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developmental psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

Normative age-graded influences
on development eg.

A

. puberty, starting school

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2
Q

d,e,o

aims of developmental psych….

A

describle, explain and optimise development.

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3
Q

when does human development begin?

A

at contreception

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4
Q

a ….. period is considered a time in dev when a certain experience must occur for the organism to develop

A

critical

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5
Q

attatchment theory

bowlby used the term ‘secure base’ to refer to…

A

the presence of an attatchment figure

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6
Q

the term senescence describes…

A

biological ageing

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7
Q

baltes model of development…
1
2
3

A

normative age- graded influences
normative history-graded influences
non-normative life events

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8
Q

Normative history-graded influences
on development eg.

A

covid, WWII, natural disaster

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9
Q

Non-normative life events on development eg.

A

personal….death of parent, serious injury

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10
Q

baltes model … 1,2,3

How do we test for these influences on development?

A

Age

Cohort

Time of testing

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11
Q

Cross-sectional studies
…participants
…ages
…historical time
positives
negatives

A

Different participants, different ages, same time

Cost effective

Quick

Confounds?
Ex: Individual differences? (dif many not be due to development but individual experiences eg. trauma) Cohort effects?
Ex: 30-, 60-, 90-year-olds?

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12
Q

Longitudinal design
…participants
…ages
…historical time
positives
negatives

A

Same participants, different ages, different times

High attrition rate (ppl drop out)

Time-consuming

Original research question still viable at study completion?

Confounds?
Ex: Biased sample?

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13
Q

Cohort Studies
…participants
…ages
…historical time
positives
negatives

A

Different participants, same ages, different historical time
ex: look at 8 year olds but all from dif generations, so every 10 years test a 8 year old

Time consuming

Danger of research question becoming obsolete

Confounds?
age of child?

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14
Q

Cohort Sequential Design
…participants
…ages
…historical time
positives
negatives

A

mix of longitudional and cross sectional…
unlikley…
Different AND same participants, different AND same ages, different AND same historical time
Ex: effect of preschool programmes on children born in 1990, 2000, 2010, follow them from 3-12 years of age.

High attrition rate

Time consuming

Question may become obsolete

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15
Q

twin studies
Monozygotic twins

Dizygotic or Fraternal
dif between 2 being treated…
tend to be adopted…

A

(~100% identical)
(50% identical)
identical twins treated more similary compared to non-identical
tend to be adopted into similar environments

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16
Q

adoption studies
what it does
drawbacks
cross-fostering expermint is when..

A

Rearing environment from adoptive parents

Genetic inheritance from biological parents

Whom do they resemble most?

Drawbacks?
- seperate twins to dif families for research of nature/nurture
- Cross-fostering experiments ( cant do with children.. obvs so do with rats and mice..)

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17
Q

dif between cross-fostering experiment and adoptive studies

A

same aim but cross is unethican and very controlled wheras adoptive the experimenter has no control of where they go they just observe (problem is they tend to go to a similar fam)

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18
Q

Evolutionary Psychology
looks at…
but we to look at chimps not humans becausee…

A

whether human ancestry tell us about ourselves now?
they dont have cultural ‘standards’. certain expectations effects human behaviour, social roles.
hard to control cultural diferences

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19
Q

Evolutionary Developmental Psychology

A
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20
Q

Cross-cultural influences
example= Motor milestones

A

cultural practices impact development defo

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21
Q

How does culture affect developmental views
issues with psych studies…

A

USA is most studies so cant be universal
W.E.I.R.D science
all psych is westernised
we dont test all cultures
not universal

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22
Q

weird acranim…

A

western, english speaking, industralised, rich, democratic

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23
Q

Sensation is when info about …. picked up by …. and transmitted to …

lecture 2

A

environment… sensory receptors… brain

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24
Q

Perception is interpretation by the … of this input
How we … the events, objects and people in our environment

A

brain…understand

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25
Q

Visual perception development

Visual acuity (sharpness of vision) is …. at birth, rapid increase in first …
Near adult levels by …

A

poor… 6 months… 1 year

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26
Q

Visual scanning (looking around for info)
Younger than …, cannot track moving objects smoothly

… month: focus on limited features of shape, particularly outside edges

… months: start to focus on internal features

A

2 months… 1 … 2

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27
Q

colour vision
…. can distinguish between white and red, but not other colours (ex: Adams et al. 1994)

Around … month, look longer at brighter, bold colours

By … months close to adult ability

A

newborns.. 1 .. 4

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28
Q

How do we test perceptual abilities? (aka senses)

A

Preference tests

Habituation tests

Conditioning

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29
Q

preference tests is when you …

A

.Present two stimuli at same time

Measure how long infant looks at each

Does infant look at one more than the other?
Infant can discriminate between stimuli

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30
Q

in Habituation Tests ppl are

A

Shown interesting stimulus repeatedly
Infant loses interest eventually (habituation)

Change to a different stimulus
Infant shows renewed interest and looks again (dishabituation)

If so, the infant can tell the difference

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31
Q

Conditioning is when you … for eg…

A

Repeatedly reward target behaviour
Ex: increase sucking rate, get specific stimuli

Infant becomes habituated to stimulus

Stimulus is altered (ex. HAS procedure)
If infant does not increase sucking rate treats 2 stimuli as the same
Does increase sucking rate  distinguishes between 2 stimuli

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32
Q

face perception
infants are born with …
1. innate…
2. recognition for…
3. sensitivity to…
4. imitation…

A

Innate Attraction
Recognition of Face Patterns
Sensitivity to Emotions
Imitation and Social Interaction

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33
Q

Most individuals reach peak face perception abilities in ….

A

early adulthood

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34
Q

What can you tell from a face?

A

Species
Sex
Race
Identity
Mood, Emotional state
Intent, truthfulness

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35
Q

Theoretical Approaches
Nativism:
Empiricism:

A

abilities from birth – innate, inborn (faces organized at birth
)
acquire overtime through experience – learned (Perceive faces as they perceive other objects
becomes specialized after experience)

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36
Q

Fantz (1961):

1-15 wk old

Innate Face Preference? children prefer…. over … faces

A

complex… simple

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37
Q

innate face preferences?
Maurer and Barrera (1981): add controls for complexity
…month: no difference in looking times
…months: looked longer at “natural face”

A

1…2

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38
Q

innate face preferences?
Goren et al (1975)
Used moving stimuli instead of static
Newborns tracked … face more than other two

A

schematic (normal)

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39
Q

Early face preference?
Johnson et al (1991)
Replicated effect with newborns
By …. months, no longer track any face more
Why does this face preference vanish?….

A

3
… cognitive development, exposure, and the maturation of perceptual abilities.

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40
Q

Johnson and Morton (1991) 2 process model: shows…

infants develop their ability to perceive faces over time through two distinct systems: …. and …..

early system= …. which help newborns quickly and efficiently detect and respond to face-like stimuli in their environment. which is needed for social interaxctions such as….
brain regions….
later system= …. which relies on the ….. for more precise recognition of faces. develops as infants gain ….
brain regions…

A

CONSPEC and CONLEARN.
conspec

bonding with caegivers (attatchment theory)
amygdala and the brainstem

conlearn

visual cortex
…experience and exposure to their social environment.
fusiform gyrus

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41
Q

What else can newborns do?
Recognize …. (Turati et al., 2008)

Recognize ….. (Farroni et al., 2002)
Look more at direct than averted gaze

Recognize …. (Field et al., 1982)
Infants dishabituated when expression changed

A

identity of novel individuals
eye-gaze
expressions

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42
Q

what else can infants do?
Prefer …. (Slater et al. 2000)
Newborns < 1week old looked longer at…

Discriminate …. (Bushnell, 2001; Pascalis et al, 1995)
Ex: Walton et al (1992)
Sucked more to keep ….’s face on video
1-4 days old!

A

attractive faces
mothers face

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43
Q

How are they doing it?
Pascalis et al. (1995)
Preference for mother’s face disappeared when ….
Newborns use …. to identify

Turati et al. (2006)
Could use both outer and inner features

A

outside of face and hairline masked
outer features

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44
Q

as we get older there is a narrowing of the ……
face-perception skills become more …

A

perceptual window
specialized

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45
Q

Pascalis et al (2002)

….m infants could discriminate between monkey faces and human faces
…. m infants and adults could only discriminate between human faces
** If exposed to monkey faces, ….ms could discriminate (Pascalis et al 2005)

A

6 months
9 months
9

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46
Q

Sugita (2008)

Monkeys not exposed to faces
Before exposure: able to process ….
After exposure: only retained the ability to discriminate between the….

A

both monkey and human faces
face types they’d been exposed to

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47
Q

“Other-race” effect is that adults are…
and proof is that 3 month olds…

A

..worse at discriminating faces of other races compared to own race (Tanaka et al., 2004)
3m old, but not newborns, prefer own race faces (Kelly et al 2005)

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48
Q

Sangrigoli et al (2005):

Korean adults adopted between 3-9y into Caucasian families were better at …
eg of the …

A

recognising caucasian faces.
effect of the environment and the other race effect

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49
Q

Quinn et al. 2002/8)

3 month olds prefer faces of the gender that was their…

A

primary care giver

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50
Q

Wismer Fries & Pollak, 2004

Institutionalized children (care homes etc…) showed defecits in…

A

in identifying emotions in faces

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51
Q

(Pollak et al. 2000)

Children raised in abusive environment show bias for …

A

angry faces

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52
Q

adults can recognize faces as familiar within….

