable information stands out
Inaccurate associations become firmly held
Based on inaccurate information processing
APE model…
Associative learning!
Influence of media on catogarization
The media expose us to members of majority groups more than minority groups
Representations of minority groups are stereotypic and negative
The more media people are exposed to, the more they hold stereotypic beliefs
Race
Gender
Body size
Influence of advertising on catogarization
Women are typically shown in the home
Engage in behaviors that convey their dependence and stereotypical gender roles
Men are typically shown in professional roles
In the U.S., White people appear more frequently in advertisements than any other ethnic or racial group
Johar et al. (2003)
Influence of advertising on categorization example
commercials…
findings…
Johar et al. (2003)
Commercials depicting women and men in traditional roles
Undergrads wrote an essay imagining their lives 10 years in future
Findings:
Women who saw traditional commercials described their future as “homemaker” rather than “career woman”
Men’s future was not influenced by type of commercial
Accuracy of stereotypes
are steryotypes accurate?
Are stereotypes accurate?
Not a simple answer
Generally, beliefs are not totally unfounded
“A kernel of truth”
But they undermine attempts to individuate outgroup members
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Stereotype Knowledge is…
Stereotype Endorsement is…
Stereotype Knowledge
Extent to which a person is familiar with the content of a stereotype
Stereotype Endorsement
Extent to which someone personally believes the societal stereotype accurately describes a social group
steryotype Activation versus application
with hig/low cog load
encounter member of steryotyped group->
low cog load= steryotype activates
high cog load= steryotype activation inhibited-> so steryotype application not possible
sterypotype activates->
low cog load=steryotype application inhibited
high cog load= steryotype applied
Automaticity- Activation of stereotypes follows categorization
Factors that can facilitate activation
Often occurs without effort or conscious thought
Cues presented subliminally can activate stereotypes
Prototypicality
Situational context
Level of prejudice
Prototypicality is the extent…
Extent to which a social group member has the physical features associated with their social group
Intersectional “invisibility” is when..
for example…
People with intersectional identities are less likely to be recognized as a prototypical member of either identity
Example: Black women are not seen as prototypical of either women or Black people
Intersectional “invisibility”
advantages=
disadvantages=
Advantages:
Stereotypes that are not activated are not used
May explain why Black women typically experience less discrimination than Black men
Disadvantages:
People who are not seen are also not heard
May make “dual identities” feel more stigmatized
Intersectional “invisibility”
Minorities with dual stereotyped or stigmatized identities often …
example…
Often more worried about experiencing discrimination
Have less allies or role models in many contexts
Referred to as “double jeopardy”
Example
Black women in STEM
Factors which promote automaticity
Situational Context
Context influences if stereotypes are activated
Environment
Time of day
Timing
When we are pressed for time, we tend to rely on stereotypes
When given time to respond, stereotypes may not be activated
Timing
When we are pressed for time, we tend to rely on stereotypes
When given time, we can engage self-control to stop application
Ambiguity
When the situation is unclear, we tend to rely on stereotypes
Example:
Application more likely at night
Importance of working memory
Cognitive busyness
When we are busy with one mental task while trying to do another
Lack of space in working memory disrupts stereotype activation
Example:
Cognitively busy people who see an Asian woman use fewer stereotypical words during sentence completion task
Importance of working memory Gilbert & Hixon (1991)
activation phase and application phase
Those who engaged working memory during “activation phase” were less likely to complete words stereotypically
Stereotypes likely occupy working memory
Working memory has limited capacity
If engaged, stereotypes unlikely to be activated
Those who engaged working memory during “application phase” were more likely to use stereotypes to describe researcher
Working memory is needed to inhibit application
Working memory has limited capacity
If occupied, stereotypes likely to be applied
Stereotype application
Activated stereotypes are likely to be applied…
Activated information is likely to influence behaviour..
Stereotype application is the typically the default option
Unless a person is motivated and able to inhibit a stereotype
Internal motivations
External motivations
Spreading activation triggers behavioral scripts (Loersch & Payne, 2011)
Easily accessible information requires less effort (brain is lazy)
Cognitive busyness inhibits…
inhibits stereotype activation
But if activated, cognitive busyness facilitates stereotype application
Measuring steryotype application
Weapons identification task (Payne, 2001)
Sort guns versus tools
Primed with Black versus White faces
Incongruent pairings harder to categorize
Black-Tool
White-Gun
Promoting steryotype application
Myopia-
what triggers myopia?
Behavior based on immediate, readily available information
Long-term consequences not considered
Promotes self-preservation
-Tiredness/fatigue
Alcohol (cues alone)
Activation versus application
how do we measure each?
Difficult to disentangle
Processes happen very quickly
Activation = cognitive processes (e.g., IAT)
Application = observed behaviors (e.g., shooter bias, WIT)
Beyond errors and reaction times…
Behavioral tasks often activate stereotypes via primes..
Activated stereotypes (associations in memory) differ in their strength
Whether we apply these activated stereotypes (regardless of strength) relies on controlled versus automatic processes
Controlled processes = engaging inhibition to reduce application
Automatic processes = strength of activated stereotypes on behavior
Automaticity versus control
If strength of activated stereotypes are strong….
If strength of activated stereotypes are weak…
If strength of activated stereotypes are strong
Increased control needed to suppress application
Availability (and willingness) to engage control depends on context and individual differences (e.g., motivations)
If strength of activated stereotypes are weak…
Little control is needed to suppress application
We may not apply stereotypes, even when control is limited
Petzel et al. (2022)
Alcohol-related cues promote myopia…
Stronger influence of automatic processes (activated stereotypes)
We can inhibit enhanced automaticity via control
Under normal circumstances…
When control is diminished via ego-depletion, automaticity leads to greater application of stereotypes promoted by alcohol myopia
Essay examples
Describe the processes underlying stereotype activation versus application. How does cognitive busyness impact these processes?
Discussing relevant theory, how may we acquire stereotypes? How does group membership prime stereotypes in working memory and how may we prevent their application?
Increasing control
when people are becoming unprejudiced they include this as part of their …..
which requires
issues of this is that…
lecture 7
… “ideal self”
self control
Issues with this:
Stereotype activation/application relatively automatic
May not be aware of these effects on our behavior
Unable to inhibit relatively unconscious behaviors
Limitations of self-control- egopletion
Petzel et al. (2022)
shows that when we are ….. steryotypes slip out
gun task eg.
if tired,
eg. more likley to see image on a gun (its a tool) more lilley to be racist when tired
Increasing control
good to …..
to help ….
however can lead to ….
for example
engaging in control also requires…. and …..
theories such as ….
its good to increase control
to supress steryotypes
However, actively engaging control to suppress prejudice can lead to automatic inhibition of stereotypes
Example: Negating stereotypes
Becomes easier with practice
Reduces stereotype activation
Develop cues for control
effort and motivation
ego-depletion theories
2 types of Motivations to control prejudice
Internal motivation
Stems from a personal belief that discirmiantion is wrong
External motivation
Is a result of social pressure
These are separate processes
People can experience both at the same time
Internal motivations
assosiated with…
exposure to outgroups reminds ppl….
more likley to….
