social psychology 2003 Flashcards

Question

Is behavior shaped more by biological factors (“nature”) or by environmental factors (“nurture”)?

Answer 1

Behavior is influenced by both in varying degrees Some view this as a false dichotomy

Answer 2

Interested in justifications or explanations, not what is good or bad Behavior is often shaped by our environment and context

Answer 3

Humans as social animals Evolutionary perspective Harm of group decisions Embedded cultural norms

Answer 4

Relationship between stereotypes and instincts Automatic processes and use of heuristics

Answer 5

Replication crisis! Several classic, foundational studies have failed to produce repeatable results Data manipulation False positives Recent emphasis on replication studies to find “true effects” Academics need to be more open and honest with their data, sharing their raw data with the public so others can check their work

Answer 6

39% studies replicate in psychology 54% in the very top journals! Not just psychology! 11% of drug studies replicated 59% of highly cited clinical research studies 44% of genetic studies 25% of studies in economics

Answer 7

Under-powered designs 20 participants per cell used to be the “standard” Stopping collection whenever hypotheses were met Dropping (and not reporting) conditions if they did not work Dropping (and not reporting) dependent variables that were not consistent with predictions

Answer 8

Self-control failure (ego depletion) At the heart of the replication crisis in psychology One of the most studied areas in social psychology Mass replications have found small or no effects Meta-analyses mixed…

Answer 9

Hagger et al. (2010) Found evidence of ego-depletion using 83 studies Studies used in meta-analysis were published Publication bias! What about non-published studies?

Answer 10

Research that **increases understanding** and theory Tries to **understand a given phenomenon** **basic knowledge is transformed into practical solutions** to adress** real world probelms **

Answer 11

universities and research institutes how im increasing my knowledge in lectures

Answer 12

Healthcare Workplace Communities ... how doctors apply knowledge from uni to find a cure as a solution for a disease in the uk

Answer 13

1. observe a pattern 2. generate a hypothesis 3. scientifically test hypothesis 4. interpret results and refine hypotheis (make more specific)

Answer 14

one time point multiple need to do an experiment to see if cause-and-effect relationship (if just use obervation could be correlation)

Answer 15

two or more time points same ... cause and effect relationship will be correlational not causation... and may be other variables leading to the cause

Answer 16

Maps out complex relations between many factors/variables ... simultaneous analysis of multiple relationships

Answer 17

when same participants are exposed to all conditions diferent participants are in dif groups and some do a and some do b

Answer 18

randomised.. bias Researcher and participant are oblivious of the condition they are in ..when only participant is unaware of their condition

Answer 19

randomly assigned to one group ... cannot be manipulated, occurs naturally (pre-existing) or unethical to manipulate race.... smoke

Answer 20

* **Lack of control **or comparison group, potentially unreliable individual differences may have influenced categorization in a group eg. Is behaviour due to belonging to a group or vice versa? Cannot demonstrate cause and effect!

Answer 21

Social psychologists very interested in pre-existing groups like race... gender... find out more about steryotypes

Answer 22

IV= city vs countryside participent othere confounding variables like personality.

Answer 23

how well a study’s results apply to everyday life situations outside of the controlled experimental environment.

Answer 24

actors not be convincing (online better)

Answer 25

experimental quasi- experimental non-experimental

Answer 26

determine the causes of behaviour that can expain why it occurs

Answer 27

identify the relationship between pre-existing variables

Answer 28

describe variables and predict the relationship between variables

Answer 29

statistical technique used to combine the results of multiple independent studies on the same topic to arrive at a more comprehensive and reliable conclusion

Answer 30

...they measure sensitive information and Some individuals may not honestly report sensitive information so ensure its all anonomous

Answer 31

..Attempt to capture **pattern of behavior** Hard to capture directly due to vagueness depression, self-worth...

Answer 32

Attempt to **identify way to capture construct** Can be quantitative or qualitative Vary in reliability, but there are usually endless options eg. stress can be reported in a **questionare ** Exceptions: Height Weight Age

Answer 33

define constructs in a way that makes them measurable and observable in a specific research context. ... Happiness is a state of well-being .... Happiness will be measured by the score on the Subjective Happiness Scale, where participants rate their overall happiness on a scale from 1 to 7.

Answer 34

Natural observation Self-report scales (e.g., questionnaires) Physiological measures (e.g., EEG, heartrate) Reaction times (e.g., during Stroop task) Specialized behavioral tasks Implicit Association Test (e.g., unconscious biases) Flanker task (e.g., attention and executive control) Reading span task (e.g., working memory)

Answer 35

Conscious and deliberate Self-reported by participant (e.g., survey) Unconscious and automatic Gut reactions or impulsive decisions made by participant Behavioral tasks, natural observation, facial expressions, etc.

Answer 36

because of social desirability and ppl lying on surveys. ... tap into different kinds of information so both helpful

Answer 37

Common **assessment of attitudes** Captures **associations in memory** Assumption these are **automatic** strength of automatic associations between concepts react faster assosiation of 2 concepts

Answer 38

**statistical measure **that represents the **difference in response times** when participants categorize pairs of stimuli that are either **congruent or incongruent** with their implicit biases.

Answer 39

dif in reaction times/ pooled standard deviation of the response times

Answer 40

congruent bias (responded faster when the pairing matched their implicit biases or stereotypes) eg. white ppl=good and black ppl=bad (steryotype) incongruent bias (participants responded faster when the pairing went against common stereotype)

Answer 41

forces categorization prime participants with stereotypes rather than assess them

Answer 42

Design Protocols Hypotheses Materials Analyses Exclusions

Answer 43

...a set of **statistical techniques** and methods used to analyze data to uncover patterns etc.. without having a pre-defined hypothesis basically.... **Hypothesizing after results are known** (aka. *HARKing*) that **Findings** may be **type I error ** (false positive)

Answer 44

gathering info/building theories testing the theory .... a directional and prior prediction

Answer 45

open-ended hypotheses You think something is going to happen, but unsure what - Conflicting theories - Not enough literature pre-registered along with hypotheses/analyses - which means formally documenting the research questions, planned analyses, and hypotheses before conducting the study to increase credability

Answer 46

1. form hypothesis and analysis plan 2. collect data 3. analyse data acording to analysis plan 4. interpret and report results 5. publish and distrobute research output 6. replicae results

Answer 47

Deliberate and intentional behaviors potentially limited ... mental fatigue and working memory constraints. goal-dependant awareness of behaviour explicit measures

Answer 48

motivations self-determination theory

Answer 49

uncontrollable or unconcious processes .. gut reactions/ knee jerk responces implicit measures priming, facial cues and environment

Answer 50

liklihood that a particular steryotype will be activated .. an activated steryotype will be applied

Answer 51

high internal and those with low external motivation exibited less affective race bias in blink responces. high internal motiv less racial bias then low IM.

Answer 52

black or white face, a gun or harmeles object , gun, black eg. Black-Tool White-Gun

Answer 53

automatic and controlled. The racial bias that led to quicker identification of guns after seeing Black faces was thought to be **driven by automatic processes **

Answer 54

automatic and controlled motivation and cognitive resources M and CR are low= auto M and CR are high= controlled

Answer 55

faces facial features, contact environment , behaviour , dangerous situations

Answer 56

name, face existing name steryotypes ..

Answer 57

scene, black or white, gun or other object, reaction time

Answer 58

reaction time, shoot, black black ppl racial bias

Answer 59

Shooter Bias Task, environmental cues, dangerous or safe contexts implicit racial bias ,shooting an unarmed person, black

Answer 60

store information relevant to ourselves and others.. remembering stuff about others .. form oppions on others and navigate novel situations assosiative networks, spresing activation and semantic network model

Answer 61

When a concept or node is activated in your mind (e.g., you think of "summer"), this activation spreads out along the network to related concepts (e.g., "sun,"

Answer 62

personality is not a fixed trait but rather a dynamic system influenced by interactions between a person’s thoughts, behaviors, and social context.

Answer 63

Cognitive representations of oneself that one uses to organize and process self-relevant information Consists of the important behaviors and attributes

Answer 64

individual diferences, personality

Answer 65

information related to oneself is processed more deeply, encoded more effectively, and recalled more easily than information not related to the self.

Answer 66

we make judgments about our own thoughts and attitudes the same way we make judgments about others' behaviors—by interpreting our actions in various situations. enter self schema Unless situational factors can account for the behavior internal states are weak Intrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation

Answer 67

role of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations in influencing behavior. extrinsic and intrinsic

Answer 68

Other’s perceptions of us feed into our self-schema assume, inaccurate

Answer 69

innate drive to evaluate their own abilities, opinions, and emotions by comparing themselves to others. upward= When we compare ourselves to someone who is better than us, often to improve on a particular skill downward= When we compare ourselves to someone who is worse than us, often to feel better close to us downward comparisson

Answer 70

At different times Around different people In different settings

Answer 71

experience emotional discomfort Actual self Ideal self Ought self

Answer 72

The person we think we are right now The person we hope to become What other people want us to be.