A

0.5s

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53
Q

Retain info of large number of faces for example
….% recognition of yearbook photos
Class size of up to 900, up to 35 years later

A

90%

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54
Q

So if adults are experts at face perception, when does this expertise fully emerge?

A

Some research suggests not until 30+ years for face learning/recognition

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55
Q

Late maturation vs. Early maturation

Two key theories:
Face specific perceptual development theory:
General cognitive development theory:

A

Ongoing development of face-specific perception mechanisms; continue to develop into late child and adolescence
Face perception gets better because of increased exposure/experience with faces

face perception matures early (4-5 yrs?)
performance increases later as general **cognitive mechanisms improve
**

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56
Q

Disproportionate inversion effect is when the ability to recognize …
which highlights…

A

faces is disproportionately impaired when the faces are presented upside-down (inverted) compared to non-face objects

highlights the specialized nature of face processing in the brain, as the inversion of faces disrupts recognition more significantly than it does for other types of stimuli, like houses, animals, or objects.
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57
Q

Holistic/configural processing is how the brain processes…

A

… faces by focusing on the entire structure (H) and relationships between facial features (C) rather than processing individual features in isolation
Code spacing between face and features

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58
Q

Susilo et al. (2013)

Tested over 2,000 18-33 year olds
Controlled for non-face visual recognition, sex & own-race bias
and showed….
Conclude results support
….

A

Positive association between age and facial recognition abilities

“late maturation hypothesis”

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59
Q

Neurodivergent face perception

indiv with autism spectrum disorder find it hard to…

A

Recognizing familiar people
Remembering faces
Interpreting eye-gaze and emotions

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60
Q

ppl with William’s Syndrome find it dificult to…

A

Process unfamiliar faces atypically
Prolonged face gaze (Riby et al. 2008)

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61
Q

Prosopagnosia (face blindness)
Damage or abnormalities in ….

Congenital prosopagnosia – from …

A

right fusiform gyrus (stroke, brain injury)
birth, appears to run in families

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62
Q

executive functions are a …. process like the …

lecture 3

A

top down.. central executive

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63
Q

(Miyake et al., 2000)

domain general construct..
3 core processes of the executive function are….
which mean….

A

inhibition- ability to control attention
working memory - ability to hold items in mind and then process info at the same time, info processing. hold info in mind while processing other info
cognitive flexability- ability to switch tasks, change attention

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64
Q

what is executive function?

A

a set of mental skills that help you manage your thoughts, actions, and emotions to achieve goals. These skills include self-control, staying focused, planning, and adapting to new situations. They are important for tasks like organizing, problem-solving, and making decisions.

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65
Q

overview of measuring …

how do we measure executive functions?
a cog psychologist….
vs a developmental …. problem…

A

takes measures based on adults and applies to children
vs
creates age appropriate tasks so you can follow development. problem… so have lots of tasks and lots of people trying to find out how they continue to develop

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66
Q

1) measuring executive function
(dev)
= inhibitory control
eg. fish
congruent and incongruent options..
looking for childrens ability to…
so basically inhibibitory control is when…

A

congruent option= fish all facing same way to middle
incongruent= fish all facing diferent direction to middle
.. inhibit that responce for the incongruent trial. (not make the mistake) Rt will be slower as trying to inhibit that responce.

you give children a task where they have a incongruent task and time how long it takes for them to inhibit /supress the wrong responce.

loads of dif tasks

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67
Q

Wiebe et al. (2012):

inhibitory control shows graded performance meaning that…

A

from 3-6 years old the accuracy increased by 30%

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68
Q

ability of inhibitory control is still developing …

A

in adolecence, into 20’s. decrease in erros, become better and more effcient at supressing wrong.

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69
Q

2) measuring executive function
= working memory
eg. complex span tasks are when…

A

give them a sentance and they have to end the sentance for you. eg. i like to eat fish and ….. (hope=chips), hold that answer in mind. then a baker makes a loaf of …(hope=bread) then asked ro recal these 2 items in serial order.. chips… bread.
(have to hold words in mind while processing sentances)

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70
Q

2) measuring executive function
= working memory
eg. the backward digit span is when…
at age of 6 months have capacity of ….
and at 1-10 years have capacity of… items

A

somone says numbers to you and you have to repeat them back starting with the last item. eg. 3,4,5. i say 5,4,3.

1 item
2/3 items
- individual diferences
- dif processes happening for working memory to work/hit 3 items.

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71
Q

3) measuring executive function
= cognitive flexability (ability to shift)
eg. dimensional change card sort test
0-3 dont have this…
what age do they achieve this?

A

sort by item or colour eg. red car and blue baloon. if its colour put blue car in the blue section not the baloon, then change.
when change rule they will carry on with the first rule of the colour for a while until they have a lightbulb moment.

cognitive felxability, as get to 4.5 they are able to achieve this

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72
Q

Ferguson et al., (2021)

took data from all executive functioning tasks (adding…)

found have very diferent ….
controlled for IQ and SES which is good because..

inhibition and working memory look…

moral of this is it teaches us…

A

… stroop and tower of hanoi
trajecturies for each of these diferent processes.
… IQ and age are inherintly correlated and its linked to general cognitive perofrmance so want IQ to all be similar so its not affecting what the study is acc about. same as SES (lower SES= lower ability) want to see TRUE EFFECT

.. similar accross the life span

whilst all these papers are trying to pin trajecturies together you cant.. as its all very diferent across the lifespan.

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73
Q

3) measuring executive function
= cognitive flexability (ability to shift)
eg. the wisconsin card sorting task. (more complex more dimensions)
7-21…
15 yo did not …

A

same thing happening, rule will change but not told rule is going to change. you have to work it out when they say its wrong. testing ability to notice switch rules.

shift costs decrease
differ form adults.

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74
Q

domain specific=
domain genral=

A

= if you measure 1 its not going to effect the other
= 1 can effect another

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75
Q

correlation table stars mean they are…
more stars by every measure means…

A

significantly related
.. there all pretty related/ strong evidence in children there all correlated.

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76
Q

Wu et al., (2011)

think theres a 3 factor model (3 factors- factor analysis) which are…
all highly related to eachother

A

shifting, working memory, inhibiton

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77
Q

at diferent stages process can be predicted by diferent things
eg. tower of hanoi
executive function is predicted by …. and 4 yo
and after that its predicted by…

why is this???

A

at 4 its predicted by inhibition
older its predicted by working memory

dif parts are developing at dif rates, inhibition is more mature at 4 so it predicts the behaviour.

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78
Q

what you believe on most psychology things is your choice based on…

A

which studies you believe to have done the most reliabe best study with controlls. if theres dif stuff being found in dif studies work out which study you believ to be the best.

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79
Q

when born brain is so highly connected everythwere then it is …

A

refined

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80
Q

brain facts

6-7 brain ia about …% of an adult brain so has matured alot.
…. is last to develop
early years occipital lobe is more matured as doing lots of…
start to see changes in parital frontal and finally temporal lobes by age of …

A

90%
PFC pre frontal cortex.
looking and grabbing
20

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81
Q

progressive changes=
regressive changes =

A

=myelination, neuron proliferation, synaptogenesis
=cell death, synaptic pruning, loss in grey matter

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82
Q

synaptic pruning

A

eliminating unused or weaker synapses in the brain. occurs after synaptogenesis and is part of how the brain becomes more effieicent - occurs especially during adolecence

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83
Q

myelination

A

coating axons with fatty substance for insulation, speeding up transmittion between neurons.

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84
Q

gray matter

A

contains most of brains neurons and synapses

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85
Q

neural proliferation

A

neurons multiply at a very fast rate, mostly during prenatal development, linked to neurogenesis

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86
Q

synaptogenesis

A

neurons form connections caused synapses, the wiring of the brain

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87
Q

cell death

A

natural and controlled process where cells die off as part of development - efficient brain function.

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88
Q

as grow up increase in gray matter due to…

A

synaptogenesis, mylination , neural profileration

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89
Q

as get into adolescence its the refining of these…
this is why you are not perfomring like an adult when your brain is an ‘adult brain’

A

synaptic pruning, cell death and myleination

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90
Q

maturation of the prefrontal cortex:infancy

6-12 months….
12-18 months….
Synaptogenesis in the PFC in the….

A

…Increases in dendritic trees in layer III of the PFC (Koenderink et al., 1994)
12-18 months: Peak in synaptogenesis in the middle frontal gyrus (Huttenlocher et al., 1997)
Synaptogenesis in the PFC in the first decade of life; reduction in synapses through adolescence and adulthood (Glantz et al., 2007)

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91
Q

cerebral blood volume=
increases in PFC for …
other areas of brain=

connectivity of mylination in frontal and temporal lobes takes up to…

A

the amount of blood thats being pumped into specific areas of the brain.

8/9 months of age, which isnt very long but other areas happens in first 2-3 months of life.

6-8 months and 4-6 in other areas.

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92
Q

middle childhood and adolecence= can do fmri
changes in brain:
gray matter during puperty…
then it …
total gray matter does stay fairly…
white matter increases during … because

A

peaks
declines.
constant
adolecence… myelination

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93
Q

realtionship betwee brain and behaviour (developmental trajectories)
2 questions:
1) what are developmental changes in PFC…
2) what role do regions beyond the dorsolateral PFC play in subserving cognitive functions?

A

… look at activation patterns in imaging studies
- OFC= decision-making and the assessment of rewards and punishments
- parietal cortex is important for spatial awareness, attention, and sensory integration.