Associated with lower prejudice
Exposure to members of outgroups implicitly reminds people of their commitment to egalitarianism (equal rights)
Even if prejudiced associations are activated
People high in internal motivation are more likely to recognize conflict between prejudices and actions
Approach interracial interactions with the goals of treating the other person fairly and having a friendly conversation
External motivations
assosiated with….
people high in external motiv feel… and feel … asa result
doesnt prevent ….
Associated with higher prejudice
People high in external motivation feel pressured to appear unprejudiced
Feel irritated and resentful as a result
Does not necessarily prevent discrimination
Only in certain contexts when external influence is present
Interactions with minority group members not always pleasant
Consequences of suppression
What happens when suppression stops?
- steryotype rebound
Or if we are too fatigued to inhibit our actions?
Stereotype rebound is when…
there is a …..
Stereotypes are used to a…..
Can exceed…..
why does it occur?
Unwanted thoughts return in greater strength after suppression
There is a “rebound effect”
Stereotypes are used to a greater extent after suppression stops
Can exceed typical stereotype use (e.g., ironic effects)\
Why does rebound occur?
Suppression takes cognitive effort
When resources are depleted, people cannot continue suppression
Stereotypes break through due heightened salience in memory
Priming!
Loersch and Payne (2011
While suppressing stereotypes, people are looking for potential use of stereotypes in their thoughts and actions
This requires knowledge and conscious awareness of stereotypes
Incidentally activates stereotypes in working memory
Activated stereotypes are then applied in rebound effect
Limited resources to further suppress application
Perspective taking is when people….
an example is when…
those who did this had a poorer ….
because….
facilitated by writing an ….
after listening to….
having a ….. meeting
- Making active effort to take someone else’s perspective
- white american takes the perspective of a day in the life of a black american
- those who took perspective of black had poorer working memory after,
- because….engaging is effortfull, if too tired and dont have motivation it wont work you wont be able to put yourself in their perspective.
“Imagine a day in the life of this person, looking at the world through their eyes and walking in their shoes.”
Facilitated by:
Writing “a day in the life” essay about a social group member
Listening to interview based on someone’s experiences with discrimination
Having a face-to-face meeting with an outgroup member
perspective taking
effective perspective taking leads to ….
why is it effective? - because it strengthens…. leading to….
however it can backfire for people who…..
and people who….. because of their …
Effective perspective taking…
…..Leads to more positive attitudes about the outgroup overall
Perspective takers exhibit less bias on explicit and implicit evaluations
Why is it effective?
Perspective takers see their experiences overlap with outgroup
…..Strengthens associations between ingroup and outgroup
Leads to internal motivations to reduce bias
However…
……Can backfire for people who strongly identify with their ingroup
Taking the perspective of outgroup may not change prejudiced attitudes
…..lack the depth of knowledge concerning what members of outgroups experience on a daily basis
Can you walk a mile in someone’s shoes… without their shoes?
Lacking knowledge and …….ignorance of injustices
Petzel et al. (2024)
perspective taking needs…..
if we dont know the extent of …. we may not fully ….
when writing …. we are therefore…..
Perspective-taking needs context!
If we do not know extent of the bias experienced by outgroup, we may not fully emulate their perspective
Traditional manipulations (writing essay) are limited by our imagination and do not recreate first-hand experiences
Social identity model of collective action
(van Zomeren et al., 2008)
collective action is when…
3 componensts needed for people to change …
- when an entire group comes together to make change
Actions taken by group to achieve goal (e.g., reducing biases/barriers)
e.g., engagement with equality initiatives, allyship
Precursors to collective action
1- Perceived injustices
2- Strong social identity
3- Self-efficacy/confience
Petzel et al. (2024)
perspective taking
experiment 1 they took the perspective taking of ….
emphasising….
the next experiemnt they blamed….
strenghtening….
and promoting…. which leads to ….
male scientists exposed to…. made the biggest difference
concluding that you do need …
Experiment 1
Perspective-taking (male vs female scientist)
Emphasizing perceived injustices
Experiment 2
Strengthening men’s social identity via blame/guilt (blamed men for these injusticies)
Promoting confidence to address gender inequalities (gave them tools to help with these injusticies) leads to increasing support. (men exposed to tools made more effort to stop injesticies)
exposed to context of inequalities and taking persepctive of a women
context
Petzel et al. (2024) – beyond van Zomeren
also applied to 2 theories
ELM and APE model
ELM=
APA=
Elaboration likelihood model
Central routes- logic based
Peripheral routes- emotion based
APE model
Associative learning-
Propositional learning
Elaboration likelihood model applied to changing steryotypes
2 diferent routes
1) expert used to deliver message was…. which provides evidence for…
2) person delivering message was….
Central routes
Expert sources of information- a white male
Empirical evidence on gender bias
Peripheral routes
Promotion of empathy- female spoke about perspective
Taking perspective of female scientist
APE model applied to changing steryotypes
Changes in propositional beliefs may change associations
- presentation changed their propositional reasoning ( women are stigmatized and shouldnt be)
- cahnging their assosiations
Changes in associations may change propositional beliefs
- taking persepctive of a woman breaks down barriers of in group and out group, leading to stronger connections inn memory of women being in science. sexism is wrong.
Intergroup contact theory is when being in….
- being in contact from somone in an outgroup can reduce prejudice, positive change
limitations of Intergroup contact theory:
may not be effective for people in …
for example=
may not work as people may….
people with high intergroup ….
and people who lack ….
conditions for sucess in intergroup contact include….
may not be effective for people high in prejuduce
= trump, people exp[osed to so much bad stuff about him but because of their extreme prejucice of women/black they still voted for him
avoid contact with members of groups they dont like
anxiety
confidence
Conditions for success in intergroup contact
Equal status between groups
Cooperation in achieving common goals
Acquaintance potential
Institutional support
conditions for sucess in intergroup contact:
Equal status
Groups must have equal status within the contact situation
If status is unequal, members of ingroup may devalue or stigmatize the lower-status outgroup
This is context dependent
E.g., some societies or organizations are more committed to egalitarianism and correcting social inequities than others
conditions for sucess in intergroup contact:
Cooperation
Having members of ingroup and outgroup cooperate on tasks to achieve same goal improves intergroup attitudes
Cooperative contact in team sports leads to improved attitudes
For individual sports, attitudes are unrelated to amount of contact
conditions for sucess in intergroup contact:
Acquaintance potential
Opportunity for members of interacting groups to get to know each other as individuals
Ideally, acquaintance leads to friendship
Intergroup friendships are related to lower prejudice
Quality of friendship more important than quantity
conditions for sucess in intergroup contact:
Institutional support
Authorities or organizations must establish expectation for lower prejudice and less discrimination
Can create structures that facilitates positive intergroup relations
Creates cognitive dissonance
Attitudes can change to match behaviors
But… external motivations?