Answer 73

Adapt to fit into the situation Present ourselves to make an impression on others Impression management and self-monitoring

Answer 74

Ability to override thoughts, emotions, and behaviors Implement behaviors which are appropriate for the situation Self-expression: Actions consistent with self-concept (actual self) Self-presentation: Actions shape others’ impressions of us in positive ways (ought or ideal self)

Answer 75

shift from actual to ideal self. limited resources like eg. gluecose stress Prolonged use of self-control causes “fatigue” Resources need replenished before further use

Answer 76

high self control resources low self control resources

Answer 77

.. away from further control .. rewarding behavior Resources not depleted, just redirected Fatigue leads to reward seeking want to tasks, have to tasks

Answer 78

rewarding behaviour Exaggerated emotional .. effortful behavior

Answer 79

discrepancies among these selves can lead to emotional discomfort and influence personal motivation. Can lead to mental health problems Depression Social phobia Eating disorders Poor self-esteem eg. someone feels they should be more responsible or successful based on external expectations, failing to meet these standards can lead to feelings of guilt, anxiety, or inadequacy.

Answer 80

Confidence in one’s abilities Self-worth or respect self - serving bias, the better than average effect, downward social comparison improvements but requires effort so use downward to compensate

Answer 81

.. like good feedback and take on board and bad feedback just ignore eg a quiz on personality

Answer 82

Narcissism False confidence Lack of empathy Academic problems And more!

Answer 83

collectivist cultures (e.g., many Asian, African, and Latin American societies) prioritize group harmony, family, and community over individual achievement.

Answer 84

cognitive representation that summarizes evaluation of an attitude object (e.g., belief) Attitude objects may be the self, other people, things, actions, events, or ideas Attitudes have direction intensity

Answer 85

Self report on attitude scales Observation of behavior Physiological measures (e.g., EEG, heartrate, skin conductance) Reaction time measures The Implicit Association Test!

Answer 86

Provides shortcuts to guide behavior Reduce cognitive effort needed to make decisions

Answer 87

CAB cog, beh, affective

Answer 88

Feelings and emotions about the object : Information about past, present, or future interactions with the object : Facts and beliefs about the object

Answer 89

she endows youth foundations shes amazing i feel pumped when i hear her music feel happy when i see her music videos i download all her songs and would drive 1000 miles to see her downloading her new track

Answer 90

negative , positive , accessible or salient, context/environment, over time

Answer 91

Learning occurs through: Associative learning Propositional learning

Answer 92

Mental links form between concepts based on shared properties Shorter path between concepts = stronger association in memory Nearby concepts also activated Spreading activation!

Answer 93

frequently.. =Creates semantic link in memory Hebbian law “Neurons that fire together, wire together!” Classical conditioning (e.g., Pavlov’s dog) .... Flowers Pleasantness and Black Americans Violence (e.g., media exposure)

Answer 94

Mental links are elaborated upon, requires conscious effort Creation of causal relations between associations Attempt to validate associations

Answer 95

Associative learning = Creates simple links in memory Black Americans-Violence Alcohol-Positive emotions Propositional learning = Explains simple links in memory Black Americans are violent Alcohol causes me to feel happy

Answer 96

Co-activation of concepts Spontaneous emotional response (captured via implicit measures) Can be rejected (if you have the energy) Validation and explanation of associations These associations are further strengthened (if validated) More deliberate judgments (require energy, captured via self-report)

Answer 97

Associative information can be activated (e.g., gut response) regardless of whether you believe the response as appropriate Propositional information may override gut responses if they are inconsistent and you have the motivation (and resources) to do so

Answer 98

“I dislike insects” vs “Bugs look disgusting” “Insects in the house make me uncomfortable ” “I dislike insects”

Answer 99

associative negative associations e.g., well-known, admired Black Americans reduce racial bias Associations are hardwired into memory and difficult to change

Answer 100

Aims to replace or create new links between concepts in memory Co-activation of emotional stimuli and target stimuli Stigmatized groups Alcohol

Answer 101

Emotional stimuli do not need to be related to target stimuli Conditioning is not meant to create causal relationships Only targeting “gut” or immediate emotional responses

Answer 102

evaluative conditioning, “I think this is supposed to make me like alcohol”, Effectiveness increases

Answer 103

causal explanation between concepts

Answer 104

a positive or negative emotional value based on past experiences. - assosiative learning - propositional learning, which involves understanding facts or logical relationships, evaluative learning is more about emotional responses rather than factual knowledge. -

Answer 105

cognitive dissonance

Answer 106

Discomfort from conflict between attitudes and behavior, uncomfortable tate of arousal We aim to resolve this discomfort by resolving conflict Change behavior to match new associations/ attitude

Answer 107

Imagine you know that smoking is bad for your health (belief), but you smoke anyway (behavior). This conflict creates cognitive dissonance. To reduce it, you might try to quit smoking, convince yourself that smoking isn’t that harmful, or ignore the risks.

Answer 108

that the change is freely chosen, self determination theory, external or internal motivation? external= somone wants u to quit smoking internal= want to quit to improve health. internal is best

Answer 109

participants in lab 'somethings gone wrong with experiment can you help with this task' boring task for an hour after told the next particiapnt was coming in, asked if they could lie to the next and say they loved it. offered 1$ or 20$ if payed 1 not enough justification to lie, but 20$ would defo lie. when we do something that dosent match our feelings, we change our feelings to account for that as we dont like ot be inconsistent.

Answer 110

Our own behavior as a basis for inference for self-schema Depends whether behavior intrinsically or extrinsically motivated (similar Change in attitudes NOT due to… Uncomfortable states Anxiety/arousal)

Answer 111

1. assosiative info promotes new automatic behaviour (shop- more likley to buy a salad then sandwich) 2. recognise that behaviour is inconsistent with propositional information regarding attitude object 3. change propositional info to match new behaviour 4. now assosiative/ proppositional info match, furthur strenghtening the liklihood of this nehaviour to occur in the future.

Answer 112

Activate information to change behaviour Conscious or unconscious May activate nearby concepts to alter perceptions Spreading activation APE model

Answer 113

developed Questionare brought students in, lied to them and said computers not working but can u just fill in this questionare 'how common is it for ppl to drink to socialise with others' positive vs ' now common is it to drink and drive an automobile' negative consequence priming them... prime with social= no avoidance of alcholol prime with drive= avoidance went up, less likley to drink

Answer 114

When do people accept or reject information? Elaboration = critical evaluation of arguments, some do and some dont depedns on dif things.. Some arguments accepted as is with no elaboration Other arguments may elicit high elaboration If inconsistent with already learned information If relevant to your self-schema These arguments critiqued and may be rejected!

Answer 115

Central routes of persuasion Scientific evidence Logic-based arguments Peripheral routes of persuasion Highly emotional (e.g., use of fear) Aim to change associations in memory

Answer 116

Peripheral (emotional) routes may be effective in preventing ... maladaptive health behaviors from forming Tobacco packaging- - somone has a long held belief.

Answer 117

But implementation of plain packaging did not stop everyone from smoking… right? Peripheral routes not effective in changing persistent behaviors Emotion-based interventions may promote high elaboration when they are counterintuitive to our longstanding beliefs and attitudes Enter… central routes!

Answer 118

logical arguments to change behavior Still may be met with high elaboration if counter to attitudes ... Combine with peripheral route Promote trustworthiness of information or source

Answer 119

more likley to trust central routes Typically elicit lower elaboration (leads to less deep thinking) More effective in changing persistent behaviors

Answer 120

swimsuit of cheerleading students manipulated a couple things listen to recordeig to either justify it or not strong argument of central route= sexist attitudes, tarnish rep vs weak advertising= free advertsiing (not convicing) stronger argument= less elaboration doctor who was expert= less elaboration

Answer 121

.... may be sufficient in changing attitudes, regardless of the source of information .... arguments or statements are weak! These effects depend on personality/individual differences Some may be skeptical regardless of expertise!

Answer 122

higher lower elaboration

Answer 123

Stereotypes: Impressions of groups that people form by associating the groups with particular characteristics Prejudice: Positive or negative evaluations of a social group or its members Discrimination: Positive or negative behavior directed toward a social group or its members

Answer 124

Social Identity Theory Realistic Conflict Theory Intergroup Threat Theory

Answer 125

Social identity theory (Tajfel, 1971) We derive self-esteem from our valued group memberships Share and adopt opinions with our in-group to feel validated Develop belief that “outgroups” are inferior Seeing oneself as a member of a social group Often associate ourselves with several social groups, eg. gender, race, age etc..