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94
Q

how do you study brain function in infancy and why is it so dificult?
can do…but..
there is… which is good because…

A

you cant put a child in MRI because you have to stay still and children dont
consent
bad for developing brain
EEG but is temporary not spatially
FNIRS- which used to look at oxygendated blood flow in child brain, same bold responce but all you have to do is put a cap on a child.

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95
Q

6-8 minths old children showing …
matches with study about ….
the months mapp onto eachother.
across dif tasks, watching activation between …., increase oxygenation see patterns for all these dif tasks.

A

inhibitory control
myelination
dorsilateral PFC and the parietal lobes

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96
Q

Ezekiel et al., (2013):

functional connectivity of the PFC
): fMRI
at 3
at 4yo

A

At 3yo: Weak neural interactions within the frontal cortex and unrefined frontoparietal connectivity
At 4.5yo: Stronger neural connections and a refined pathways with efficient connectivity

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97
Q

studies confirm the involvement of the ….
and the
The PFC does not work in …

A

PFC in early EF
isolation

98
Q

2 dif types of shifts
QUALITATIVE CHANGES?=
QUANTIATATIVE CHANGES?=

A

Patterns of brain activity are more diffused in your children or show distinct neural patterns relative to adults

Strengthening of region-to-region connections, consistent set of brain regions

99
Q

ENGLEHARDT ET AL., (2019)

each tasks is there overlapping brain regions?
black regions all 3 parts are activated
compares children to adult performance which shows
what shift is this?

A

no not rlly so domain specific
there are frontal and parietal involved in all of it. other areas supporting seperate parts.

seeing same activation patterns in adults.

quantitative, seeing majority overlapping

100
Q

adolencence, 2 tasks: Wm task vs attention task
overlapping areas of brain over 2 tasks..

when 13/14 yo=
20-24=

A

dont overlap at all
starting to see overlap.
if brain regions are starting to overlap and work together

101
Q

Typical and AtypicalLanguage Development
- communtication is the…
- language is the…
- example of communication are…
- example of language…

week 4

A

…The transmission of information between the source and a receiver using a signaling system
…The comprehension and use of words and sentences to convey ideas and information, which can be spoken, written or signed (part of communication)

song birds learning song, humans gossiping
humans gossiping

102
Q

Is language uniquely human?
chimp example=

A

chimpanzee called kanzie with foster mother, trying to teach older one symbolic language.
hears word, knows which symbol to click, uses the symbols to request things

103
Q

noam chompski quote=

A

our human brains before we are born are made to learn language-
babies being primed for language, learn speech sounds in the womb
language is complex- we are designed to language, innate, will be learned.

“A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure and without specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, arousing in them novel ideas and subtle perceptions and judgments.”

104
Q

falculty of language
broad sense=
narrow sense=

do other animals have these?

A

speech perception, vision, memory etc (chimps have some abilities)

(chimps are unlilley to have narrow senses) eg. speech production, syntax, Hierarchical syntax, Mitteilungsbedurnis
(deisre ro need to talk to humans)

105
Q

4 components of language=

A
  1. phonology ( The interpretation of speech sounds in a particular language)
  2. semantics (Concerned with meaning )
  3. syntax ( the structure of sentances)
  4. pragmatics (Appropriate and effective communication)
106
Q

1) component of language= phronolgy is the…
phoneme is a …
phonetics is the ….
phone is…

A

Phonology is the interpretation of speech sounds in a particular language
Phoneme: A phoneme is the smallest unit that, when changed, changes the meaning of a word
Phonetics: is the production and perception of speech sounds in any language, concerned with the acoustics and articulation of those sounds
Phone: Speech sound

107
Q

2) component of language= semantics…
What is a word?? words contain… eg…
what type of words are learnt fastest? (babies)
semantics is more than word forms, dif words have dif meanings eg.
we know which one is used by…

A

Semantics: Concerned with meaning.
Includes words (lexical knowledge) and word combinations

words… an arbitrary signal that refers to a particular concept

Contains form and meaning – words occupy the ‘meeting point’ between these levels

E.g. dog = content word – a noun
Types of words: Nouns, verbs, adjectives etc

Probably the primary object of speech perception

  • nouns
  • a ‘bar’ has dif meanings
  • context which changes meaning too.
108
Q

Morphology:
Morpheme:

example:

A

Morphology: structure of a given language’s morphemes
Morpheme: smallest unit of linguistic meaning or function (eg. sheep or dog)

example- sheep and dog
if put 2 morphemes together to sheepdog, chnages its meaning to a dog what looks after sheep.

109
Q

How do children acquire word meaning?
Word learning biases like….
shape bias …
aids early…

A

… Whole object constraint- - Words refer to whole object rather than parts of object

.. Generalise to other objects that are the same shape, rather than other attributes (texture, colour, material, etc)
Aids early noun learning

110
Q

Barrett’s Multi-Route Model
Referential words are….
example the word…

Context-bound words are …
example..

A

…: used in variety of contexts
- ‘more’ can request lots of diferent things

  • only used in specific contexts
  • ‘duck’ rubber duck in their bath- may not be able to translate duck to other ducks they see in the park, gradually they will realise objects have catogries.
111
Q

Gleitman’s syntactic boot-strapping hypothesis
(syntax)

A

of “noun phrase” arguments or participants

children are Sensitive to syntactic and semantic correspondences from early age

Extract meanings of new words from syntactic clues-
so. if a child has never seen a ball, and you say can u kick the ball they will asume its the one that needs kicking (syntac helps ppl undertand what some objects are by where they are in sentances) hel;ps support the aqusition of meaning.
Mary kicked the ball (transitive: subject + object)
Tom is sleeping (intransitive: subject, no object)

112
Q

Gleitman’s syntactic boot-strapping hypothesis

How do we test this?

A

Observational studies of spontaneous speech
Look for particular patterns or structures (“sheeps”)

Artificial language in experiments:
Look! Cookie Monster is “gorping” Big Bird
Look! Cookie Monster and Big Bird are “gorping”
Measure looking times at 2 different videos
Children look longer at appropriate video

113
Q

3) component of language = syntax…
4) 3 parts are…
5) eg.

A

The structure of sentences

subject, verb, object
dog, chased, cat
1) the dog chased the cat
2) the cat chased the dog
(swapped the pbject and subject around)

114
Q

4) component of language= pragmatics..
3 key aspects are…

A

:Appropriate and effective communication
Knowing how to use language appropriately in social situations

1) Using language for different purposes
E.g. “I would like you to give me a biscuit” (requesting)
Vs “Give me a biscuit” (demanding)

2) Changing language according to the needs of a listener or situation
E.g. “Friend vs lecturer vs the King”
what age do people do this? 3 yo vs the king

3) Following rules for conversations and storytelling
E.g. staying on topic and taking turns

115
Q

typical Semantic development, age in months and years:

Receptive knowledge – comprehension ….
Expressive knowledge – production…

A

receptive: 6months + they undertand quite alot
takes about 4 years to undertsand jokes

expressive: 10-12 months - first word – usually nouns
12-18 months - one-word stage (doggy! not theres a dog!)
~18 months - approx. 50 words
18-22 months - vocabulary spurt - 50-300 words in a few months.
Largely nouns and adjectives e.g. teddy dancing, but function words omitted e.g. my teddy is dancing
2-6 years – vocabulary continues to increase

116
Q

Syntactical development (Grammar)
18-24 months is the …. stage
move from …. to ….
telegraphic speech is when they use…
24 months+=
4 years=

A

2-word stage
Move from word-gesture combinations to word-word combinations

Telegraphic Speech: Only elements needed to get message across
E.g., “more milk”; “Teddy dancing”

24 months+:
longer utterances & increasing grammar, 3-word sentences: subject-verb-object
~2-3 years grammar is OK

4 years
Increasing complex grammar
Plural: Add -s
Past tense: Add –ed
Over-regularization - Applying regular rules to irregular words (Kemp & Bryant, 2003) e.g. The boy is running…. Yesterday he ____

Passive Voice E.g., “was given by” vs “he gave”

117
Q

Why is it important to know what typical development is?

A

gives us a rough milestone of what we expect, if dont reach milestones at each age can unpack dificulties

118
Q

age 4/5 year old
1) Attention, Listening and Understanding
2) vocab
3) grammar
4) verbal story telling
5) conversations and social interaction

A
  1. Understands 2 to 3 part spoken instructions: e.g. “Finish your picture, then sit on the carpet and look at a book.”
  2. Knows words can be put into groups and can give common examples in them: e.g. Animals: dog, cat, horse…
  3. Uses well-formed sentences: e.g. “I played with Zoe in the park.” but with some errors: e.g. “I falled down.”
  4. Describes events but not always joined together or in the right order: e.g. “I went on the top of the bus with dad. That big slide is scary. We taked the ball as well”.
  5. Uses language to ask, negotiate, give opinions and discuss ideas and feelings: e.g. “Are we going to Nana’s today? Can I take teddy with me? He will be sad by himself.”
119
Q

5-7 year old
1) Attention, Listening and Understanding
2) vocab
3) grammar
4) verbal story telling
5) conversations and social interaction

A
  1. Is aware when a message is unclear and comments or asks for explanation.
  2. Compares words, the way they look, sound or mean: e.g. “There are two words ‘sea’ at the beach, and you ‘see’ with your eyes.”
  3. Uses different ways to join phrases to help explain or justify an event: e.g. “I’m older than you so I will go first.”
  4. Tells stories that set the scene, have a basic plot and a sequence of events.
  5. Takes turns to talk, listen, and respond in two-way conversations and groups.
120
Q