Effectiveness of intergroup contact
intergroup contact increases….
Increases
Knowledge about outgroups
Empathy for outgroup
Interest in other cultures
Motivation to control prejudice
Limitations of intergroup contact
positive contact is …. and more ….
when its negative can be….
Positive contact is clearly more effective
Is also more common
But when negative contact occurs…
It can be harmful
Reinforces stereotypes
Increases stereotype application
Indirect contact
Three forms of indirect contact
Extended Contact
Media Contact
Imagined Contact
indirect contact:
Extended contact is…
assosiated with lower … and reduced….
demonstrates ….
shows outgroup members are …
Having an ingroup friend who has outgroup friend(s) is associated with lower prejudice and reduced intergroup anxiety
Demonstrates intergroup relationships are permissible and possible
Shows outgroup members are open to such relationships
Indirect contact
Media contact is…
positive portrayals in media can ….
woekds for …
its a form of …
Seeing outgroups in media is a form of extended contact
Positive portrayals in the media can improve intergroup attitudes
Works for “real life” and fictional characters
Watching characters in media is a form of perspective taking
Indirect contact:
Imagined contact is …
rehearsal plays a key role in…
allows people to develop…
Mentally practicing a “positive, relaxed, and comfortable” first meeting with an outgroup member
Rehearsal these interactions plays a key role in self-regulation of emotions and planning of behavior during potential contact
Allows people to develop a script for the interaction
Imagined contact reduces…
negative….
physiological….
imagined contact increases….
but is less effective than …
Negative intergroup emotions and anxiety
Physiological arousal in response to intergroup contact
Increases perspective-taking
May be less effective than face-to-face contact
How does contact work?:
Personalization
- Intergroup contact reduces prejudice if people see members of the outgroup as ….
- leads to more … and less…
- Awareness that members of both ingroup and outgroup have complex social identities lessens the….
Intergroup contact reduces prejudice if people see members of the outgroup as individuals (i.e., individuation)
Leads to more liking and less prejudice toward the outgroup
Awareness that members of both ingroup and outgroup have complex social identities lessens the importance of group boundaries
How does contact work?:
Salient categorization
- Positive attitudes generated by contact will generalize to the group only if the outgroup members are seen as ….
- Categories must remain salient if….
- Outgroup members must be seen as ….
Positive attitudes generated by contact will generalize to the group only if the outgroup members are seen as … typical of their group
Categories must remain salient if positive attitudes are to apply beyond the immediate contact situation
Outgroup members must be seen as typical of their group and still disconfirm aspects of the group stereotype
How does contact work?:
Common ingroup identity is when…
however majority group members may assume… …
Ingroup and outgroup members recategorize themselves into a single group that shares a common identity
However…
Assume other (minority) group will take on their group’s norms and values (assimilation perspective)
Essay examples
Using relevant theory, propose an effective strategy to reduce bias towards outgroup members. How may you best promote engagement with this intervention?
How does increasing intergroup contact reduce prejudiced attitudes? Discuss how real versus imagined contact may improve interactions with outgroup members.
social factors which may affect health
lecture 8
macro-social influences
Poverty and SES
Social capital and loneliness
mechanisms for gender and racial health disparities
Stereotype threat
Discrimination (experienced and anticipated)
Confounding variables (e.g., low SES among Black Americans)
impact of daily stressors on our health and self-control
Daily hassles
Self-control failure/ego-depletion
social factors which may affect health:
Macro-social influences
what are they?
examples?
baby example=
Large-scale social, economic, political, and cultural forces that influence the life course of people simultaneously/ everyone at the same time :
Actions and policies of governmental organizations
Cultures eg. gender roles
Historical legacies eg. Civil Rights Movements
Organized religions eg. ramadam
Multinational corporations and banks eg. global trade
Unpredictable, large-scale environmental events eg. natural disasters/climate change
baby= Where a baby is born and mother’s access to water, food and education, determine whether the baby lives or dies
Sierra Leone baby has only 72% chance of reaching age 5 compared to Japanese with 96% chance.
Each individual human is a creation of genetics, environmental experience, and the interaction between the two
real world issue with macro-social influences
Dominant public health policy assumes individuals are responsible for their own health
Illness due to personal lifestyle is seen as fault of the individual, not a consequence of macro-social influences
social factors which may affect health:
poverty
what % of the worlds population live in low or middle income countries?
what % of the worlds population lack access to medical care and essential drugs?
major impacts of poverty caused by the absense of…….
Approximately 70% of world’s population live in low or middle income countries
Half of the world’s population lack access to medical care and essential drugs
Other major impacts of poverty caused by the absence of:
Safe water
Sanitation
Adequate diet
Housing
Basic education
social factors which may affect health::
socio-economic status (SES)
what is it?
higher =
Measure of wealth, education, and status
Higher SES = better health and longer life expectancy
social factors which may affect health:
Social capital and lonliness
what is it?
eg=
it provides=
greater social capital=
its the Social relationships you have as resources
eg=
Community engagement eg. A neighborhood organizing a fundraiser for local schools.
it provides:
Trust and safety
Reciprocity (if i help you now will you help me later?)
Diversity ( thrives wit diversity, ppl from diferent backgrounds)
Certain communities have greater social capital and often have more positive health outcomes
gender differences:
lifespan=
illness type=
Men die earlier than women, but women have poorer health
In less developed countries, men still live longer than women
Women suffer more non-fatal illnesses and hospitalized more often
Women have twice the rate of depression compared to men
Men have higher rates of injuries, suicides, homicides, and heart disease
Gender differences
Psychosocial and lifestyle differences among women:
aka. what do women have to go through that med dont?
Childbirth
Rape
Domestic violence
Sexism
Work inequalities
Concern about weight
Divided attention between roles of parent and worker
mechanisms for gender and racial health disparities
Gender stereotypes
men are more likley to ….
women are more likley to ….
Biological justifications for these social constructs?
Social constructs of masculinity and femininity affect health behaviors
…Men are more likely than women to adopt risky behaviours
…Women are more likely to engage in health-protective behaviours
Neurosexism
why is gender steryotyes a thing?
what is Neurosexism?
its used to ….
Assumption that differences between males and females from brain development and Socialization (culture and environment) are not responsible.
…justify and explain stereotypes
Not just for gender!