Answer 126

direct members, precence of out-group members, being a minority, intergroup conflict all lead to accecibility of social identity as a group number

Answer 127

When our group wins we feel great Refer to group as “we” more after a win Basking in reflected glory (Cialdini et al., 1976) We tend to rely on group’s successes to hide our failures Group membership can protect self-esteem

Answer 128

In-group Those who belong to our social group Viewed as similar to ourselves View members as unique and novel Out-group Those who belong to other social group Viewed as dissimilar to ourselves View members as similar/homogenous (e.g., stereotypes)- driven by lack of knowlage of what people are like

Answer 129

We use group memberships to emphasize what is novel about ourselves, may bolster certain group identities If our in-group is a minority, that may become central to us If our in-group is a majority, we may discount that membership Minority and majority status also changes the functions of upward/downward comparisons (Brewer & Weber, 1994)

Answer 130

Consistent with large amount of student population (majority) Consistent with small amount of student population (minority) Shown video with either majority or minority member performing well or poorly on academic task How does being in the majority versus minority affect social comparisons based on performance?

Answer 131

Groups can be made arbitrarily Over versus underestimation of items Color of shirt Preference of paintings Coin toss Etc. Allows to study effects of groups in a “vacuum” Suggests intergroup conflict is innate

Answer 132

If you are in the majority… If majority performance is good = we feel bad If majority performance is bad = we feel good Minority performance does not affect majority If you are in the minority… If minority performance is good = we feel good If majority performance is bad = we feel bad Pattern is reversed!

Answer 133

social comparisons, self- catorazation, self-esteem

Answer 134

Thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (attitudes) move toward in-group Changes in attitudes stronger among those with higher group identity In-group favoritism Initial positivity towards in-group based on membership alone Anything negative about group members could reflect poorly on you!

Answer 135

Seeing out-group as less diverse than in-group Fewer out-group members known Interactions with out-group more constrained Focus on group membership with out-group as opposed to individual characteristics with in-group

Answer 136

Billig and Tajfel (1973) Schoolboys divided into arbitrary groups Divide points between in vs out-group Generally favored in-group members No surprise! But… Were they seeking to maximize benefits for the in-group? Boys sometimes discriminated even when it cost the in-group Example: Took 11 points for in-group, 7 for out-group over 17 for each In-group will take a loss if it means out-group is worse off

Answer 137

Social identity theory Categorization-Competition Hypothesis Self-Esteem Hypothesis Realistic Group Conflict Theory Intergroup Threat Theory

Answer 138

Viewing people in terms of ingroups and outgroups is sufficient to generate intergroup competition Evidenced by minimal group paradigms Arbitrary assignment to groups creates biases Competition between groups seems innate Evolutionary function?

Answer 139

When your in-group does well, it makes you feel good Basking in reflective glory (Cialdini) Intergroup bias supports that your group is better than the outgroup Low self-esteem promotes intergroup bias to raise self-esteem

Answer 140

Evolutionary and economic account for group conflict Groups tend to compete when resources are contested Israel and Palestine (land) Mexico and U.S. (welfare) Gulf War (oil) Supported by Robber’s Cave (and other) experiments We are motivated to maximize the rewards for in-group, even if it means taking those rewards away from others

Answer 141

Majority groups view competition as zero-sum game Finite amount of resources Gains in minority lead to equal losses in majority Fear of losing influence and power Threats increase if groups are seen as equal Affirmative action policies Equality/diversity initiatives

Answer 142

Biases come from two types of perceived threats Symbolic threats (e.g., loss of status or authority) Realistic threats (e.g., loss of physical resources) Previous theory emphasized realistic threats Threat of losing positive source of self-esteem just as important Bias may result from combination of threats

Answer 143

Threaten to reduce power or resources of group Physical or material harm to group members Pain Death Loss of power Economic loss *The conflict between the Israelis and Arabs provides a stark illustration of the various types of threat. For both groups, realistic group threats are omnipresent in the form of the possibility of open warfare. This is a struggle involving land, economics, power, and blood where each group threatens the very existence of the other. Symbolic group threats are nearly as obvious. The two groups differ in religion and culture and speak different languages. Each group is perceived to pose a fundamental threat to the cultural worldview and way of life of the other. Threats also exist at the individual level. Realistic individual threats exist in the form of terrorism for the Israelis. For the Arabs, such threats are present as targeted assassinations in which civilians are often casualties. Individual symbolic threats occur when individuals feel they are being dishonored, disrespected, or dehumanized by members of the other group. *

Answer 144

Threaten to reduce status, beliefs, or ideologies of group Undermining source of self-identity or self-esteem Disrespected Social standing diminished Loss of perceived importance *The conflict between the Israelis and Arabs provides a stark illustration of the various types of threat. For both groups, realistic group threats are omnipresent in the form of the possibility of open warfare. This is a struggle involving land, economics, power, and blood where each group threatens the very existence of the other. Symbolic group threats are nearly as obvious. The two groups differ in religion and culture and speak different languages. Each group is perceived to pose a fundamental threat to the cultural worldview and way of life of the other. Threats also exist at the individual level. Realistic individual threats exist in the form of terrorism for the Israelis. For the Arabs, such threats are present as targeted assassinations in which civilians are often casualties. Individual symbolic threats occur when individuals feel they are being dishonored, disrespected, or dehumanized by members of the other group. *

Answer 145

Threatening status quo maintained by majority group Anticipating changes to status quo may elicit feelings of threat Does not need to be real or actualized Mere perception of threats enough to promote con T*ov, and Schmidt (2004). This study examined four variables: 1) the actual proportion of immigrants in counties across Germany, 2) the respondents’ perceptions of the proportion of immigrants in their counties, 3) the respondents’ perceptions of the threats posed by immigrants, and 4) the respondents’ exclusionary attitudes toward immigrants. It was found that the actual proportion of immigrants in the respondents’ localities did not predict exclusionary attitudes toward immigrants. Instead, the perceived proportion of immigrants predicted both perceived threats and exclusionary attitudes*.

Answer 146

When in-group is threatened, bias intensifies Unequal status amplifies intergroup biases Attempt to maintain inequalities and retain privilege Often see out-group as “moral exclusion” to justify: Aggression Hate crimes Genocide

Answer 147

In previous centuries, slavery and exploitation was justified by many Christian slave owners using parts of the Bible Retained in-group as highest moral authority Justified hatred and exploitation for out-groups

Answer 148

Behaving differently toward people based on their membership in a social group Acting in an unfair or demeaning manner toward a disliked group But can also refer to giving undeserved advantage to a liked group

Answer 149

Blatant discrimination Unequal and harmful treatment that is intentional and visible Subtle discrimination Unequal and harmful treatment that is typically less visible and obvious Often not noticed because people have internalized it as normal Can be active or passive

Answer 150

Covert discrimination Unequal and harmful treatment that is hidden, purposeful, and often maliciously motivated Behavior that attempts to ensure failure in situations Microaggressions Small-scale, everyday behaviors that demean other social groups or members of those groups Behavior can be verbal or nonverbal

Answer 151

Small correlations between prejudice and discrimination Theory of planned behavior explain small correlations Prejudice alone not sufficient to promote discrimination Social norms and perceived control impact behavior

Answer 152

Ajzen (1991) Behavior is complex and rarely rational Sex Smoking Eating Substance and alcohol use Discrimination Examples of behaviour which may be difficult to control voluntarily

Answer 153

Prejudiced attitudes can influence behavior Interact with social norms and expectations to act morally These norms can change based on group identity and context Serves as an “external brake” on behavior Interact with availability of self-control to inhibit actions May be undermined by fatigue or time constraints (e.g., snap judgements) Serves as an “internal brake” on behavior

Answer 154

Internal motivation Stems from a personal belief that prejudice is wrong External motivation Is a result of social pressure These are separate processes People can experience both at the same time

Answer 155

Associated with lower prejudice Exposure to members of outgroups implicitly reminds people of their commitment to egalitarianism Even if prejudiced associations are activated People high in internal motivation are more likely to recognize conflict between prejudices and actions Approach interracial interactions with the goals of treating the other person fairly and having a friendly conversation

Answer 156

Associated with higher prejudice People high in external motivation feel pressured to appear unbiased Feel irritated and resentful as a result Does not necessarily prevent discrimination Only in certain contexts when external influence is present Interactions with minority group members not always pleasant

Answer 157

Suppressing discrimination requires attention and mental effort When these resources are reduced, people can express their prejudice However, suppressing behavior is difficult especially when the underlying attitudes are strongly influencing behavior Prejudice may “leak out” through automatic processes or nonverbal behaviors when trying to control its effects on other behaviors

Answer 158

How does group membership affect our self-esteem? How may these effects change when comparing ourselves to in-group versus out-group members? Discuss the differences between prejudice and discrimination. Using relevant theory, describe when prejudiced attitudes may manifest as discrimination.