7-9 years old
1) Attention, Listening and Understanding
2) vocab
3) grammar
4) verbal story telling
5) conversations and social interaction

A
  1. Identifies clearly when they haven’t understood: e.g. “What’s maize?” or “Get a blue what?
  2. Uses a wide range of verbs to express their thoughts, or about cause and effect: e.g. “I wonder what she’s thinking,” or, “If we run we should get there on time but we might arrive late.”
  3. Uses regular and unusual word endings: e.g. walked or fell.
  4. Stories have a good structure with a distinct plot, an exciting event, clear resolution and conclusion: e.g. “…and everyone got home safely which was great.”
  5. Takes turns to talk, listen, and respond in two-way conversations and groups.
121
Q

9-11 year olds
1) Attention, Listening and Understanding
2) vocab
3) grammar
4) verbal story telling
5) conversations and social interaction

A
  1. Follows longer instructions that are not familiar:
    e.g. “Put the stripy folder that’s on top of the cupboard into the bottom drawer of my desk.”
  2. Uses sophisticated words but the meaning might not always be accurate: e.g. “My bedroom was meticulous.”
  3. Uses long and complex sentence structures:
    e.g. “The big dog barked whenever I knocked on the door”
  4. Tells elaborate entertaining stories which are full of detailed descriptions
  5. Uses different language depending on where they are, who they are with and what they are doing: e.g. Formal style with the headteacher in school; relaxed and informal with family at home; and ‘cool’ language with friends in the park.
122
Q

Atypical Language Development
Speech, language and communication needs
What is DLD?

A

developmental language disorder:
DSM V criteria for language disorders
Terminology
Prevalence

123
Q

Relationship betweenspeech, language & communication

speech is….
language is…
communication is…
linked because…

A

Speech = The production of vocal sounds

Language = The comprehension and use of words and sentences to convey ideas and information, which can be spoken, written or signed

Communication = The transmission of information between the source and a receiver using a signaling system

  • C refers to lots of things some non-human
  • language is just human
  • ## speech is sub catogory of language as can have sign language, write down.
124
Q

Speech, language and communication needs (SLCN)

A

Any one or a combination of the following can be difficult:
- Making speech sounds or speaking clearly (some communicate without spoken language).
- Putting words together in sentences.
- Understanding spoken language or listening to long or complex instructions.
- Having conversations or interacting with others.

125
Q

SLCN people have a wide….
what % of children start school with SLCN=
what % have long term=
what % of all children have it=
what % have servere and complex

A

Wide age range; wide range of severity

Mild delay in one or more areas; short-term
if given Support – can catch up with peers

Long-term and persistent
Direct and specific intervention (SLT) therapist

Pattern and impact changes over time
50
10
7
1

126
Q

developmental language disorder (DLD)
treatment=

A

children have difficulty learning and using language, even though there is no obvious cause like hearing loss or intellectual disability.
= Speech therapy and specialized support

127
Q

What are the impacts of language disorders?
and no help…

A

self-esteem
confidence
learning
relationships
mental health

128
Q

St Clair et al. (2010)

Educational attainment: Literacy
- Children with DLD/SLI assessed at multiple times between age 7 and 16

A

Reading accuracy in individuals with DLD/ SLI develops in parallel to normal children.

But ability is consistently lower than normal peers.

129
Q

WHY may children with DLD have more social problems?

A

isolated, rejection, cause emotinal wellbeing problems.

130
Q

what is Object permanence

… is neccisary

lecture 5

A

Objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight
The occluded object retains its spatial & physical properties.
The occluded object is still subject to physical laws

Mental representation is necessary!
Planning
Deferred imitation

131
Q

Piaget’s Theory 4 stages and ages

A

Sensorimotor (0-2)

Pre-operational (2-7)

Concrete operational (7-11)

Formal operational (11+)

132
Q

paigets … stage:
Sensorimotor Stage
age=

A

0-24 months

Learns about world through actions and sensory information

Learns to differentiate self from the environment

Start to understand causality, and form internal mental representations….

Object permanence attained at 12 months, full internal representations by 18-24 months

133
Q

Sensorimotor Substages

A

Reflex activity
Primary circular reactions
Secondary circular reactions
Coordination of secondary circular reactions
Tertiary circular reactions
Internal representation

134
Q

sensorimotor substages 1 and 2

A

Reflex activity (0-1 months)
Practice innate reflexes (ex: sucking, looking)

Primary circular reactions (1-4)
Simple behaviours derived from basic reflexes
Start repeating behaviour (ex: thumb sucking)
Focused on body
No differentiation between self and outside world

135
Q

sensorimotor substage 3

A

Secondary circular reactions (4-10)
“secondary” behaviours = own, not reflexes

Start to focus on objects

Begin to change surroundings intentionally
Ex: kick legs, hit mobile, kick legs again

Establish connection between body movement
and external environment

136
Q

sensorimotor substage 4

A

Coordination of secondary circular reactions (10-12)
Engage with objects using a variety of actions

Combine actions to achieve goals and solve novel problems
Some evidence of means-ends behaviour
Ex. move something out of way to reach and get toy
But, not insightful, driven by trial-and-error
Limited by existing repertoire of actions
Lack flexibility

A-not-B errors until 12 months
egocentrism

137
Q

sensorimotor substage 5

A

Tertiary circular reactions (12-18)

Still repetitive or circular behaviours

Discover the properties of objects and the environment

Understand objects through trial-and-error
Not yet inventive or insightful

Improvements in problem-solving
Experiment with new actions, modify unsuccessful actions

Still lack internal representations

138
Q

sensorimotor substage 6

A

Internal Representation (18-24)
Now has mental representation of the world
Can think and plan actions
Deferred imitation

Solve novel problems insightfully

139
Q

Piaget’s Observations on Mental Representations
Object permanence
Goal-directed, structured behaviour: planning
Deferred imitation (enduring mental rep.)

A

Object permanence
Begin to search for objects around 8-9 months
A not B error until 12 months

Goal-directed, structured behaviour: planning
Not until stage 6
Ex: Lucienne versus Jacqueline and chain/box problem

Deferred imitation (enduring mental rep.)
Copying behaviour after a delay
Not until stage 6

140
Q

Critiques of Piaget

A

Methods: Observational methods, often with own children
quantitative, experimental data rare
“clinical method” rather than standardized

Confounds:
Motor coordination and motor planning deficits
Inability to perform coordinated actions (means-end)
Memory deficits
Communication – biased by cues

141
Q

Critiques of Piaget
Younger infants could show some evidence if:

A

Younger infants could show some evidence if:
Simplify procedure in experimental studies
Change procedure
Change the dependent variable

Earlier than Piaget predicted?
Basic object permanence

Planning

Deferred imitation

142
Q

A-not-B error: Butterworth (1977)
3 conditions=

A

3 conditions
Normal design (object permenance)
Covered but visible
Visible and uncovered (other cog processes)

Errors in all 3 conditions, even when object covered but visible
Reflects lack of coordination, not necessarily lack of object permanence

143
Q

A-not-B error: Smith & Thelen(2003)

A

One variation had infant stand instead of sit during “B” trial
10m old infants performed like 12m old
Standing made the “A” position less salient

144
Q

Methodological changes

A

Darkness rather than occlusion by other objects (visual vs manual search)

Shown object within reach, lights turned off

Infants as young as 5m will grasp for out of sight objects (Bower and Wishart, 1972)

But still just performing “reaching action” (extension of ongoing action or reproduction of previous action)?
Take away the necessity of reaching
Bower (1982)
Baillargeon et al (1985)
Baillargeon & deVos (1991)

Violation of expectation
Shown “possible” and “impossible” event
Should show different reaction to “impossible” event

145
Q

Bower (1982)

A

Infants a few months old, shown object, screen moved in front of object, then returned to original position
2 conditions: Object still in place versus empty space
Monitored child’s heart rate

Piaget: too young to have info about objects that are no longer present = no reaction

Bower: faster heart rate (more surprise) in second (empty) condition

146
Q

Baillargeon et al (1985)
control-
so-
conclusion-
contrary to paiget-

A

Should look longer at the impossible event
If they find it surprising

Drawbridge and solid box
Experimental condition (box behind the drawbridge)
Control (box next to the drawbridge)
Experiment:
Preference for impossible event

Control:
Only those who saw 180 event first, showed preference, only on 1st trial

SO:
Not because preferred 180 event, but because expectations violated
Conclusion:
Infants expected the screen to stop against the box
Infants understood the box continued to exist

Contrary to Piaget:
Infants as young as 5m show object permanence
Not an extension or repetition of previous action
Supports idea that failure on previous tests result of interaction with other cognitive abilities

147
Q

Baillargeon (2004)

A

From early age infants “interpret physical events in accord with general principles of continuity and solidity”
As young as 2.5 months
These principles are innate or babies born with ability to acquire knowledge about object properties very quickly

Criticisms of the VOE approach?
Only indicates limited awareness of events (i.e. perceives a difference)
Or perceptual preference for novelty, but not understanding
Depends on what we’re using (e.g. overall looking time versus social looking…)
Do looking preferences really tell us about what babies know? (see Schöner and Thelen, 2006)

148
Q

Evidence earlier than Piaget predicted?
Planning
Clifton et al. (1991)

A

Presented 6m olds with small (required 1 hand grasp) and large (2 hand grasp) objects
Each object made identifying sound
Infants made appropriate grip to reach for objects in darkness
Authors conclude this is based on mental representations

149
Q

Evidence earlier than Piaget predicted?
Planning
Claxton et al. (2003)

A

Differences in motor patterns in adults for planned actions (Marteniuk et al., 1987)
Precise actions = slower approach

10m infants encouraged to throw ball or fit it into a hole
If motor patterns determined by ball properties, should find no difference
If determined by upcoming action, should find a difference
Reaching action slower for precise action

150
Q

Evidence earlier than Piaget predicted?
Planning
Willatts (1989): Planned actions

A

Toy out of reach on a cloth

Cloth and toy blocked by a barrier

9-month old children performed sequence of actions to get toy

Many on the 1st attempt
Novel, planned actions
Mental representation of the world used to organise behaviour

151
Q

Earlier than Piaget predicted?
Deferred imitation

A

Meltzoff & Moore (1994): 6 weeks old
Some infants saw adult make facial gesture, some saw neutral expression
Day later, those who saw gesture were more likely to perform it to a neutral face

Meltzoff (1995): 14m- & 16m-olds
Experimenter performed series of actions with objects
Both ages more likely to reproduce observed actions than those who did not see them
Even after a FOUR MONTH DELAY!