Biology used as justification for several biases
why is gender steryotyes a thing?
assumption behind Neurosexism is that
specific hypothesis is that =
also evidence that = ….. however….
sex hormones in the brain shape your ability
= High levels of fetal testosterone inhibit the physical growth of the left hemisphere, making it smaller than the right hemisphere (men have smaller left hemishphere making worse at language) BUT THIS IS NOT ALWAYS THE CASE
The corpus callosum has been observed to be larger in females compared to males but then more info came out saying:
Differences in corpus callosum size may be explained by the total size of the brain, rather than biological sex
Individuals with smaller-sized brains have larger corpus callosum compared to individuals with larger brains, regardless of sex
So if you get a man who’s shorter with a smaller sized brain, they’re indistinguishable from a female brain of the same height and brain size.
mental rotation:
is when you …
whos better at it? men or women?
is it because of biology?
show image then rotate it and have to guess which one is the same
men are better
no! it depends on whether or not you played with lego when you were younger. boys are given them more than girls.
women in stem more likley to have been given those toys compared to women in arts.
neurosexism vs socialisation
the role of socialization
eg.
Brain development affected by social interactions and culture
Several sex differences can be eliminated with learning
- Males’ spatial skills advantage can be eliminated by training females with tools such as building blocks and video games
- Encouraging boys to create imaginary social situations using action figures or dolls can reduce gender differences in emotionality
Importance of early childhood socialization in gender differences in skills, namely toys
- Important figures in children’s lives enforce gender stereotypes by offering their approval or disapproval of toy preference
- Many girls choose to play with dolls and toy houses, engaging in stereotypically domestic-related activities
- Boys are encouraged to engage in physical activities such as building blocks, designing racetracks for toy cars
- These gendered play behaviors support the development of gender stereotyped skills and traits
Emotion expressivity and language development in females from caring for dolls and interacting with friends in games of fantasy
Boys develop spatial skills from building and manipulating objects
Race/ethnicity
the health of minority groups is generally……
due to:
The health of minority groups is generally poorer than that of the majority of the population
Racism- direct experience of discrimination
Ethnocentrism- expected to adorpt majority ingroups norms, removing what makes you unique
SES- lower ses
Genetics-
Racism is when….
discrimination in the health care system….
being discriminated is….
Minority racial and ethnic groups are the subject of discrimination at a number of different levels
Discrimination in the health care system reduces access to the system and poorer levels of communication- immigrant, may be bias that doctors have agaisnt you, and barriers to communication eg. language. may not be motivated to communicate effectivley.
Racism-related stress a predictor of poor health- being discriminated agsinst is a stresfull experience
Racism and stress
(activation of HPA axis)
what is HPA axis?
short term consequences=
long term consequences=
Direct, short-term consequences- direct discrimination to you
Activation of HPA axis- HPA axis= our stress responce, releases cortisol in blood, causing increase BP, HR, stops insulin increasing blood glucose. (HPA activity is good, gives you extra energy when needed, eg, spike in morning to get you out of bed) however if all the time, long term consequences. Heightened blood pressure and Excess cortisol release.
Chronic, long-term consequences of this causes:
Blunted stress response- dont release enough cortisol overtime to stressful situations
Changes in HPA responsiveness, body gives up with HPA axis…
Chronic inflammation (interleukins)- makes immune system weaker. fatigue. develop more of a tolerance to stress.
Racism and stress
Behavioral adaptations
Maladaptive coping mechanisms include….
Maladaptive coping mechanisms
Alcohol and substance abuse- help you feel better, low SES also effects this.
it Has received most attention However, research mixed.
Sources of stress
Acute stress response via discrimination….
Anticipation of future discrimination…
Acute stress response via discrimination
Fight or flight
Cardiovascular activity (HPA axis)
Anticipation of future discrimination… (just as damaging)
Anxiety for future racism/sexism
Anticipatory stress and rumination (constantly thinking of same negative thoughts)
Dysregulates homeostasis
Other issues related to health
Health services and health promotion unofficially favors the needs of …..
Race is strongly linked with….
environment= Minority ethnic groups are more likely to live in and work in….
genetics= Genetic differences between groups that lead to… eg. …
…..majority over minority groups, Often ignore cultural, lifestyle and language differences
…. with SES
Studies of race and health generally control for SES, and race-related differences frequently disappear after adjustment for SES
Environment
…. unhealthy environments because of their lower SES. eg cheaper food worse for you.
Genetics:
…. differing inheritance of disease or health-related traits
Inherited epigenetic changes for stress response
Sickle cell disorder affecting people of African-Caribbean descent (due to its evolutionary link to malaria resistance.)
asian, enzymes related to alchahol, to develop alchahol use disorder.
Stigma is a …
if you have a stigma more likley to have….
through ….
this all leads to….
…. Devalued social identity
…. Unfavourable reactions towards people when they are perceived to possess attributes that are undesirable
Source of:
Physical and psychological stress
Denial of employment opportunities
Restricted access to services eg. health care, black vs white get given different meds for heart disease, white get better with less side effects.
Social exclusion
steryotype threat
Stigma can affect health and lead to …
which is the fear of …. being…
it leads to …
tested amougst …. and ….
Stereotype threat
Fear of confirming to negative stereotype about group(… self concious to confirming to steryotypes, because you care so much you tend to confirm the steryotype anyway by accident)
Heightened cardiovascular reactivity, Disengagement and anxiety
… Often experienced among women in STEM/racial minorities
Stereotypes about math ability (women) or intelligence (racial minorities)
Undermine performance and can promote maladaptive stress responses
Stereotype threat exampple study
Spencer et al. (1999)
maths test=
tell them no gender differences… this….
tell them there are gender differences… this…
Spencer et al. (1999) – Study 2
tell Men and women before they do a test theres no gender differences= they do the same, disconfirming steryotypes
then tell them that men do better= women did alot worse (steryotype threat, started second guessing themselves) and booste in performance in med ( steryotype lift, promote confidence if there told their better)
Physiological stress response
HPA axis
Vick et al. (2008)
looked at blood pressure
in the gender bias maths test=
in the gender neutral test=
Vick et al. (2008)
Similar paradigm as Spencer et al. (1999)
Stereotype threat impacts physiology,
looking at blood poressure before maths test
tell men there rlly good (gender differences in test) , their BP dropped and little increase in womens BP
gender neurtral test= womens BP lowered and mens went up rappidly ( as we removed their saftey blanket of them being better)
The cost of caring
When do we experience stereotype threat?
When do we experience stereotype threat?
if women didnt care about there gender, their performace wasnt much different to men, the more you care and value social idendityy, the more likley you will be effected by steryotypes.
Highly identify with gender/race
Situation which highlight stereotypes
Stereotype threat example
(Stricker & Ward, 2004)
Marking gender after (as compared to before) an AP test (e.g., A levels) led to ….