Answer 159

place others (and ourselves) into social groups Beliefs develop about members of these groups Are used to guide future interactions with group members Social identity theory Realistic group conflict theory Intergroup threat theory

Answer 160

Information which is easily observable for categorization Gender Race Age We use this information to draw conclusions about a person’s traits, social roles, and physical characteristics Important in initial interactions

Answer 161

People belong to more than one basic category at once Middle-aged White woman Young Asian man Older Black woman Subtypes can be created to incorporate intersectionality Some subtypes may be less negative than basic categories However… some may be more negative!

Answer 162

Bottom-up processing Based on the observable characteristics of an individual Top-down processing Based upon prior knowledge people have stored in memory and their expectations about interactions

Answer 163

Stereotypic beliefs about librarians and waitresses . Top-down processing relies on prior knowledge stored in memory . Categorization of the woman as a librarian or a waitress . Bottom-up processing is based on the characteristics of the people we encounter . The woman’s description of her day

Answer 164

Extent to which physical features match basic social category Categorization faster when observing a prototypical member example: People with baby faces (A) are seen as physically weaker and more submissive than those with mature faces (B) People whose face has a larger width-to-height ratio (C) are seen as less friendly, less trustworthy, and more aggressive than those with smaller ratio (D)

Answer 165

Body size and motion provide cues about group membership = Example: When determining biological sex, body shape is the primary cue People rely on the knowledge that women have narrower waists and a smaller shoulder width (and longer hair) than men

Answer 166

When cues are ambiguous, categorization is slower We tend to classify ambiguous faces as members of the minority or socially subordinate group These perceptions continue until the majority of their features are stereotypically White

Answer 167

Impressions of groups that people form by associating the groups with particular characteristics The content of these impressions affects categorization Example: Gender-atypical versus typical characteristics observed in faces are used to infer sexual orientation (Freeman et al., 2010)

Answer 168

The social context can influence categorization Focus on what makes another person look “different” may shift across varying contexts Example: Female student in a group of mostly male students are more likely to be categorized as a woman, rather than student

Answer 169

Prejudiced individuals pay more attention to characteristics consistent with their attitudes and stereotypic beliefs Racist attitudes = focus on race when categorizing Sexist attitudes = focus on gender when categorizing

Answer 170

People learn stereotypes from Parents Peers The media Their own observations of the world Role models Development/socialization

Answer 171

Social Role Theory Illusory Correlations

Answer 172

People observe the social roles others occupy Associate characteristics of role with those who occupy it Correspondence Bias We tend to assume behaviors of others are due to personality, not external or situational factors Leads to the development and continuation of stereotypic beliefs

Answer 173

People incorrectly link two characteristics Overestimate the relationship between two categories when undesirable information stands out Inaccurate associations become firmly held Based on inaccurate information processing APE model… Associative learning!

Answer 174

The media expose us to members of majority groups more than minority groups Representations of minority groups are stereotypic and negative The more media people are exposed to, the more they hold stereotypic beliefs Race Gender Body size

Answer 175

Women are typically shown in the home Engage in behaviors that convey their dependence and stereotypical gender roles Men are typically shown in professional roles In the U.S., White people appear more frequently in advertisements than any other ethnic or racial group

Answer 176

Johar et al. (2003) Commercials depicting women and men in traditional roles Undergrads wrote an essay imagining their lives 10 years in future Findings: Women who saw traditional commercials described their future as “homemaker” rather than “career woman” Men’s future was not influenced by type of commercial

Answer 177

Are stereotypes accurate? Not a simple answer Generally, beliefs are not totally unfounded “A kernel of truth” But they undermine attempts to individuate outgroup members Self-fulfilling prophecy

Answer 178

Stereotype Knowledge Extent to which a person is familiar with the content of a stereotype Stereotype Endorsement Extent to which someone personally believes the societal stereotype accurately describes a social group

Answer 179

encounter member of steryotyped group-> low cog load= steryotype activates high cog load= steryotype activation inhibited-> so steryotype application not possible sterypotype activates-> low cog load=steryotype application inhibited high cog load= steryotype applied

Answer 180

Often occurs without effort or conscious thought Cues presented subliminally can activate stereotypes Prototypicality Situational context Level of prejudice

Answer 181

Extent to which a social group member has the physical features associated with their social group

Answer 182

People with intersectional identities are less likely to be recognized as a prototypical member of either identity Example: Black women are not seen as prototypical of either women or Black people

Answer 183

Advantages: Stereotypes that are not activated are not used May explain why Black women typically experience less discrimination than Black men Disadvantages: People who are not seen are also not heard May make “dual identities” feel more stigmatized

Answer 184

Often more worried about experiencing discrimination Have less allies or role models in many contexts Referred to as “double jeopardy” Example Black women in STEM

Answer 185

Situational Context Context influences if stereotypes are activated Environment Time of day Timing When we are pressed for time, we tend to rely on stereotypes When given time to respond, stereotypes may not be activated Timing When we are pressed for time, we tend to rely on stereotypes When given time, we can engage self-control to stop application Ambiguity When the situation is unclear, we tend to rely on stereotypes Example: Application more likely at night

Answer 186

When we are busy with one mental task while trying to do another Lack of space in working memory disrupts stereotype activation Example: Cognitively busy people who see an Asian woman use fewer stereotypical words during sentence completion task

Answer 187

Those who engaged working memory during “activation phase” were less likely to complete words stereotypically Stereotypes likely occupy working memory Working memory has limited capacity If engaged, stereotypes unlikely to be activated Those who engaged working memory during “application phase” were more likely to use stereotypes to describe researcher Working memory is needed to inhibit application Working memory has limited capacity If occupied, stereotypes likely to be applied

Answer 188

Stereotype application is the typically the default option Unless a person is motivated and able to inhibit a stereotype Internal motivations External motivations Spreading activation triggers behavioral scripts (Loersch & Payne, 2011) Easily accessible information requires less effort (brain is lazy)

Answer 189

inhibits stereotype activation But if activated, cognitive busyness facilitates stereotype application

Answer 190

Sort guns versus tools Primed with Black versus White faces Incongruent pairings harder to categorize Black-Tool White-Gun

Answer 191

Behavior based on immediate, readily available information Long-term consequences not considered Promotes self-preservation -Tiredness/fatigue Alcohol (cues alone)

Answer 192

Difficult to disentangle Processes happen very quickly Activation = cognitive processes (e.g., IAT) Application = observed behaviors (e.g., shooter bias, WIT)

Answer 193

Activated stereotypes (associations in memory) differ in their strength Whether we apply these activated stereotypes (regardless of strength) relies on controlled versus automatic processes Controlled processes = engaging inhibition to reduce application Automatic processes = strength of activated stereotypes on behavior

Answer 194

If strength of activated stereotypes are strong Increased control needed to suppress application Availability (and willingness) to engage control depends on context and individual differences (e.g., motivations) If strength of activated stereotypes are weak… Little control is needed to suppress application We may not apply stereotypes, even when control is limited

Answer 195

Stronger influence of automatic processes (activated stereotypes) We can inhibit enhanced automaticity via control Under normal circumstances… When control is diminished via ego-depletion, automaticity leads to greater application of stereotypes promoted by alcohol myopia

Answer 196

Describe the processes underlying stereotype activation versus application. How does cognitive busyness impact these processes? Discussing relevant theory, how may we acquire stereotypes? How does group membership prime stereotypes in working memory and how may we prevent their application?

Answer 197

... “ideal self” self control Issues with this: Stereotype activation/application relatively automatic May not be aware of these effects on our behavior Unable to inhibit relatively unconscious behaviors Limitations of self-control- egopletion

Answer 198

if tired, eg. more likley to see image on a gun (its a tool) more lilley to be racist when tired

Answer 199

its good to increase control to supress steryotypes However, actively engaging control to suppress prejudice can lead to automatic inhibition of stereotypes Example: Negating stereotypes Becomes easier with practice Reduces stereotype activation Develop cues for control effort and motivation ego-depletion theories

Answer 200

Internal motivation Stems from a personal belief that discirmiantion is wrong External motivation Is a result of social pressure These are separate processes People can experience both at the same time

Answer 201

Associated with lower prejudice Exposure to members of outgroups implicitly reminds people of their commitment to egalitarianism (equal rights) Even if prejudiced associations are activated People high in internal motivation are more likely to recognize conflict between prejudices and actions Approach interracial interactions with the goals of treating the other person fairly and having a friendly conversation

Answer 202

Associated with higher prejudice People high in external motivation feel pressured to appear unprejudiced Feel irritated and resentful as a result Does not necessarily prevent discrimination Only in certain contexts when external influence is present Interactions with minority group members not always pleasant

Answer 203

What happens when suppression stops? - steryotype rebound Or if we are too fatigued to inhibit our actions?