152
Q

Barr et al. (1996)
Infants saw series of actions with puppet and had to repeat after a 24hr delay

A

Children given 3 repetitions of actions
6m no difference from control
Supports Piaget’s view

Additional 6m-olds given 6 repetitions of actions
6m now score significantly higher than control
Evidence of deferred imitation in 6m-olds

Also deferred imitation from videos! (Barr et al. 2007)

153
Q

Patel et al. (2013): Context matters

A

6m, 9m, 24m tested using puppet paradigm, 24hr delay
Varied the context during retrieval (auditory and visual)
Full flexibility/generalization not achieved until 12m

154
Q

Conclusion

A

Children not born with fully developed object concept, but develop it over time

Certain behaviours/abilities seem to emerge in similar order

Children develop some aspects of mental representation earlier than Piaget suggested
Contrary to the discrete stage view?
Research designs affect results!
Difficult to isolate object concept from other cognitive processes/abilities

How would you measure mental representations?

155
Q

MCQ

adoption studies help avoud the confound of…

lecture 6

A

genetic with environmental factors

156
Q

MCQ

wimmer and perners 1983 study using the false belief task showed that…

A

young children have difficulty understanding that another persons belief about the world can be false

157
Q

experiments have shown that young babies have shown recognition of their mothers face when they are…

A

less than one week of age

158
Q

what is the number concept?

A
  • individual’s understanding and mental representation of numbers such as Numerosity, counting, arithmetic.
  • lots of animals have, eg. need to know how many lions your against for survival.

=

159
Q

number concept

Gelman and Gallistel (1978):

The 5 Counting Principles

A
  1. One-to-one principle
  2. Stable-order principle
  3. Cardinal principle
  4. Order irrelevance principle
  5. Abstraction principle

1,2 and 3 define counting procedure

160
Q

counting principles:
1=

A

One-to-One:
each object in a set being counted should be assigned one and only one number. In other words, for each item, there is a unique number assigned to it, and no item is counted more than once or missed.

161
Q

counting principles
2=

A

Stable-order:
the order in which numbers are counted must always be consistent and fixed. eg. its 1,2,3,4,5 NOT 2,5,3,4,1

162
Q

counting principles:
3=

A

Cardinal principle:
last number in a counting sequence represents the total quantity or cardinality of the set of objects being counted.
eg. 1,2,3,4,5,6
is a set of 6

163
Q

counting principles:
4=

A

Order-irrelevance principle:
result is the same regardless of order you count items in

164
Q

counting principles:
5=

A

Abstraction principle:
these principles can be applied to any collection of objects (including intangible objects)
eg. the total count of items remains the same regardless of the characteristics or nature of the objects.

165
Q

Children’s knowledge of the counting principles

implicit knowlage is…

5 principles attainable by the age of ….

A

when they cant explicitly explain these rules, but they understand them and apply them naturally.

5yrs - some children 3 years

166
Q

Gelman and Meck (1983)

Gelman and Meck (1983) evidence for children understanding 5 principles by 5 years.
Error detection task:

1=what did they do?

A

3 to 5-year-olds tested on 3 principles:
One-to-one
Stable order
Cardinal

children dont do themselves, they monitor the performance of a puppet. puppet does counting and child says if its right or not

167
Q

Gelman and Meck (1983) evidence for children understanding 5 principles by 5 years.
Error detection task:
2= diferent trials
one-to-one=
stable-order=
cardinality=

A

One-to-One principle: 3 types of trials
Correct
In-error (Skipped or double-counted)(make an error)
Pseudoerror (weird way of counting but not incorrect)

Stable-order principle: 2 types of trials
Correct
In-error: (Reversed: 1,3,2,4; Randomly-ordered: 3,1,4,2; Skipped tags: 1,3,4)

Cardinality: 2 types of trials
Correct
In-error (not right amount of items. Nth value + 1; Less than N; Irrelevant feature of object, e.g. colour)

168
Q

Gelman and Meck (1983) evidence for children understanding 5 principles by 5 years.
Error detection task:
3=results

A

Very high accuracy on correct trials
One-to-one: 100%
Stable-order: 96% and higher (+)
Cardinal: 96% +

High accuracy on incorrect trials
One-to one: 67% + (3yrs); 82% + (4yrs)
Stable-order: 76% + (3), 96% + (4-5)
Cardinal: 85% + (3), 99% + (4-5)

Pseudo-errors detected as peculiar, but not incorrect (95% and higher accuracy)
Even able to articulate why in some cases
Show understanding of order-irrelevance

Older children performed better, BUT

Success rates not affected by set size(n.of items a child can count too) – even for young children

better at saying when things are right then wrong.

169
Q

Gelman and Meck (1983) evidence for children understanding 5 principles by 5 years.
Error detection task:
4= conclusions

A

Children as young as 3 understand the principles
Even though they can’t articulate them
Understanding demonstrated even in set sizes too big for children to count

Children show IMPLICIT knowledge of these principles

170
Q

Baroody (1984)Testing order-irrelevance and cardinality in 5-7-year-olds
argument=

1- how it works:

A

Ability to understand that tags can be assigned arbitrarily, does NOT imply understanding that:
Differently ordered counts produce the same cardinal designation

… Children counting themselves (not error-detection)
* Children shown 8 items
* Count them left to right and then indicate the cardinal value of set
* Then asked “Can you make this number 1”? (pointing to right-most item)
* “We got N counting this way, what do you think we would get counting the other way?”
* During this, they could no longer see the array – so had to PREDICT

171
Q

Baroody (1984)Testing order-irrelevance and cardinality in 5-7-year-olds
2- results

A

All but 1 child could recount in the opposite direction

BUT, only 45% of 5yr-olds, and 87% of 7yr-olds were successful in prediction task

172
Q

Baroody (1984)Testing order-irrelevance and cardinality in 5-7-year-olds
3- conclusion

A

Conclusion:
Understanding of order-irrelevance develops with age
Young children’s understanding of principles overestimated

“Principles-after” concept -

173
Q

Gelman, Meck & Merkin (1986) came back and argued against baroody saying
so they re-did it…..

restults:

A

Task affects how children perform:
could be due to misinterpretation of instructions, not lack of understanding

Procedure: 3 groups
Baroody replication
changed= Count 3x: 3 opportunities to count first
then did= Altered-question: ‘can u start with 8’ “How many will there be”
or “What will you get”

 results: if given 3 attempts try dif ways
174
Q

to test if “How many” tasks are accurate we use Give ‘N’ task and knower levels.

how it works=

A
  1. Child asked to give ‘N’ number of items
  2. Up to ‘4-knowers’ (can consistently give you 4 numbers) called ‘subset’ knowers
    Only know how a subset of numbers work

Switch to Cardianal Principle-knower
Can solve flexibly across sets, not restricted
Really understand how counting works, evidenced across a variety of tasks.

175
Q

conclusions of counting principles:
Young children demonstrate ….. understanding of counting principles ….. may be limited by….

the task matters:…..

A

Young children demonstrate some understanding of counting principles
Implicit knowledge (can’t articulate)
Young children might be limited by larger sets

The task matters!
Counting versus error-detection
Subtle changes in type of questions used
“Give N” most typically used to date

How much of numerical knowledge is innate?

176
Q

Where does our numerical knowledge come from?
Empiricism versus nativism
e=
n=

What evidence?

A

Empiricism: knowledge comes from experience, develops gradually
Nativism: innate understanding of some aspects of number concept, “core knowledge”

Do very young infants show understanding of numbers?
What about nonhuman animals (no language, no exposure to number system)?

177
Q

Habituation studies can be done with…

procedure example=
results=
conclusion=

A

Can use with very young infants to gauge innate knowledge

Procedure Example:
Habituation to 4 dots
Followed by exposure to 2 dots

Results:
Looked longer at 2 dots

Conclusion:
Understand numerosity?
Basic discrimination?

178
Q

example study

EX: Xu and Spelke (2000)
example of habituation study

A

habituating them to the number not the set pattern

Larger numbers, controlled for other properties of the arrays
found= 6-month-olds discriminated between 8 and 16 dots

Replicated with 4 vs 8 and 16 vs 32 dots, can do early on

BUT, infants can’t do 3:2 ratios until 9 months (ex: 8 vs.12) eg. 8 vs 12

Ability to detect more precise ratios continues with development

179
Q

addition and subtraction studies
Wynn (1992)
looking at…..

they do pre-test trials to …

results=

A

5 month old infants
Looking time procedure
Shown different mathematical outcomes
asking is it a basic discrimination or is it a numerical concept.

have a stage inftont of baby:
see puppet and screen comes up covering it and see another one added, if paying attention they shopuld have anticipation of the possible outcome (2 items there)

do it with subtraction aswell, from 2 to 1, have anticipation, should have possible outcome of 1.