…. led to 33% reduction in the gender gap in performance (Stricker & Ward, 2004)
Environmental cues
how masculine environment vs neutral effects women in stem
showing…
Cheryan et al. (2009) – Study 1
looked at….
found….
womens in a neutral enviromnent interest in STEM went up
womens interest in STEM went down when in masculine environment.
dont reduce mens interests in neutral, men dont get impacted only women. women have acctually more interest than men in neutral enviroment
… Gendered environments are non-inviting
Underrepresentation of stigmatized groups in marketing
Cheryan et al. (2009) – Study 1
Men and women
Computer science classroom
Stereotypical versus non-stereotypical
found= women: Showed less interest in computer science when exposed to the stereotypical classroom, likely due to feeling that they did not “fit” the stereotype associated with the environment.
Further costs of stereotype threat includes…
steryotype threat requires high….
prolonged suppresion leads to….
example= Inzlicht et al. (2006)
Self-control failure
Stereotype threat requires high self-monitoring and prolonged suppression of emotions and behavior, impacting subsequent control egodepletiion
Inzlicht et al. (2006)
Women told to complete math test after being told men do better…
if women were threatened , less likley to hold onto a hand grip after, because dealing with steryotypes requires mental effort, need self control, so it diminishes this after the test.
Other sources of stress
Holmes and Rahe Social Readjustment Rating Scale
Holmes and Rahe Social Readjustment Rating Scale is a scale of all the things which cause stress eg. divorce, dealth to stuff like going on holiday….
Daily hassles
Everyday inconveniences or frustrations
Experience several of these throughout the day
Low-levels of stress which are additive
Accounts for majority of stress we experience
Examples of daily hassles
Daily Hassles Scale= Concern about weight
Concern about health of family member
Not enough money for housing
College Daily Hassles Scale= Increased class workload
Review for exams
Troubling thoughts about the future
Fight with partner
Acculturative Daily Hassles for Children= it bothers me when people force me to be like everyone else
i dont feel at home here in the uk
Other sources of stress
too much stress leads to…. which is when….
causes of this can be….
Burnout
Exhaustion and depletion of emotional and physical resources
Pessimism, demonstrating negative or overly detached attitudes
Causes of burnout
Overwhelming amount of work
Feeling lack of control
Large emotional component of job
Self-control failure
what can cause self control failure?
it leads to …
promotes rewarding behaviours such as…
Extended stress can reduce self-control
Poor decision making
Promotes rewarding behaviors:
Overeating
Alcohol use
Risk-taking
Why is self-control important?
Muraven et al. (2002)
Thought suppression (i.e., white bear)
conclusion=
Muraven et al. (2005)
Participants kept daily diary
conclusion=
Muraven et al. (2002)
Thought suppression (i.e., white bear)
Simple arithmetic (control condition)
Assessed alcohol consumption
those doing more taxing tasks drank more
Muraven et al. (2005)
Participants kept daily diary
Assessed:
Daily hassles
Alcohol consumption
Intended limits on drinking
if self control demands exceeded expectations, more likley to drink even when they wanted to limit drinking compared to those who didnt have demads exceeded.
Essay examples
Why might stigmatized social groups experience poorer health compared to privileged social groups? Discuss relevant evidence and theory to support your answer.
Discuss how daily stressors may undermine our attempts to make health decisions. What processes may explain our inability to resist temptation?
who invented the term social neuroscience -
lecture 9
john cacioppo
social neuroscience:
we can rely on behavioural tasks to capure some aspects of ….
but limited….
outcomes make ….
other measures that assess sensitive topics are ….
because of …..
…… biases not always captured by ….
Behavioral tasks useful in capturing some aspects of attitudes
Limited in the ability to capture processes leading up to behavior
Outcomes make assumptions about the underlying processes
Other measures which assess sensitive topics are limited
Self-reports plagued with social desirability issues
Unconscious/implicit biases not always captured by explicit measures
eg drugs.
eg. gender inequality,
Social neuroscience is - using brain to measure….
less concerned with….
applies….
allows for…
avoids….
and has ….
Using the brain to measure social behavioral processes
Less concerned with complex cognitive processes and theory
Applies basic cognitive neuroscience to understand the underlying processes of social behaviors (e.g., stereotyping)
Allows for measuring processes before and after behavior
No social desirability
Greater accuracy
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (tms)
is…..
uses…..
can deactivate….
clarifies roles ….
non-invasive technique that can be applied to humans
Uses magnetic coil to induce voltage in brain tissue
Can deactivate areas of the cortex
Clarifies role of these areas in addiction
Transcranial direct stimulation (tDCS)
what does it do?
can be used to ….
eg.
eg. Sellaro et al. (2015)
tried to make ppl less….. by…
found if you have an annodal stim=
tells us =
new, similar to tms but easier to use.
put annode and cathode on head, and transfers an electrical current between the two spots in your head. can be used to increase or decrease electrical activity.
use for substance use disorders, depression
eg. in netherlands, how to make ppl less prejuduce by adding this electrical current to parts of the brain assosiated with control- PFC.
if you have annodal stimulation (positive) increasing AP= it scores go down, less prejudice because increasing strenght of self control.
stopping orejucide requires self-control,
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans ….
gives a detailed …..
does not tell you….
Scans measure the radio-frequency waves emitted by hydrogen atoms when they are subjected to a strong magnetic field
Gives detailed structure of the brain, does not tell you which parts of the brain are necessarily active in the moment
Functional MRI (fMRI) indirectly measures…. through…
measures….
not immediate it measures ,…
bold
Using MRI methodology, fMRI indirectly measures brain activity through changes in blood follow that accompany neural activity
Measures activation of brain regions during tasks or after perceiving stimuli
After something has happened. within seconds
Increase in oxygen consumption in area of the brain active
There is increased blood flow to the oxygen deficient area
Wherever this increase is found, we assume that part was active
BOLD (Blood Oxygen Level Dependent) response
Dehumanization is when….
we process on a neural level ppl…..
could be reason for..
measure this in lab using…….. scale
given dif …
to prevent ….. we then use:
- FFA=
located in…
it ….
damage causes…
dehumanization severs the….
triggers….
leads to …..
Outgroups are not believed to share the basic human physical features that characterize the ingroup eg. outgroups not human
differently based on group membership and we dont encode members of outgroup as humans so treat them different.
Could be reason for moral exclusion
Ascent-Dehumanization Scale
Social groups rated from 0 (Least Human) to 100 (Most Human)
if rate below human- dehumanize them.
social desirability
Fusiform face area (FFA) (face processing area)
Located in temporal lobe
Processing facial information
Damage causes inability to recognize:
Faces
Shapes
Objects
severs the empathic bonds that people usually feel for one another
Triggers indifference, callousness, and inattention to others’ pain
Leads to dislike or hatred of dehumanized group
Moral justification/exceptions
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
is good as its ….
it records…..
good … resolution but bad ….. resolution
instant…..
best used to detect changes in ….
alpha waves means your ….