Answer 204

Unwanted thoughts return in greater strength after suppression There is a “rebound effect” Stereotypes are used to a greater extent after suppression stops Can exceed typical stereotype use (e.g., ironic effects)\ Why does rebound occur? Suppression takes cognitive effort When resources are depleted, people cannot continue suppression Stereotypes break through due heightened salience in memory Priming! Loersch and Payne (2011 While suppressing stereotypes, people are looking for potential use of stereotypes in their thoughts and actions This requires knowledge and conscious awareness of stereotypes Incidentally activates stereotypes in working memory Activated stereotypes are then applied in rebound effect Limited resources to further suppress application

Answer 205

- Making active effort to take someone else’s perspective - white american takes the perspective of a day in the life of a black american - those who took perspective of black had poorer working memory after, - because....engaging is effortfull, if too tired and dont have motivation it wont work you wont be able to put yourself in their perspective. “Imagine a day in the life of this person, looking at the world through their eyes and walking in their shoes.” Facilitated by: Writing “a day in the life” essay about a social group member Listening to interview based on someone’s experiences with discrimination Having a face-to-face meeting with an outgroup member

Answer 206

Effective perspective taking… .....Leads to more positive attitudes about the outgroup overall Perspective takers exhibit less bias on explicit and implicit evaluations Why is it effective? Perspective takers see their experiences overlap with outgroup .....Strengthens associations between ingroup and outgroup Leads to internal motivations to reduce bias However… ......Can backfire for people who strongly identify with their ingroup Taking the perspective of outgroup may not change prejudiced attitudes .....lack the depth of knowledge concerning what members of outgroups experience on a daily basis Can you walk a mile in someone’s shoes… without their shoes? Lacking knowledge and .......ignorance of injustices

Answer 207

Perspective-taking needs context! If we do not know extent of the bias experienced by outgroup, we may not fully emulate their perspective Traditional manipulations (writing essay) are limited by our imagination and do not recreate first-hand experiences

Answer 208

- when an entire group comes together to make change Actions taken by group to achieve goal (e.g., reducing biases/barriers) e.g., engagement with equality initiatives, allyship Precursors to collective action 1- Perceived injustices 2- Strong social identity 3- Self-efficacy/confience

Answer 209

Experiment 1 Perspective-taking (male vs female scientist) Emphasizing perceived injustices Experiment 2 Strengthening men’s social identity via blame/guilt (blamed men for these injusticies) Promoting confidence to address gender inequalities (gave them tools to help with these injusticies) leads to increasing support. (men exposed to tools made more effort to stop injesticies) exposed to context of inequalities and taking persepctive of a women context

Answer 210

Elaboration likelihood model Central routes- logic based Peripheral routes- emotion based APE model Associative learning- Propositional learning

Answer 211

Central routes Expert sources of information- a white male Empirical evidence on gender bias Peripheral routes Promotion of empathy- female spoke about perspective Taking perspective of female scientist

Answer 212

Changes in propositional beliefs may change associations - presentation changed their propositional reasoning ( women are stigmatized and shouldnt be) - cahnging their assosiations Changes in associations may change propositional beliefs - taking persepctive of a woman breaks down barriers of in group and out group, leading to stronger connections inn memory of women being in science. sexism is wrong.

Answer 213

- being in contact from somone in an outgroup can reduce prejudice, positive change

Answer 214

may not be effective for people high in prejuduce = trump, people exp[osed to so much bad stuff about him but because of their extreme prejucice of women/black they still voted for him avoid contact with members of groups they dont like anxiety confidence Conditions for success in intergroup contact Equal status between groups Cooperation in achieving common goals Acquaintance potential Institutional support

Answer 215

Groups must have equal status within the contact situation If status is unequal, members of ingroup may devalue or stigmatize the lower-status outgroup This is context dependent E.g., some societies or organizations are more committed to egalitarianism and correcting social inequities than others

Answer 216

Having members of ingroup and outgroup cooperate on tasks to achieve same goal improves intergroup attitudes Cooperative contact in team sports leads to improved attitudes For individual sports, attitudes are unrelated to amount of contact

Answer 217

Opportunity for members of interacting groups to get to know each other as individuals Ideally, acquaintance leads to friendship Intergroup friendships are related to lower prejudice Quality of friendship more important than quantity

Answer 218

Authorities or organizations must establish expectation for lower prejudice and less discrimination Can create structures that facilitates positive intergroup relations Creates cognitive dissonance Attitudes can change to match behaviors But… external motivations?

Answer 219

Increases Knowledge about outgroups Empathy for outgroup Interest in other cultures Motivation to control prejudice

Answer 220

Positive contact is clearly more effective Is also more common But when negative contact occurs… It can be harmful Reinforces stereotypes Increases stereotype application

Answer 221

Extended Contact Media Contact Imagined Contact

Answer 222

Having an ingroup friend who has outgroup friend(s) is associated with lower prejudice and reduced intergroup anxiety Demonstrates intergroup relationships are permissible and possible Shows outgroup members are open to such relationships

Answer 223

Seeing outgroups in media is a form of extended contact Positive portrayals in the media can improve intergroup attitudes Works for “real life” and fictional characters Watching characters in media is a form of perspective taking

Answer 224

Mentally practicing a “positive, relaxed, and comfortable” first meeting with an outgroup member Rehearsal these interactions plays a key role in self-regulation of emotions and planning of behavior during potential contact Allows people to develop a script for the interaction

Answer 225

Negative intergroup emotions and anxiety Physiological arousal in response to intergroup contact Increases perspective-taking May be less effective than face-to-face contact

Answer 226

Intergroup contact reduces prejudice if people see members of the outgroup as individuals (i.e., individuation) Leads to more liking and less prejudice toward the outgroup Awareness that members of both ingroup and outgroup have complex social identities lessens the importance of group boundaries

Answer 227

Positive attitudes generated by contact will generalize to the group only if the outgroup members are seen as ... typical of their group Categories must remain salient if positive attitudes are to apply beyond the immediate contact situation Outgroup members must be seen as typical of their group and still disconfirm aspects of the group stereotype

Answer 228

Ingroup and outgroup members recategorize themselves into a single group that shares a common identity However… Assume other (minority) group will take on their group’s norms and values (assimilation perspective)

Answer 229

Using relevant theory, propose an effective strategy to reduce bias towards outgroup members. How may you best promote engagement with this intervention? How does increasing intergroup contact reduce prejudiced attitudes? Discuss how real versus imagined contact may improve interactions with outgroup members.

Answer 230

macro-social influences Poverty and SES Social capital and loneliness

Answer 231

Stereotype threat Discrimination (experienced and anticipated) Confounding variables (e.g., low SES among Black Americans)

Answer 232

Daily hassles Self-control failure/ego-depletion

Answer 233

Large-scale social, economic, political, and cultural forces that influence the life course of people simultaneously/ everyone at the same time : Actions and policies of governmental organizations Cultures eg. gender roles Historical legacies eg. Civil Rights Movements Organized religions eg. ramadam Multinational corporations and banks eg. global trade Unpredictable, large-scale environmental events eg. natural disasters/climate change baby= Where a baby is born and mother’s access to water, food and education, determine whether the baby lives or dies Sierra Leone baby has only 72% chance of reaching age 5 compared to Japanese with 96% chance. Each individual human is a creation of genetics, environmental experience, and the interaction between the two

Answer 234

Dominant public health policy assumes individuals are responsible for their own health Illness due to personal lifestyle is seen as fault of the individual, not a consequence of macro-social influences

Answer 235

Approximately 70% of world’s population live in low or middle income countries Half of the world’s population lack access to medical care and essential drugs Other major impacts of poverty caused by the absence of: Safe water Sanitation Adequate diet Housing Basic education

Answer 236

Measure of wealth, education, and status Higher SES = better health and longer life expectancy

Answer 237

its the Social relationships you have as resources eg= Community engagement eg. A neighborhood organizing a fundraiser for local schools. it provides: Trust and safety Reciprocity (if i help you now will you help me later?) Diversity ( thrives wit diversity, ppl from diferent backgrounds) Certain communities have greater social capital and often have more positive health outcomes

Answer 238

Men die earlier than women, but women have poorer health In less developed countries, men still live longer than women Women suffer more non-fatal illnesses and hospitalized more often Women have twice the rate of depression compared to men Men have higher rates of injuries, suicides, homicides, and heart disease

Answer 239

Childbirth Rape Domestic violence Sexism Work inequalities Concern about weight Divided attention between roles of parent and worker

Answer 240

Social constructs of masculinity and femininity affect health behaviors ...Men are more likely than women to adopt risky behaviours ...Women are more likely to engage in health-protective behaviours Neurosexism

Answer 241

Assumption that differences between males and females from brain development and Socialization (culture and environment) are not responsible. ...justify and explain stereotypes Not just for gender! Biology used as justification for several biases

Answer 242

sex hormones in the brain shape your ability = High levels of fetal testosterone inhibit the physical growth of the left hemisphere, making it smaller than the right hemisphere (men have smaller left hemishphere making worse at language) BUT THIS IS NOT ALWAYS THE CASE The corpus callosum has been observed to be larger in females compared to males but then more info came out saying: Differences in corpus callosum size may be explained by the total size of the brain, rather than biological sex Individuals with smaller-sized brains have larger corpus callosum compared to individuals with larger brains, regardless of sex So if you get a man who's shorter with a smaller sized brain, they're indistinguishable from a female brain of the same height and brain size.