… looking at whether or not babies have some kind of interest in 1 or 2 objects, important control. found no diferemnce in looking times.

= children looked longer at the ‘incorrect result’
eg. 2 puppets not 1

180
Q

addition and subtraction studies
Wynn (1992)

2 hypotheses:

so did another experiment=

concluded=

A

2 Hypotheses:
1. Infants compute precise results of simple additions/subtractions
2. Infants expect arithmetical operation to result in numerical change (no expectation of size/ or direction of change)

= 1+1 = 2 OR 3
Infants preferred 3 in the trials, but not pre-test trials (nothing more interesting than 3 vs 2)

5-month olds can calculate precise results of simple arithmetical operations
Infants possess true numerical concepts
Suggests humans innately possess capacity to perform these calculations

Replicated with larger sets (ex: 10 v. 5; McCrink & Wynn, 2005)

181
Q

adding and subtracting Wynn (1992)

a BUT……
got scrutiny from….Wakeley et al (2000)

control….
results…
conclusions….

A

3 Experiments
Replications of Wynn (1992) exps 1 & 2
added= Subtraction counterpart to Wynn’s Exp 3, to 1+1=2 or 3
changed to= 3-1 = 1 or 2
Controls for possibility that preferred answer is always greater number of items

Results
No systematic preference for “incorrect” versus “correct”

conclusions:
Earlier findings of numerical competence not replicated
did a…Review of literature = found inconsistent results. in methods, results and findings.

Infants’ reactions are variable
Numerical competencies not robust
and is….Gradual and continual progress in abilities with age. not innate.

182
Q

Wynn (1992) responce to the scrutiny from Wakeley et al (2000) was…

A
  • Procedural differences affected attentiveness of infants- tricky to balance systematic methods with children cause they change lots and loose concentration.
  • Use of computer program versus experimenter to determine start
  • Didn’t ensure infant saw complete trial, Exclusion of “fussy” infants higher in Wynn’s (and other) studies. if exclude have bias.

Replication and debate key to science!

183
Q

additional evidence of innate ability of counting principles:
other animals=

A

animals good at discriminating numbers for food and survival.

evidence of counting, a single grey parrot.

184
Q

current view of counting principles

the …. view dominant

but…..

A

Nativist view dominant
Born with some innate ability, which expands with age/experience? (ex: Carey, 2009)
This inborn ability shared with other animals?

BUT Experience/culture still important!
Cross-culturally: Language, counting practices impact representation and processing of number (ex. Gobel et al., 2011)
Within-cultures: Number-talk from parents predicts CP knowledge, related to later performance in school (ex. Gunderson & Levine, 2011)

185
Q

Vygotsky
he said that learning is the result of….
… proveds the context …
… provides the means through which …..

: Learning in a social context

lecture 7 - Social Learning and Social Development

A

Learning is the result of the interaction between a child and a more knowledgeable individual
Culture provides the context within which interactions take place
Language provides the means through which meanings are shared

186
Q

Vygotsky and Culture
he said that a human being is …..

A

is fundamentally shaped by culture. He emphasized that human development is deeply embedded in social and cultural contexts. According to Vygotsky, individuals are shaped by the cultural tools and practices they interact with from a young age.

187
Q

vygotsky:
Zone of Proximal Development is the difference….
how the child….

A

ZDP = difference between actual performance and potential performance
How the child learns with help of others
At level beyond existing skill
(but not too far)

188
Q

vygotsky:
Language and Thought
through language the child develops as a …. and ….
importance of …
transition from language as a tool for …. to a tool for ….
to help us … and ….
internalized to become …. at … yrs

in contrast to …. who saw monologue as evidence for …

A

Through language that the child develops as learner AND thinker

Importance of the external monologue (how thoughts are organised)
Transition from language as tool for communication to a tool for thought
Help organize and plan behaviour
Internalized to become inner speech ~ 7 years

Contrast to Piaget:
Saw monologue as evidence of egocentrism

189
Q

Bruner and Scaffolding expanded on vygotskys ideas giving a :

‘scaffolding’ inspired by ‘ZOPD’
a breakdown of how knowlage is passed from an….

requires 5 stages:
1. R
2. RoDoF
3. DM
4. MCF
5. D

A

How knowledge is passed from expert adult to novice child

Recruitment: engage interest of child

Reduction of degrees of freedom: reduce number of acts required, simplify

Direction maintenance: keep motivation up

Marking critical features: highlight relevant features

Demonstration: modelling solutions

190
Q

vygitskian idea is that
‘ what makes human cognition different is not more individual brainpower, but rather …..

A

but rather the ability of humans to learn through other persons and their artifacts, and to collaborate with others in collective activities” (Tomasello & Carpenter, 2007, p.1)

191
Q

vygotskian idea says that many of the behaviours that distinguish us are supported by…., ……, and …..
many animals…

A
  • social learning
  • Cultures (e.g. music, language, art, fashion, history)
  • Tools and technology (e.g. computers, internet, cars)
    Many animals socially learn, some even exhibit cultures or traditions
    Cultures not as complex
    no evidence for cumulative culture
192
Q

“Cultural intelligence hypothesis” says humans have evolved…. for (eg… the theory of …,SL, C, C, I , T)
relies on input from ….. and ….

A

…. special social-cognitive skills (ex: theory of mind, social learning, communication, cooperation, imitation, teaching)

….from demonstrator and observer

Role of skilled “demonstrator”: Scaffolding, teaching, “natural pedagogy”

Shared intentionality? Or Social affiliation?
Natural tendency to want to share information or combine efforts toward common goals.

193
Q

vygotsky and Bruner and Scaffolding:
Role of the observer: child
children are ….
so that they ….
children rely on ….. as supposed to ….
however children ….. they copy … and … cues

A
  • “Primed” to attend to demonstrator’s cues (Csibra & Gergely, 2009)
  • Copying to higher level of fidelity
  • Imitation as supposed to Emulation (focusing more on the end goal than on the exact steps observed.) (and other forms)
  • overimitate (copy relevant AND irrelevant features, Lyons et al. 2011)

Able to learn even “opaque” technologies and arbitrary cultural customs

194
Q

Summary of vygotsky and Bruner and Scaffolding

children dont learn in a …
vygotsjky introduced the importance of…
via active ….
children are more skilled at specific forms of social learning that may lead to….

A

Children do not learn in a vacuum
Vygotsky introduced the importance of the social and cultural context

Active scaffolding, teaching, and communication guide learning

…. human advantage

195
Q

Self-Recognition
mirror test

A
  • used to assess whether a child has developed the ability to recognize themselves in a mirror.
  • mark placed on childs nose
  • then placed in front of a mirror and observed to see if they show any signs of recognizing that the mark is on their face and attempt to remove it.

Infants (typically under 18 months): Most infants do not pass the mirror test at this age. They may show interest in their reflection but do not demonstrate awareness of the mark on their face.
Between 18-24 months: Many children begin to pass the test around 18 to 24 months of age. At this point, they start to show signs of self-awareness by touching the mark on their face after seeing it in the mirror.
Older Children: By 3 years old, most children reliably pass the test, demonstrating a more developed sense of self.

196
Q

continuing from self-recogntion mirror test… Povinelli et al (1996) changed to add a … not mirror

shows that full temporal sense of self develops after … yrs

A

Povinelli et al (1996)

  1. Sticker unobtrusively placed on head
  2. Videos and photos taken of 2-4-yr-olds
  3. Showed them videos/photos after delay
  4. Older 3 & 4 yrs: reached for sticker
  5. Younger children did not
    but
    Could label photo or video correctly
    DID remove or touch sticker when presented with mirror

Full temporal sense of self develops after 3 yrs

197
Q

Person Permanence refers to….

Lewis & Brooks-Gunn’s (1979) Social Dimensions= 3 key ways children begin to differentiate people based on various social cues during the first year of life

A

…refers to the ability of a child to form an internal representation of a social being, typically emerging around 18 months.

Familiarity
start to show Different behaviour to familiar vs strange adults (7-9 months)
they display similar responses toward familiar and unfamiliar peers. (10-12 months)

Age
Discriminate children and adults by 6-12 months
Use verbal age labels by 18-24 months

Gender
Discriminate between women and men strangers (9-12 months)
Use verbal gender labels around 19 months

In the first year of life children learn to differentiate people based on familiarity, age, gender,

198
Q

Emotional Development: Production
- either a .. or… affect after birth
- from a few months on they have ….
- emotions at 7 months …
- at 2-3 years …. eg (…)

A

Positive and negative affect only after birth

From a few months on basic “primary emotions” (joy, interest, anger, sadness)

7 months: fear responses, anger vs. pain
Izard et al (1987) 2- 8 months

2-3 years “secondary emotions”
(embarrassment, pride, shame)
EX: Fear + Anger = Hate, envy

199
Q

young children Recognizing Emotion

can discrimiate emotions ….
children use…. which is when children…
example:

A

Discriminate emotions early on
(10wks - Haviland & Lelwica,1987)

Social referencing, look to caregivers or adults, to gather emotional information and cues about how to react in uncertain or unfamiliar situations.

example- child will crawl to unfamiliar area if mother smiles to reasure them, but if they make a scared face the child wont crawl into the unknown area.