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
affordable
Records combined activity from many neurons using electrodes
Good temporal resolution but poor spatial resolution
Instant neural activity
No idea where it is coming from
Best used to detect changes in emotions, motivation, or arousal
delta gamma= slow
beta alpha= faster
.. awake
using eeg to measure motivation:
difference in activity between…..
assessed via….
greater left activity=
greater right activity=
using … waves
Difference in activity between the left and right frontal lobes
Assessed via EEG frequencies
Greater LEFT activity = approach (reward)
Greater RIGHT activity = avoidance (inhibition)
using alpha waves
using eeg to measure motivation:
Schmeichel et al. (2016)
Manipulated …..
participents viewed…..
looked at how….
increased…. when people are fatigued.
Manipulated self-control
Participants viewed positive versus negative images
look at how then people’s brains shifted when they looked at positive or negative images.
increase in left frontal cortical activity when people fatigued
Measured approach (reward) motivations via EEG
Event related potentials (ERPs)
pattern of an…..
average of the ….
cancels out…..
payttern of activity which …..
Pattern of an electrical response recorded after an event (eg viewing image), which can include the perception of a stimuli or a response to a stimuli
Average of the EEG over several stimulus presentations
Cancels out the “noise” of the brain’s other activity
Pattern of activity which represents cognitive process
ERP=
Error-related negativity (ERN)
links to …
occurs ….. ms after response
negative…..
greater …..
index of engagement….
controlled..
reflects use of …
eg used in the ….
self- control
Occurs 50-80 milliseconds after response
Negative deflection ( when you realise you have done something wrong, ahhhh moment)
Greater amplitudes after errors
Index of engagement of inhibition
Controlled processes!
Reflects use of self-control- slower reaction times.
higher amplitude= more control
weapons identification task.
‘oh no ive just been racist’
N170
Occurs ~……. milliseconds after viewing stimuli
Negative ……
Index of …..
Higher amplitude =……
Not just humans, anything with f……
Dog experts = enhanced N170 to …..
Me = enhanced N170 to …..
N170
similart aplitudes for ….. but when they were told to just focus on racial categorisation……
When we’re motivated to individuate someone…..
But when we’re using top down processing, which people who are highly….
N170
Occurs ~170 milliseconds after viewing stimuli
Negative deflection
Index of facial processing
Higher amplitude = greater processing
Not just humans, anything with familiarity
Dog experts = enhanced N170 to dogs
Me = enhanced N170 to guitars/cats
So they had similar amplitudes for black and white faces.But when they were told to just focus on racial categorisation, We have an increased and 170 amplitudes, white faces and a decreased amplitude to black faces.
When we’re motivated to individuate someone, we’re going to engage this facial processing for anyone. But when we’re using top down processing, which people who are highly prejudiced tend to do,the first thing they categorise is probably race or whatever overarching category they have these prejudice attitudes in,
Peripheral nervous system
autonomic….
controls…
….. movements
Autonomic nervous system:
Controls smooth muscles
Stomach
Blood vessels
Heart
And more!
Involuntary movements
dont need ti know
hpa axis Sympathetic-Adrenal-Medullary (SAM) axis is a….
it stimulates….
electrical impulses down….
stimulates….
such as …. and ….
short term release to ….
fights agaisnt the …. nerve
…. activity
is a short term stress responce
Stimulates sympathetic nervous system (fight/flight)
QUICK!
Electrical impulse down spinal cord
Stimulates hormone release
Adrenaline (epinephrine)
Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)
Short-term response to stress
Fights against the vagus nerve!
Parasympathetic activity
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) axis
Stimulates ……..(fight/flight)
SLOW!
……. response to stress
Hormones released into ……..
……. (slow)
Stimulates hormone release …….
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) axis
Stimulates sympathetic nervous system (fight/flight)
SLOW!
Long-term response to stress
Hormones released into bloodstream from pituitary gland
Neuropeptides (slow)
Stimulates hormone release in adrenal glands
Cortisol!
Cortisol
Promotes release of ……
Inhibits …….
Narrows ….. increases ….
Epinepherine (adrenaline) released, causing ……..
Requires heart to pump blood with……
Usually …. under normal circumstances
Prolonged/chronic stress can extend …..
Promotes release of glucose (blood sugar)
Inhibits insulin, which helps store glucose
Narrows arteries (increases blood pressure)
Epinepherine (adrenaline) released, causing heart to beat faster
Requires heart to pump blood with more force (and faster)
Usually temporary under normal circumstances
Prolonged/chronic stress can extend activation
Extended cortisol release…
Supresses …..
Suppresses functions of ……
a…..
d……
Sexual …..
Cardiovascular ….
Heart begins to ….
Blood vessel …..
Extended cortisol release…
Supresses immune system
Suppresses functions of parasympathetic nervous system
Anxiety
Digestion
Sexual dysfunction
Cardiovascular disease
Heart begins to wear
Blood vessel damage
Electrocardiogram (ECG) measures …
heart rate
and heart rate variability (fluctuation of heart)
Heart produces electrical signals
Electrodes capture depolarization of ventricles
Represented as points on ECG waveform
QRS complex
Impedance cardiography (ICG)
Estimates changes in …….
How much …….
Volume of ……
Electrodes placed on……
Outer sensors send ……
Inner sensors detect ……
As blood volume…….
Estimates changes in blood flow in the heart
How much blood ejected during each heart beat
Volume of blood (stroke volume)
Electrodes placed on torso
Outer sensors send electrical current
Inner sensors detect resistance of current
As blood volume increases, resistance increases!
blood pressure
Systolic blood pressure=
Diastolic blood pressure=
Systolic blood pressure
Peak arterial pressure
Amount of effort
Diastolic blood pressure
Lowest arterial pressure
Resting pressure
Challenge versus threat
physiological responce=
stressor vs resources
Challenge:
Positive physiological stress response
Resources exceed demands of stressor
Threat:
Negative physiological response
Demands of stressor exceed resources
essay examples
What are common issues which affect self-report and behavioral measures? How may neuroscience methods address these issues?
Compare and contrast two neuroscience methods and how they may be applied to research in social psychology. What are the potential advantages and limitations of these methods?
Industrial/Organizational Psychology (I/O) is…
its…
uk call it…
lecture 10
psychology of the work place
its fast growing
uk call it occupational psychology
the I is ….
the O is….
examples=
- industrial (personnel) =practical day to day stuff
(Job Analysis
Legal issues in Employee Selection
Recruiting & Interviewing
Psychological Testing
Performance Evaluation
Training Systems
Design of Workspaces
Work Motivation
Job Stress)
- organizational= aethereal theoretical stuff
(Workplace Diversity
Individual Differences
Organizational Structure, Culture, Change
Communication
Leadership & Management Style
Work Teams & Group Dynamics
Decision Making & Problem Solving
Power, Politics, Conflict,
Negotiation
Job Satisfaction)
SIOP conference=
biggest conference in this field
most topics about EDI, inclusion, personality and 100’s more.
prevelence of I/O psychology:
approx…% of psychologists work in I/O
….. proffesional members of SIOP in ….
gender ratio=
lots of …
one of the …
projected growth rate of …
still is …
its …. in most…
highest….