Answer 243

show image then rotate it and have to guess which one is the same men are better no! it depends on whether or not you played with lego when you were younger. boys are given them more than girls. women in stem more likley to have been given those toys compared to women in arts.

Answer 244

Brain development affected by social interactions and culture Several sex differences can be eliminated with learning - Males’ spatial skills advantage can be eliminated by training females with tools such as building blocks and video games - Encouraging boys to create imaginary social situations using action figures or dolls can reduce gender differences in emotionality Importance of early childhood socialization in gender differences in skills, namely toys - Important figures in children’s lives enforce gender stereotypes by offering their approval or disapproval of toy preference - Many girls choose to play with dolls and toy houses, engaging in stereotypically domestic-related activities - Boys are encouraged to engage in physical activities such as building blocks, designing racetracks for toy cars - These gendered play behaviors support the development of gender stereotyped skills and traits Emotion expressivity and language development in females from caring for dolls and interacting with friends in games of fantasy Boys develop spatial skills from building and manipulating objects

Answer 245

The health of minority groups is generally poorer than that of the majority of the population Racism- direct experience of discrimination Ethnocentrism- expected to adorpt majority ingroups norms, removing what makes you unique SES- lower ses Genetics-

Answer 246

Minority racial and ethnic groups are the subject of discrimination at a number of different levels Discrimination in the health care system reduces access to the system and poorer levels of communication- immigrant, may be bias that doctors have agaisnt you, and barriers to communication eg. language. may not be motivated to communicate effectivley. Racism-related stress a predictor of poor health- being discriminated agsinst is a stresfull experience

Answer 247

Direct, short-term consequences- direct discrimination to you **Activation of HPA axis-** HPA axis= our stress responce, releases cortisol in blood, causing increase BP, HR, stops insulin increasing blood glucose. (HPA activity is good, gives you extra energy when needed, eg, spike in morning to get you out of bed) however if all the time, long term consequences. Heightened blood pressure and Excess cortisol release. Chronic, long-term consequences of this causes: Blunted stress response- dont release enough cortisol overtime to stressful situations Changes in HPA responsiveness, body gives up with HPA axis... Chronic inflammation (interleukins)- makes immune system weaker. fatigue. develop more of a tolerance to stress.

Answer 248

Maladaptive coping mechanisms Alcohol and substance abuse- help you feel better, low SES also effects this. it Has received most attention However, research mixed.

Answer 249

Acute stress response via discrimination Fight or flight Cardiovascular activity (HPA axis) Anticipation of future discrimination… (just as damaging) Anxiety for future racism/sexism Anticipatory stress and rumination (constantly thinking of same negative thoughts) Dysregulates homeostasis

Answer 250

.....majority over minority groups, Often ignore cultural, lifestyle and language differences .... with SES Studies of race and health generally control for SES, and race-related differences frequently disappear after adjustment for SES Environment .... unhealthy environments because of their lower SES. eg cheaper food worse for you. Genetics: .... differing inheritance of disease or health-related traits Inherited epigenetic changes for stress response Sickle cell disorder affecting people of African-Caribbean descent (due to its evolutionary link to malaria resistance.) asian, enzymes related to alchahol, to develop alchahol use disorder.

Answer 251

.... Devalued social identity .... Unfavourable reactions towards people when they are perceived to possess attributes that are undesirable Source of: Physical and psychological stress Denial of employment opportunities Restricted access to services eg. health care, black vs white get given different meds for heart disease, white get better with less side effects. Social exclusion steryotype threat

Answer 252

Stereotype threat Fear of confirming to negative stereotype about group (... self concious to confirming to steryotypes, because you care so much you tend to confirm the steryotype anyway by accident) Heightened cardiovascular reactivity, Disengagement and anxiety ... Often experienced among women in STEM/racial minorities Stereotypes about math ability (women) or intelligence (racial minorities) Undermine performance and can promote maladaptive stress responses

Answer 253

Spencer et al. (1999) – Study 2 tell Men and women before they do a test theres no gender differences= they do the same, disconfirming steryotypes then tell them that men do better= women did alot worse (steryotype threat, started second guessing themselves) and booste in performance in med ( steryotype lift, promote confidence if there told their better)

Answer 254

Vick et al. (2008) Similar paradigm as Spencer et al. (1999) Stereotype threat impacts physiology, looking at blood poressure before maths test tell men there rlly good (gender differences in test) , their BP dropped and little increase in womens BP gender neurtral test= womens BP lowered and mens went up rappidly ( as we removed their saftey blanket of them being better)

Answer 255

When do we experience stereotype threat? if women didnt care about there gender, their performace wasnt much different to men, the more you care and value social idendityy, the more likley you will be effected by steryotypes. Highly identify with gender/race Situation which highlight stereotypes

Answer 256

.... led to 33% reduction in the gender gap in performance (Stricker & Ward, 2004)

Answer 257

womens in a neutral enviromnent interest in STEM went up womens interest in STEM went down when in masculine environment. dont reduce mens interests in neutral, men dont get impacted only women. women have acctually more interest than men in neutral enviroment ... Gendered environments are non-inviting Underrepresentation of stigmatized groups in marketing Cheryan et al. (2009) – Study 1 Men and women Computer science classroom Stereotypical versus non-stereotypical found= women: Showed less interest in computer science when exposed to the stereotypical classroom, likely due to feeling that they did not "fit" the stereotype associated with the environment.

Answer 258

Self-control failure Stereotype threat requires high self-monitoring and prolonged suppression of emotions and behavior, impacting subsequent control egodepletiion Inzlicht et al. (2006) Women told to complete math test after being told men do better... if women were threatened , less likley to hold onto a hand grip after, because dealing with steryotypes requires mental effort, need self control, so it diminishes this after the test.

Answer 259

Holmes and Rahe Social Readjustment Rating Scale is a scale of all the things which cause stress eg. divorce, dealth to stuff like going on holiday.... Daily hassles Everyday inconveniences or frustrations Experience several of these throughout the day Low-levels of stress which are additive Accounts for majority of stress we experience

Answer 260

Daily Hassles Scale= Concern about weight Concern about health of family member Not enough money for housing College Daily Hassles Scale= Increased class workload Review for exams Troubling thoughts about the future Fight with partner Acculturative Daily Hassles for Children= it bothers me when people force me to be like everyone else i dont feel at home here in the uk

Answer 261

Burnout Exhaustion and depletion of emotional and physical resources Pessimism, demonstrating negative or overly detached attitudes Causes of burnout Overwhelming amount of work Feeling lack of control Large emotional component of job

Answer 262

Extended stress can reduce self-control Poor decision making Promotes rewarding behaviors: Overeating Alcohol use Risk-taking

Answer 263

Muraven et al. (2002) Thought suppression (i.e., white bear) Simple arithmetic (control condition) Assessed alcohol consumption those doing more taxing tasks drank more Muraven et al. (2005) Participants kept daily diary Assessed: Daily hassles Alcohol consumption Intended limits on drinking if self control demands exceeded expectations, more likley to drink even when they wanted to limit drinking compared to those who didnt have demads exceeded.

Answer 264

Why might stigmatized social groups experience poorer health compared to privileged social groups? Discuss relevant evidence and theory to support your answer. Discuss how daily stressors may undermine our attempts to make health decisions. What processes may explain our inability to resist temptation?