200
Q

Emotional Intelligence
is the ability to..
switching from …

look at ….
the accuracy in …..

low emotional intelligence is linked to …

A

..Learn to regulate emotion
… Switch from external to internal management
takes a long time to develop, some dont.

…Emotion regulation and social competence
Accuracy in recognizing emotions = better acceptance by peers
Links to developmental outcomes later in life

…. delayed maturation in the pre-frontal cortex

201
Q

Harris (1989) Understanding another’s mind

to understand anothers mind you have to have 3 things:

A

Precursors to this understanding:
1- Self-awareness (18-20 months)
verbally express emotional states (2yrs)
2- Capacity for pretence (2-3yrs)
Pretend something in world is something else
3- Distinguishing reality from pretence (3-4yrs)

Combine these to start understanding other peoples’ emotions, desires, beliefs

202
Q

Theory of Mind is the idea that …
fundimental for …
its a theory you cant… you have to …
develops with ….

A

Other people have a mental representation of the world that is different from our own (beliefs, feelings, etc)

.. social interactions

“theory” : cannot see or touch the mind, have to infer
Crucial to success in social world
Develops with age

How do we test this in children?

203
Q

Wimmer & Perner (1983):

how do we test theory of mind in children?
False Belief Tasks
task =
results=
conclusion=

so has been simplified to the….

A

Wimmer & Perner (1983):
In the task:
children are presented with a short story involving a character named Maxi, who places a chocolate bar in a basket and then leaves the room. While Maxi is gone, another character (called Sally) moves the chocolate bar from the basket to a box. The key question is then asked: “Where will Maxi look for the chocolate when he returns?”

1- green cuboard where it was secretly moved to?
2- or blue cuboard where it was when he left?

results:
Young children (around 3 years old) typically fail the task and say that Maxi will look in the box, because they assume that Maxi knows what they know (the child has not yet developed a full Theory of Mind). This is because at this stage, they struggle with understanding that someone can hold a false belief.Older children (around 4 to 5 years old) typically pass the task and say that Maxi will look in the basket, correctly recognizing that Maxi%E2%80%99s belief about the chocolate is based on his own experiences and not the child’s knowledge.

conclusion:
children do not typically understand that others can hold beliefs that are incorrect until they are around 4 or 5 years old.

Too complicated

Sally-Anne Task
(Baron-Cohen et al.,1985)
4-yr-olds solve!
3-yr-olds do not

Smarties task
4 & older solve

204
Q

theory of mind:
the false belief task of chocolate bar too complicated so simplified to…

A

Sally-Anne Task

task:
Sally places a marble in her basket and then leaves the room.
While Sally is gone, Anne moves the marble from Sally’s basket to a box.
The key question for the child is then: “Where will Sally look for the marble when she returns?”

results:
Children around 4 years old and older generally pass the task. They understand that Sally holds a false belief (that the marble is still in the basket) and correctly predict that she will look in the basket.

205
Q

Developing Theory of Mind
- Distinguishing mental states in language (how they use language to explain their mental state) at 2yrs+ and 3 years+
Distinguishing mental states in language
- Understanding the relationship between seeing and knowing by 3-4yrs they understand… the Masangkay et al (1974) study is an example of this…
- study=
- result=

A
  • 2yrs + use words about their internal states (what they want/desire/like/need eg. i want cookie)
  • 3yrs + use more complex cognitive terms that relate to knowledge, memory, and awareness (eg. i know where my toy is)
  • that seeing something means knowing about

Masangkay et al (1974)
- In this study, a child and an adult are shown a card with a picture on it. The card is then placed in a way that the child can see it but the adult cannot.
The child is then asked about what the adult knows, based on whether the adult has seen the card.
The results showed that 3-4-year-olds were able to distinguish between what they knew (because they saw the card) and what the adult knew (or didn’t know), demonstrating an understanding that seeing leads to knowing.

206
Q

Theory of Mind
- The appearance-reality distinction is the ability to…
- 3 year olds have trouble….

Flavell et al (1986) study shows this with the example of …. this also shows a ….

what age do children :
understand people have desires?
understand people have beliefs?
what dont they undetstand yet?

A

… understand that an object can look like one thing but actually be something different
- 3-year-olds have trouble understanding that an object can appear one way but actually be something else.
-
Flavell et al (1986): e.g. rock/sponge and realism errors ( where children confuse appearance with reality.)

Predicting behaviour
2yrs understand that people have desires (e.g. Sam and his rabbit)
3yrs understand that people have beliefs (e.g. Amy and the books)
But do not yet understand that others can act on inaccurate beliefs (understanding false beliefs)
(…….or do they?)

207
Q

When is ToM achieved?

based on Wellman et al (2001) review of 180 false belief studies=

a question followed from these findings=
whether children possess implicit knowledge of false beliefs even before they can explicitly pass the false belief task?

Violation of Expectation (VoE) paradigm, provides additional evidence of early implicit understanding of false beliefs=

A

Wellman et al (2001) review of 180 false belief studies
Very few 2yr olds
Minority 3yr olds
4+ yrs usually passed

question= 2-3-year-olds may look at the correct location where the object is believed to be (i.e., they show implicit knowledge of the false belief).
However, they still struggle to verbalize or explicitly express that others can act on false beliefs, which is why they fail in the traditional false belief tasks. (Southgate et al., 2007)

VoE experiments: In some conditions, 15 month olds could correctly predict behaviour on false belief task suggesting even very young children may have an implicit understanding of false belief (Onishi & Baillargeon, 2005)

208
Q

Southgate & Vernetti (2014)
measured activation in …. of adults and children while performing ….. task

found:

conclude:

A

Measured activation in motor cortex of adults and children (activated when the actor has false belief that ball is in the box)

found:
- Both adults and infants exhibited activation in the motor cortex when the actor acted based on the false belief
- 6-month-old infants showed the same brain activity, so may be capable of predicting actions based on another person’s beliefs, even when those beliefs are false

conclude: 6 months, are able to predict actions based on the agent’s beliefs.
Theory of Mind may develop earlier than previously thought.

209
Q

Curse of Knowledge is when…

A

once they have learned something or gained a certain knowledge, have difficulty imagining or understanding the perspective of someone who doesn’t have that same knowledge.

210
Q

curse of klnowledge

Birch and Bloom (2007) conducted an experiment that investigated how the knowledge state of an observer can influence predictions about behavior and decision-making.

varied amount of knowlage

conclusion:

A

Varied the amount knowledge state of the observer
Ignorance: “moves the violin to another container”
Knowledge-plausible: “moves the violin to the red container”
Knowledge-implausible: “moves the violin to the purple container”

conc= knowledge states play a critical role in how we predict and understand the behavior of others.

211
Q

What impacts development?

1)
children who perform better on …. tend to have better…..

2) .
those with …. do better.

A

Language
Children who perform better on false belief tasks tend to have better language abilities
Children with caregivers who use more mental state (frequently talk about mental states—such as thoughts, feelings, desires, and beliefs) terms earlier perform better

Interaction with peers/family
Those with older siblings do better (Ruffman et al., 1998)
Larger families, more interaction with adults and siblings
also do better (Lewis et al., 1996)

212
Q

theory of mind
understanding supprise: happens at … yo

deception:
…yo could lie from beginning
….yo got better over trials
….yo never learned to lie

A

Understanding surprise
5yrs (not 4) chose the correct “surprise” face over neutral face (Hadwin & Perner, 1991)

Deception
Ex: lie about preferred sticker to puppet to avoid losing it (Peskin, 1992)
5 yrs could lie from beginning
4 yrs got better over trials
3 yrs never learned to lie

213
Q

Levels of Intentionality

in false belief traditional tasks eg.

A

False-belief tradtional tasks
eg.Sally-Anne task
1st order beliefs - my mum thinking about me thinking about my dog

2nd order beliefs- my mum thinking about me thinking about my dog whos thinking about food.

False 2nd order belief (false belief about
someone else’s belief) eg. Sarah believes that John thinks the book is on the table (but John actually thinks the book is on the shelf).
comes about AT 5-6 years (Miller, 2009)

214
Q

Carpendale & Chandler (1996) Ambiguous Drawing Task
duck vs rabbit
when children asked what will so and so see….
correct answer is…
5yo…
some 8yo….

A

correct asnwer = is that you dont know
5-8 yr olds -
Make sure child can see both interpretations
“What will Ann see?”

5 yr olds could not give a good answer
Even some 8 yr olds had trouble

215
Q

Advanced Theory of Mind (AToM)

Osterhaus & Bosacki (2022) reviewed the tests and results used to assess Theory of Mind (ToM) from middle childhood onwards and highlighted a few important points:
concerns:

A

1- Found very diverse definitions of TOM
2- But, most studies relying on same 4-5 tests
Individual differencess in AToM related to inhibition and language skills NOT empathy (suggests that cognitive abilities may be more important than emotional factors in developing a theory of mind.)

Are these tests really getting at social cognition? (e.g. Quesque & Rosetti, 2020)
What about diverse social backgrounds and experiences?

216
Q

Theories of how ToM develops

2 diferent views:
1) traditional, conceptual
2) understanding development gradually

A

Conceptual Change Between 3-5 Years
Children between 3 and 5 years begin to develop the concept of meta-representations, where they understand that mental states can be inaccurate and don’t always reflect reality. This is evident in the differences between 3- and 4-year-olds on traditional false-belief tasks. However, this understanding develops gradually and is not a sudden acquisition.