M.s=
PHD=
Approximately 6% of psychologists work in I/O
10,000 professional members of SIOP in 2017
50%male/female
Many international members
One of the fastest growing careers between 2012-2022
Projected growth rate of 53% (U.S. Department of Labor, 2014)
However, still a widely ‘unknown’ career path
I/O is underrepresented in most undergraduate curriculums
Highest average income of all psychology disciplines in US
M.S. = $85,000 per year
PhD = $119,000 per year
carrer in I/O has:
4 Broad career options (although, many more exist)
Consulting (1- Internal/ 2- external)
3- Academia
4- Government / Research
Training in I/O
degree needed?
dont need…
BPA qualification- masters from approved programme.
an I/O degree to practice I/O?
usual carrer path needs…
bachelors degree (3 years)
masters degree (1 year)
doctoral degree (3 years+)
example of different programmes
I/O vs Business postgrad training
I/O psychology:
Research methods
Quantitative methods
Employee selection
Organizational psychology
Psychometrics
Employee training and development
Performance appraisal
Job analysis
typical business programmes:
Finance
Marketing
Organizational behavior
Corporate strategies & policies
Accounting
Information systems
Economics
Operations management
Thinking like an I/O
being an I/O involves….
model used…
factors that undermine this…
being a scientist and also practicing and applyying to real world settings.
use…
Scientist-practitioner model:
The scientific method as basis for knowledge generation and development of interventions
The medical/clinical field is a good example of this
Several factors undermine scientist-practitioner model:
Lack of data for practitioners
Academics not answering applied questions
Practitioners not being rewarded for research
Real-world time pressures
So what is the point of I/O?
to help….
decisions surrounding..
to make company…
have to balance…
Help organizations make good decisions
Decisions surrounding human capital eg:
Skills, expertise, wellbeing, etc. of workforce
to make company more profitable
… this cost and efficiency
Early I/O work
the first studies=
partnership between ….
looked at….
found….
explain?…
takaway?…
The Hawthorne Studies
Partnership between Harvard psychologists and Western Electric
Studies aimed at applying science to increase efficiency without raising costs:
looked at:
- lighting
found:
- Productivity increased when light increased, decreased, or held constant!
what? explain?
- productivity only increased because they were being observed! - confounding variable.
Not many takeaways… but demonstrated feasibility of I/O!
Job attitudes
I/O can measure….
Commonly studied job attitudes
Job satisfaction
Commitment
Employee engagement or involvement
Organizational support/justice
Job satisfaction is the…
an overal…
a good predictor of….
The degree of pleasure an employee derives from their job
An overall evaluation of favorability
A good predictor of:
Job performance
Turnover/absences
Overall health (depression, anxiety, psychological distress)
Commitment
3 types of job attatchment=
3 types of job attachment (Allen & Meyer, 1990)
1- Affective- acceptance of the organisational goals and values, taking those on as your own/ internalising of the organisation. (internal motivation)
2- Calculative/continuance- It’s this idea that you’re better off continuing on because of the time you’ve invested is better than starting over somewhere else. (cost effect)
3- Normative- social pressures, external motivation drilled into you, So you act in a way because you feel pressured to, not because necessarily you feel like you want to. (external motivation)
Correlated with:
Job satisfaction
Turnover
Job performance
Selection:
is the process of…
goal is…
sucess…
stable…
presence of…
could be…
The process of learning about an individual to make an inference
Goal is prediction of future behaviors
Success in past situations = success in future
Stable, individual differences predict future behavior
Presence of suitable motivations
Anticipated performance a function of motivation and ability
Could be most skilled applicant, but must also demonstrate motivation!
Selection:
Accurate prediction based on:
Data should be collected to empirically show linkages:
Accurate prediction based on:
- Correctly linking predictors with job criteria
- Relies on job analysis (list of required tasks and knowledge/skills)
- Theoretical linkage between must be made between constructs
- Accurately measuring predictors and criteria
- Reliability, validity, contamination, deficiency
Data should be collected to empirically show linkages:
- Needs theory to guide interpretation of results
- Real-world pressures may undermine empirical approach
selection:
how to pick the right candidate?
factors include…
Approaches to measuring knowledge/skills:
Past experiences/accomplishments
- Education, rewards, job experience, references
Direct demonstration
- Job knowledge tests, job simulations, assessment centers, job try-out/internship
Indirect construct measurement
- Personality tests, cognitive ability tests, integrity tests, interviews
Future-oriented skill assessment
- Measuring for the potential to develop skills in the future
- Cognitive ability, adaptability, flexibility, learning orientation
selection:
common measures=
Machiavellianism=
Narcissism=
psychopathy=
Cognitive ability
‘g’, intelligences, logical reasoning
Job knowledge
Personality
Big 5 (NEOAC), dark triad (Machiavellianism, narcissism, psychopathy)
Integrity
Physical ability
Emotional intelligence
Situational Judgement
Machiavellianism – get your way by manipulating others, acquire and use political power
Narcissism – high degree of self importance, control others and be admired
Psychopathy – lack of concern for others
selection=
other measures
Other measures
Resumes
Employment references
Drug testing
Work samples
Job tryouts (e.g., internship, probation, apprenticeship)
Polygraph
Social network data mining
personality inventories=
eg=
myers-briggs (low validity)
trade off is its much cheaper.
The big five in the workplace
OCEAN
Desirable traits for good person-job fit:
Openness: willingness to embrace new ideas and new situations
May adjust better to organizational change
Linked to higher creativity and adaptability
Conscientiousness: follows through and gets things done
Strongest predictor of job performance
Too much can be a bad thing
Extraversion: A outgoing, talkative, and sociable as well as enjoys social situations
Linked to higher performance in sales and management
Related to social interactions and persuasion
Agreeableness: Being a nice person in general
Effective in jobs requiring cooperation and helpfulness
Neuroticism: tendency to be anxious or moody
Emotional stability relates to stress coping
Also strong predictor of job performance
working in teams
Recently, many organizations are moving to team-based structures
Technology much better now because of covid
Work distributed across time and location
Many organizations need to be adaptive and respond quickly to changes
Pooling knowledge/skills has many advantages
Working with others can be motivating and fulfilling
Teams have advantages; however they require effort, planning, and monitoring to succeed!
Working in teams
advantages=
challanges=
Advantages:
Can make better decisions, products/services
Better information sharing
Increase employee motivation/engagement
More flexibility
More motivation
Challenges:
Extra resources needed for team maintenance
Social loafing – members potentially exert less effort in teams than alone
Groupthink and polarization – shifting to extreme options, maintaining harmony
Potential for unhealthy conflict
Working in teams:
Social loafing is…
why?…
Effort reduced when performing in group rather than alone
Why?