Answer 265

john cacioppo

Answer 266

Behavioral tasks useful in capturing some aspects of attitudes Limited in the ability to capture processes leading up to behavior Outcomes make assumptions about the underlying processes Other measures which assess sensitive topics are limited Self-reports plagued with social desirability issues Unconscious/implicit biases not always captured by explicit measures eg drugs. eg. gender inequality,

Answer 267

Using the brain to measure social behavioral processes Less concerned with complex cognitive processes and theory Applies basic cognitive neuroscience to understand the underlying processes of social behaviors (e.g., stereotyping) Allows for measuring processes before and after behavior No social desirability Greater accuracy

Answer 268

non-invasive technique that can be applied to humans Uses magnetic coil to induce voltage in brain tissue Can deactivate areas of the cortex Clarifies role of these areas in addiction

Answer 269

new, similar to tms but easier to use. put annode and cathode on head, and transfers an electrical current between the two spots in your head. can be used to increase or decrease electrical activity. use for substance use disorders, depression eg. in netherlands, how to make ppl less prejuduce by adding this electrical current to parts of the brain assosiated with control- PFC. if you have annodal stimulation (positive) increasing AP= it scores go down, less prejudice because increasing strenght of self control. stopping orejucide requires self-control,

Answer 270

Scans measure the radio-frequency waves emitted by hydrogen atoms when they are subjected to a strong magnetic field Gives detailed structure of the brain, does not tell you which parts of the brain are necessarily active in the moment

Answer 271

Using MRI methodology, fMRI indirectly measures brain activity through changes in blood follow that accompany neural activity Measures activation of brain regions during tasks or after perceiving stimuli After something has happened. within seconds Increase in oxygen consumption in area of the brain active There is increased blood flow to the oxygen deficient area Wherever this increase is found, we assume that part was active BOLD (Blood Oxygen Level Dependent) response

Answer 272

Outgroups are not believed to share the basic human physical features that characterize the ingroup eg. outgroups not human differently based on group membership and we dont encode members of outgroup as humans so treat them different. Could be reason for moral exclusion Ascent-Dehumanization Scale Social groups rated from 0 (Least Human) to 100 (Most Human) if rate below human- dehumanize them. social desirability Fusiform face area (FFA) (face processing area) Located in temporal lobe Processing facial information Damage causes inability to recognize: Faces Shapes Objects severs the empathic bonds that people usually feel for one another Triggers indifference, callousness, and inattention to others’ pain Leads to dislike or hatred of dehumanized group Moral justification/exceptions

Answer 273

Electroencephalogram (EEG) affordable Records combined activity from many neurons using electrodes Good temporal resolution but poor spatial resolution Instant neural activity No idea where it is coming from Best used to detect changes in emotions, motivation, or arousal delta gamma= slow beta alpha= faster .. awake

Answer 274

Difference in activity between the left and right frontal lobes Assessed via EEG frequencies Greater LEFT activity = approach (reward) Greater RIGHT activity = avoidance (inhibition) using alpha waves

Answer 275

Manipulated self-control Participants viewed positive versus negative images look at how then people's brains shifted when they looked at positive or negative images. increase in left frontal cortical activity when people fatigued Measured approach (reward) motivations via EEG

Answer 276

Pattern of an electrical response recorded after an event (eg viewing image), which can include the perception of a stimuli or a response to a stimuli Average of the EEG over several stimulus presentations Cancels out the “noise” of the brain’s other activity Pattern of activity which represents cognitive process

Answer 277

self- control Occurs 50-80 milliseconds after response Negative deflection ( when you realise you have done something wrong, ahhhh moment) Greater amplitudes after errors Index of engagement of inhibition Controlled processes! Reflects use of self-control- slower reaction times. higher amplitude= more control weapons identification task. 'oh no ive just been racist'

Answer 278

N170 Occurs ~170 milliseconds after viewing stimuli Negative deflection Index of facial processing Higher amplitude = greater processing Not just humans, anything with familiarity Dog experts = enhanced N170 to dogs Me = enhanced N170 to guitars/cats So they had similar amplitudes for black and white faces.But when they were told to just focus on racial categorisation, We have an increased and 170 amplitudes, white faces and a decreased amplitude to black faces. When we're motivated to individuate someone, we're going to engage this facial processing for anyone. But when we're using top down processing, which people who are highly prejudiced tend to do,the first thing they categorise is probably race or whatever overarching category they have these prejudice attitudes in,

Answer 279

Autonomic nervous system: Controls smooth muscles Stomach Blood vessels Heart And more! Involuntary movements

Answer 280

is a short term stress responce Stimulates sympathetic nervous system (fight/flight) QUICK! Electrical impulse down spinal cord Stimulates hormone release Adrenaline (epinephrine) Noradrenaline (norepinephrine) Short-term response to stress Fights against the vagus nerve! Parasympathetic activity

Answer 281

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) axis Stimulates sympathetic nervous system (fight/flight) SLOW! Long-term response to stress Hormones released into bloodstream from pituitary gland Neuropeptides (slow) Stimulates hormone release in adrenal glands Cortisol!

Answer 282

Promotes release of glucose (blood sugar) Inhibits insulin, which helps store glucose Narrows arteries (increases blood pressure) Epinepherine (adrenaline) released, causing heart to beat faster Requires heart to pump blood with more force (and faster) Usually temporary under normal circumstances Prolonged/chronic stress can extend activation

Answer 283

Extended cortisol release… Supresses immune system Suppresses functions of parasympathetic nervous system Anxiety Digestion Sexual dysfunction Cardiovascular disease Heart begins to wear Blood vessel damage

Answer 284

heart rate and heart rate variability (fluctuation of heart) Heart produces electrical signals Electrodes capture depolarization of ventricles Represented as points on ECG waveform QRS complex

Answer 285

Estimates changes in blood flow in the heart How much blood ejected during each heart beat Volume of blood (stroke volume) Electrodes placed on torso Outer sensors send electrical current Inner sensors detect resistance of current As blood volume increases, resistance increases!

Answer 286

Systolic blood pressure Peak arterial pressure Amount of effort Diastolic blood pressure Lowest arterial pressure Resting pressure

Answer 287

Challenge: Positive physiological stress response Resources exceed demands of stressor Threat: Negative physiological response Demands of stressor exceed resources

Answer 288

What are common issues which affect self-report and behavioral measures? How may neuroscience methods address these issues? Compare and contrast two neuroscience methods and how they may be applied to research in social psychology. What are the potential advantages and limitations of these methods?

Answer 289

psychology of the work place its fast growing uk call it occupational psychology

Answer 290

- industrial (personnel) =practical day to day stuff (Job Analysis Legal issues in Employee Selection Recruiting & Interviewing Psychological Testing Performance Evaluation Training Systems Design of Workspaces Work Motivation Job Stress) - organizational= aethereal theoretical stuff (Workplace Diversity Individual Differences Organizational Structure, Culture, Change Communication Leadership & Management Style Work Teams & Group Dynamics Decision Making & Problem Solving Power, Politics, Conflict, Negotiation Job Satisfaction)

Answer 291

biggest conference in this field most topics about EDI, inclusion, personality and 100's more.

Answer 292

Approximately 6% of psychologists work in I/O 10,000 professional members of SIOP in 2017 50%male/female Many international members One of the fastest growing careers between 2012-2022 Projected growth rate of 53% (U.S. Department of Labor, 2014) However, still a widely ‘unknown’ career path I/O is underrepresented in most undergraduate curriculums Highest average income of all psychology disciplines in US M.S. = $85,000 per year PhD = $119,000 per year

Answer 293

4 Broad career options (although, many more exist) Consulting (1- Internal/ 2- external) 3- Academia 4- Government / Research

Answer 294

BPA qualification- masters from approved programme. an I/O degree to practice I/O?

Answer 295

bachelors degree (3 years) masters degree (1 year) doctoral degree (3 years+)

Answer 296

I/O psychology: Research methods Quantitative methods Employee selection Organizational psychology Psychometrics Employee training and development Performance appraisal Job analysis typical business programmes: Finance Marketing Organizational behavior Corporate strategies & policies Accounting Information systems Economics Operations management

Answer 297

being a scientist and also practicing and applyying to real world settings. use... Scientist-practitioner model: The scientific method as basis for knowledge generation and development of interventions The medical/clinical field is a good example of this Several factors undermine scientist-practitioner model: Lack of data for practitioners Academics not answering applied questions Practitioners not being rewarded for research Real-world time pressures

Answer 298

Help organizations make good decisions Decisions surrounding human capital eg: Skills, expertise, wellbeing, etc. of workforce to make company more profitable ... this cost and efficiency

Answer 299

The Hawthorne Studies Partnership between Harvard psychologists and Western Electric Studies aimed at applying science to increase efficiency without raising costs: looked at: - lighting found: - Productivity increased when light increased, decreased, or held constant! what? explain? - productivity only increased because they were being observed! - confounding variable. Not many takeaways… but demonstrated feasibility of I/O!

Answer 300

Commonly studied job attitudes Job satisfaction Commitment Employee engagement or involvement Organizational support/justice

Answer 301

The degree of pleasure an employee derives from their job An overall evaluation of favorability A good predictor of: Job performance Turnover/absences Overall health (depression, anxiety, psychological distress)

Answer 302

3 types of job attachment (Allen & Meyer, 1990) 1- Affective- acceptance of the organisational goals and values, taking those on as your own/ internalising of the organisation. (internal motivation) 2- Calculative/continuance- It's this idea that you're better off continuing on because of the time you've invested is better than starting over somewhere else. (cost effect) 3- Normative- social pressures, external motivation drilled into you, So you act in a way because you feel pressured to, not because necessarily you feel like you want to. (external motivation) Correlated with: Job satisfaction Turnover Job performance

Answer 303

The process of learning about an individual to make an inference Goal is prediction of future behaviors Success in past situations = success in future Stable, individual differences predict future behavior Presence of suitable motivations Anticipated performance a function of motivation and ability Could be most skilled applicant, but must also demonstrate motivation!

Answer 304

Accurate prediction based on: - Correctly linking predictors with job criteria - Relies on job analysis (list of required tasks and knowledge/skills) - Theoretical linkage between must be made between constructs - Accurately measuring predictors and criteria - Reliability, validity, contamination, deficiency Data should be collected to empirically show linkages: - Needs theory to guide interpretation of results - Real-world pressures may undermine empirical approach

Answer 305

Approaches to measuring knowledge/skills: Past experiences/accomplishments - Education, rewards, job experience, references Direct demonstration - Job knowledge tests, job simulations, assessment centers, job try-out/internship Indirect construct measurement - Personality tests, cognitive ability tests, integrity tests, interviews Future-oriented skill assessment - Measuring for the potential to develop skills in the future - Cognitive ability, adaptability, flexibility, learning orientation

Answer 306

Cognitive ability ‘g’, intelligences, logical reasoning Job knowledge Personality Big 5 (NEOAC), dark triad (Machiavellianism, narcissism, psychopathy) Integrity Physical ability Emotional intelligence Situational Judgement Machiavellianism – get your way by manipulating others, acquire and use political power Narcissism – high degree of self importance, control others and be admired Psychopathy – lack of concern for others

Answer 307

Other measures Resumes Employment references Drug testing Work samples Job tryouts (e.g., internship, probation, apprenticeship) Polygraph Social network data mining

Answer 308

myers-briggs (low validity) trade off is its much cheaper.

Answer 309

Desirable traits for good person-job fit: Openness: willingness to embrace new ideas and new situations May adjust better to organizational change Linked to higher creativity and adaptability Conscientiousness: follows through and gets things done Strongest predictor of job performance Too much can be a bad thing Extraversion: A outgoing, talkative, and sociable as well as enjoys social situations Linked to higher performance in sales and management Related to social interactions and persuasion Agreeableness: Being a nice person in general Effective in jobs requiring cooperation and helpfulness Neuroticism: tendency to be anxious or moody Emotional stability relates to stress coping Also strong predictor of job performance

Answer 310

Recently, many organizations are moving to team-based structures Technology much better now because of covid Work distributed across time and location Many organizations need to be adaptive and respond quickly to changes Pooling knowledge/skills has many advantages Working with others can be motivating and fulfilling Teams have advantages; however they require effort, planning, and monitoring to succeed!

Answer 311

Advantages: Can make better decisions, products/services Better information sharing Increase employee motivation/engagement More flexibility More motivation Challenges: Extra resources needed for team maintenance Social loafing – members potentially exert less effort in teams than alone Groupthink and polarization – shifting to extreme options, maintaining harmony Potential for unhealthy conflict

Answer 312

Effort reduced when performing in group rather than alone Why? Low accountability High expected effort from others High perceived dispensability Tasks that lack personal meaning

Answer 313

Group polarization: The tendency for group discussion to shift group members toward an extreme position Groupthink: The tendency toward flawed group decision-making when group members are so intent on preserving group harmony they fail to analyze a problem completely

Answer 314

Effective team members must be willing to work on team Effective members possess specific competencies(5 C’s in diagram): - coorperating - conflict resolving - comforting - comunicating - coordinating

Answer 315

- A set of behaviors that people are expected to perform - Some formally assigned; others informally - Informal role assignment occurs during team development and is related to personal characteristics eg the producer, the organiser etc...

Answer 316

Type of task: Complex tasks= divisible people with specialized roles (if assigned) Well-structured tasks = easier to coordinate (requires resources) Higher task interdependence= Team members must share materials, information, or expertise Teams usually perform better because high interdependence (a) requires better communication/coordination and (b) motivates team membership

Answer 317

high = reciprocal middle= sequential low= pooled

Answer 318

Smaller teams are better because: Need less time to coordinate roles and resolve differences Require less time to develop More engaged with team – know the members Feel more responsible for team’s success But team must be large enough to accomplish task The role of an I/O to figure this out…

Answer 319

diversity is good because: View problems/alternatives from different perspectives Broader knowledge base Better representation of team’s constituents However… may take longer to become a high-performing team

Answer 320

-Recognition and monitoring of the situation -Adapting behaviors and style to meet current demands -This requires having many tools/approaches at your disposal Leadership is not a role, it is a set of behaviors and skills A team can have one leader who is held accountable for leadership OR Everyone can engage in different aspects of leadership (shared) We often distinguish between leadership and management Both are important, but have different connotations

Answer 321

Trait theories: Leaders are born, not made We identify specific traits that make someone a good leader E.g., intelligence, personality, being energetic, charismatic, etc Behavioral theories: Leaders can be made Leadership is about applying behaviors which can be learned E.g., organizing ideas, setting goals, monitoring performance and providing feedback Maybe both? Integrated model of leadership

Answer 322

Power and influence approaches= lead by telling people what to do Contingency approach= need to be flxecible and adaptive, dif leadership styles. Transformational Leadership Leader-Member Exchange Theory Authentic vs servant leadership Developed by Social Psychologists

Answer 323

French and Raven (1960s) power is important: differentiate different Types of power Coercive Power= This is when forcing someone, even though, they don't want to do it. Many dictators uses this power. It is also a form of power that allows someone to be advanced in their career. Demands should be legal and respectful, this helps the employee to accomplish, what they didn't want to do. Reward Power= This can be a promotion or raise. These people give reward, when someone has worked hard. The sacrifice has to be worth it. Legitimate Power= It is a person who is credible. In a company, the longer you were in company means the higher ranking you are in. People shows power by showing how capable to take on responsibilities in the company. Expert Power= This power is based on someone's education, skills and knowledge. Professionals have to develop skills that makes them an 'expert'.They need to be maintained and keep educating themselves to order to succeed. Influence is applying power to change attitudes or behavior

Answer 324

Fielder (1972) Leadership approaches assuming fixed styles were least effective Situations and employees variable, adjustment and flexibility needed!

Answer 325

Transformational Leadership: leadership through a process of inspiring a group to pursue goals and attain results Leadership builds and communicates a clear vision, empowers followers to make transformations Leaders instil confidence and high self-expectations in followers Transactional Leadership: Leadership through allocation of rewards/consequences in exchange for behaviors More effective if clear goals and expectations, constant monitoring of performance, and consistent continencies Laissez-faire Leadership: Non-leadership, where responsibility is deflected and followers are on their own Only linked to negative outcomes self- determination theory

Answer 326

transformational: - charming, able to inspire – generate emotional reactions in followers. Transcends logic alone -Leading by example – doing while saying - Motivate and inspire to pursue challenging work. - Stimulate followers intellect, creativity, and questioning assumptions - Pay attention to each follower’s needs transactional : - Self explanatory - Actively seek problems/mistakes and provide punishment laizze-faire: - Wait for mistakes, then punish

Answer 327

we have social groups outside of work, in an organization we also have diferent social groups. make in-groups and out-groups Focuses on the dyadic relationship between leaders and followers Does not assume that the leader has the same relationship with each “follower” 1) Members of “in-group” have high-quality relationship with leader - In group members are highly empowered and motivated - In exchange they get more attention and support from leaders 2) Members of “out-group” have a more formal relationship with leader - Leader more likely to use formal sources of authority - Members take on routine tasks What leads to in-group/out-group relationship? - Competence and skill - Trustworthiness - Perceived similarity High-quality relationships related to: - Positive work attitudes, pro-organizational behaviors, less turnover - Less likely to resist organizational change But what about “out-group” members?...

Answer 328

Authentic leadership Good leaders are genuine and transparent in their actions Make decisions in unbiased ways, solicit other opinions and ideas Strong morals/values, even when posed with ethical dilemmas Servant leadership Good leaders put the needs of others ahead of their own Lead to more loyalty to leader than the organization

Answer 329

Organizational Culture aka. the environment/culture The language, values, attitudes, beliefs, and customs of organization eg. innovation, stability, respect etc...

Answer 330

tangible or intangible elements that represent and influence a company's culture Stories and legends Social prescriptions of desired (or dysfunctional) behavior “Realistic” example of organization’s expectations Most effective stories and legends: Describe real people Assumed to be true Known throughout the organization Are prescriptive

Answer 331

Rituals - Routines of employees (e.g., how visitors are greeted) Ceremonies - Planned activities (e.g., award ceremonies) Language - How employees address each other, express emotions, describe stakeholders - Leaders use language to anchor or change culture

Answer 332

if women were told the ideal candidate was masculine, they had increased arousal in interview, and poorer performance.