Low accountability
High expected effort from others
High perceived dispensability
Tasks that lack personal meaning
working in groups:
Group polarizationis …
Groupthink is…
Group polarization:
The tendency for group discussion to shift group members toward an extreme position
Groupthink:
The tendency toward flawed group decision-making when group members are so intent on preserving group harmony they fail to analyze a problem completely
What is an effective team member?
5 C’s
Effective team members must be willing to work on team
Effective members possess specific competencies(5 C’s in diagram):
- coorperating
- conflict resolving
- comforting
- comunicating
- coordinating
Improving teams:
Use of team roles…
- A set of behaviors that people are expected to perform
- Some formally assigned; others informally
- Informal role assignment occurs during team development and is related to personal characteristics
eg the producer, the organiser etc…
Designing the best team depends on the type of task:
Type of task:
Complex tasks= divisible people with specialized roles (if assigned)
Well-structured tasks = easier to coordinate (requires resources)
Higher task interdependence=
Team members must share materials, information, or expertise
Teams usually perform better because high interdependence (a) requires better communication/coordination and (b) motivates team membership
Levels of task interdependence
high = reciprocal
middle= sequential
low= pooled
Designing the best team:
team size:
…. are better as…
Smaller teams are better because:
Need less time to coordinate roles and resolve differences
Require less time to develop
More engaged with team – know the members
Feel more responsible for team’s success
But team must be large enough to accomplish task
The role of an I/O to figure this out…
Designing the best team:
diversity
diversity is good because:
View problems/alternatives from different perspectives
Broader knowledge base
Better representation of team’s constituents
However… may take longer to become a high-performing team
Leadership:
Being a good leader requires
-Recognition and monitoring of the situation
-Adapting behaviors and style to meet current demands
-This requires having many tools/approaches at your disposal
Leadership is not a role, it is a set of behaviors and skills
A team can have one leader who is held accountable for leadership OR
Everyone can engage in different aspects of leadership (shared)
We often distinguish between leadership and management
Both are important, but have different connotations
leadership:
Early leadership research focused on two ideas
Trait theories:
Leaders are born, not made
We identify specific traits that make someone a good leader
E.g., intelligence, personality, being energetic, charismatic, etc
Behavioral theories:
Leaders can be made
Leadership is about applying behaviors which can be learned
E.g., organizing ideas, setting goals, monitoring performance and providing feedback
Maybe both?
Integrated model of leadership
Types of leadership
Power and influence approaches= lead by telling people what to do
Contingency approach= need to be flxecible and adaptive, dif leadership styles.
Transformational Leadership
Leader-Member Exchange Theory
Authentic vs servant leadership
Developed by Social Psychologists
Power and influence approaches to leadership:
French and Raven (1960s)
power is important:
differentiate different Types of power
Coercive Power= This is when forcing someone, even though, they don’t want to do it. Many dictators uses this power. It is also a form of power that allows someone to be advanced in their career. Demands should be legal and respectful, this helps the employee to accomplish, what they didn’t want to do.
Reward Power= This can be a promotion or raise. These people give reward, when someone has worked hard. The sacrifice has to be worth it.
Legitimate Power= It is a person who is credible. In a company, the longer you were in company means the higher ranking you are in. People shows power by showing how capable to take onresponsibilitiesin the company.
Expert Power= This power is based on someone’s education, skills and knowledge. Professionals have to develop skills that makes them an ‘expert’.They need to bemaintainedand keep educating themselves to order to succeed.
Influence is applying power to change attitudes or behavior
Contingency approach to leadership
Fielder (1972)
Leadership approaches assuming fixed styles were least effective
Situations and employees variable, adjustment and flexibility needed!
Transformational Leadership Theory
describes 3 types of leadership:
Transformational Leadership is…
Transactional Leadership is…
Laissez-faire Leadership is…
its basically….
Transformational Leadership:
leadership through a process of inspiring a group to pursue goals and attain results
Leadership builds and communicates a clear vision, empowers followers to make transformations
Leaders instil confidence and high self-expectations in followers
Transactional Leadership:
Leadership through allocation of rewards/consequences in exchange for behaviors
More effective if clear goals and expectations, constant monitoring of performance, and consistent continencies
Laissez-faire Leadership:
Non-leadership, where responsibility is deflected and followers are on their own
Only linked to negative outcomes
self- determination theory
Transformational Leadership Theory
examples of 3 types leaderships
transformational:
- charming, able to inspire – generate emotional reactions in followers. Transcends logic alone
-Leading by example – doing while saying
- Motivate and inspire to pursue challenging work.
- Stimulate followers intellect, creativity, and questioning assumptions
- Pay attention to each follower’s needs
transactional :
- Self explanatory
- Actively seek problems/mistakes and provide punishment
laizze-faire:
- Wait for mistakes, then punish
Leader-Member Exchange Theory of leadership
we have social ….
make … and ….
focuses on…
does not assume…
1).
2).
what leads to …/…..?
high quality relationships related to….
we have social groups outside of work, in an organization we also have diferent social groups.
make in-groups and out-groups
Focuses on the dyadic relationship between leaders and followers
Does not assume that the leader has the same relationship with each “follower”
1) Members of “in-group” have high-quality relationship with leader
- In group members are highly empowered and motivated
- In exchange they get more attention and support from leaders
2) Members of “out-group” have a more formal relationship with leader
- Leader more likely to use formal sources of authority
- Members take on routine tasks
What leads to in-group/out-group relationship?
- Competence and skill
- Trustworthiness
- Perceived similarity
High-quality relationships related to:
- Positive work attitudes, pro-organizational behaviors, less turnover
- Less likely to resist organizational change
But what about “out-group” members?…
Authentic leadership=
Servant leadership=
Authentic leadership
Good leaders are genuine and transparent in their actions
Make decisions in unbiased ways, solicit other opinions and ideas
Strong morals/values, even when posed with ethical dilemmas
Servant leadership
Good leaders put the needs of others ahead of their own
Lead to more loyalty to leader than the organization
Organizational Culture=
Organizational Culture aka. the environment/culture
The language, values, attitudes, beliefs, and customs of organization
eg. innovation, stability, respect etc…
Cultural artifacts are…
examples=
tangible or intangible elements that represent and influence a company’s culture
Stories and legends
Social prescriptions of desired (or dysfunctional) behavior
“Realistic” example of organization’s expectations
Most effective stories and legends:
Describe real people
Assumed to be true
Known throughout the organization
Are prescriptive
cultural artifacts
examples=
Rituals
- Routines of employees (e.g., how visitors are greeted)
Ceremonies
- Planned activities (e.g., award ceremonies)
Language
- How employees address each other, express emotions, describe stakeholders
- Leaders use language to anchor or change culture
Language can be harmful
if women were told the ideal candidate was masculine, they had increased arousal in interview, and poorer performance.