Ongoing Development
A “realist” tendency often causes children to override their understanding of beliefs. Other cognitive abilities may mask this understanding. Evidence suggests that children perform better on tasks when complexity and cognitive demands are reduced, and their understanding of mental states continues to develop over time. There may also be some decline on certain measures as children grow older.

217
Q

Prosocial Behaviour is different from altruism
it is… by…
wheras altruism is …. ( its a type of procociality)
wheras procociality is….

lecture 8

A

…. Voluntary behaviour intended to benefit another(Eisenberg et al., 2006) by… Sharing, helping, comforting

Altruistic vs. Prosocial
…. Motivated purely by desire to help another, at cost to oneself (ex. Anonymous donation)
…. Pattern of behaviour, regardless of motivation (potential benefit/associated costs to the donor)

eg sharing icecream with another child
ALT= giving it to make them happier
PROC= so that your parents may say well done, or people see you being kind

218
Q

Why be prosocial?

Evolutionary roots, being prococial increases….. meaning …

Ex: Eisenberg (1983)=

being prococial can also….

A

survival
…. more likely to assist genetically related individuals (humans & nonhumans) ( natural selection)
Benefit the survival of the group?

Ex: Eisenberg (1983)
7-17yr-olds more likely to help family, friends, similar background
- more likley to help those related to you or closley affiliated woth you or similar to you.

… Enhance reputation/acceptance within group, learn to follow norms of behaviour

219
Q

is being prococial Innate or Learned?

are humans naturally prococial?
evidence=

is it Conditioned or socially learned?
influenced by….

theres a ….

A

Are humans naturally prosocial?
Spontaneous prosocial behaviour in children from relatively early age, kids willing to help others early on
Some evidence from twin studies of genetic contribution to prosocial tendencies = twins more similar have more similar prococial tendancies

Conditioned or socially learned?
defo inflienced by….
Early attachment to parents
Parental/ adult responses to behaviour important

interaction between both!!!

220
Q

Development of Prosocial Behaviour

when does it emerge?
keeps increasing ….
theres then a shift to act …

A

When does it emerge?
- Around first birthday, helping behaviour emerges
- Rapidly increases in toddler/preschooler period, and then slowly thereafter into early adulthood.

…. At least into late adolescence

… Shift to act according to moral principles, rather than for selfish motivations or to gain approval

221
Q

Experimental studies

Reinforce prosocial behaviour by…. example the …. game

Modelling prosocial behaviour: by …. increases….
children who see …. are…
more likley to copy ……. models (ppl)

A

Reinforce prosocial behaviour
- …. Prompting and reinforcement both encouraged prosocial donations (ex. Donation game, do you wanna share some pennies you have so many! or well done for sharing)

  • Explicit scaffolding (encouragement and praise) increases prosocial behaviour in infants (ex: Dahl et al., 2017)

Modelling prosocial behaviour
…. Observing helpful behaviour increases prosocial behaviour in infants (ex: Schuhmacher et al., 2018)
…. Children who see model donate are more likely to themselves (more impact than “preaching”) (copying)
More likely to copy skilled, warm, and familiar models

222
Q

Experimental Studies: Potential Problems

its a Artificial environment meaning …..

are we Really measuring prosocial behaviour?

Zarbatany et al (1985): found older children only effected by … not …
measuring …

A

Artificial environment
Unfamiliar experimenters (lab) , some deception

Really measuring prosocial behaviour?
…. some have looked them long term and
No effect of modelling after 3-week follow-up ( argue there just trying to work out what there expected to do in the experiment, copy and then forget)

Zarbatany et al (1985): older children only affected by experimenter influence, not peer influence
measuring age differences in conformity

223
Q

Observational Studies is when we….

Zahn-Waxler et al (2001): 14-36 months

mothers act upset and see how children respond
find=
then … Harmond & Bromwell (2018)

parents asked what they think childrens motivation and found=

A

… Observe spontaneous, naturally occurring behaviour (directly or through reports)

Zahn-Waxler et al (2001): 14-36 months
Mothers report responses to events in which negative emotions expressed ( look sad) and see how children respond
find=
Increase in empathic responses with age
ask parents what they think the motivation of child is?
= praise, social affiliation, fun, ask

Harmond & Bromwell (2018)
Parents asked to report on helping
behaviour and motivations in 1-4-year-olds
Helping increased with age

224
Q

Experimental study of spontaneous helping

Warneken & Tomasello (2006)

experimental condition=
control condition=
eg=
found=

then did it in chimpanzees and found =
but unfair as …..
… being better than … may show …. have more ….. and a natural tendancy to ….

A

Warneken & Tomasello (2006)
24 18-month-olds
Experimental condition: demonstrated needing help by looking at an object, attempting (but failing) to achieve a goal.
Control: experimenter maintained a neutral face toward object
Examples:
Hanging up clothes
Opening cabinet
Stacking books
Retrieving spoon

= kids helpful, more helpful in experimental condition, but they tend ot help anyway.

children Helped more than chimpanzees (ex:chimp)
Unfamiliar adult (chimpanzees are helping a different species)
More sophisticated cognitive skills
Natural tendency to help others

225
Q

Factors influencing prosocial development:

Parenting styles and response=
children with …. have …… because parents . …..

Perspective-taking ability=

ability to regulate emotions=

Cross-cultural differences=

A

Parenting styles and response
secure attachment = higher empathy
Parents who are empathic, respond sensitively, encourage empathy

Perspective-taking ability- theory of mind

Ability to regulate emotions- keeping own emotions in check.

Cross-cultural differences

differences in different societys, different societys may show diferent types of prosociality. eg uk= competative.
- Values placed on cooperation vs. competition, individualism vs. support

226
Q

Moral Reasoning is how we….

how does it develop?

A

…. reason or judge whether an action is right or wrong

Piaget (of course!) and Kohlberg

227
Q

Piaget’s Theory developing moral reasoning
he observed how …..
this lead to 3 stages of understanding=

Linaza (1984): cross-cultural test example

A

… children understood “rules of the game”, corresponds to “rules of society”
3-stages of understanding

1) Premoral (Up to 4 years): rules not understood

2) Moral realism/Heteronomous (4 to 10): rules come from higher authority, cannot be changed (tag is played this way we cant change the rules)

3) Moral subjectivism/Autonomous (10+): rules mutually agreed by players, can change ( tag is played this way bit it would be mroe fun if we did this so if we all agree on it we can collectivly change the rule)

Linaza (1984): cross-cultural test
English & Spanish children
Confirmed Piaget’s findings

228
Q

Piaget’s Theory developing moral reasoning:
dilemma method=
examples
adults would say is worse =
children would say is worse=

problems with this design?

underestimation of ability example=

A

Dilemma method: which child is naughtiest?

Up to 9/10 years, children judge based on amount of damage, not motive or intention- one of the stories would be classic one used in textbooks,

eg. a child reaches for a cookie and climb for it and knock over a cup and break it.
compared to… a child who opens a door but there are 12 cups (which they didnt know were there) and nock over
which is naughtier?
- we would say the first one cause they had the intention to break
-children say the more you break the naughtier so they think the second is worse.

Problems with this design?
Unequal damage distracts children
“bad intentions” are vague as they dont explicitly say the first example is naught.
Memory demands too high for young children

Underestimation of ability?
ex: if damage is equal, children as young as 5 yrs will judge based on intent (correct)
2-5 yr olds can differentiate between violations of social convention and moral conventions (Smetana, 1981)

Moral conventions relate to rules about right and wrong that are considered universal and rooted in ethical principles.
and Social conventions are culturally specific norms and rules that govern behavior to maintain order and predictability in social interactions.

229
Q

Kohlberg’s Theory expanded on paigets theroy of moral reasoning across a ….

participents still presented with ….
crucial aspect was why…

A

Across the life-span, not just childhood, Much more intense study of over 30 years

…. stories of “dilemmas”
Crucial aspect was why something was or wasn’t wrong

230
Q

Kohlberg’s dilemma example

Heinz’s Moral Dilemma

A

In Europe, a woman was near death from cancer. One drug might save her, a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The druggist was
charging $2,000, ten times what the drug cost him to make. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said, “No.” The husband got desperate and broke into the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife. Should the husband have done that? Why?

231
Q

Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Reasoning (after paiget)

developed 3 levels each with 2 stages

A

Developed 3 levels of reasoning, each with 2 stages
Preconventional
Conventional
Postconventional

232
Q

Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Reasoning (after paiget):

1) Preconventional Morality

reasoning based in ….

refers to children under ….. and ……

stage 1 =
stage 2=

A

…. relation to self, little understanding of shared rules
Seek pleasure, avoid punishment
Children under 9, some adolescents, adult “criminal offenders”

Stage 1:
Concerned with authority, obey rules to avoid punishment

Stage 2:
Weigh the risks and benefits
Recognize others might have different interests
Action determined by one’s needs

233
Q

Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Reasoning (after paiget):

2) Conventional Morality

reasoning based on….

refers to most …. and ….

stage 3=
stage 4=

A

…. Importance of rules, expectations, conventions of society
Most adolescents and adults

Stage 3: focus on interpersonal relationships
Being good = having good motives
Living up to what is “expected” of you
Approval/disapproval of others important

Stage 4: focus on society as a whole
Performing one’s duty to maintain social order

234
Q

Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Reasoning (after paiget):

3) Postconventional morality

reasoning based on …

refers to …..

stage 5=
stage 6=

A

…. Understanding of moral principles underlying laws

20+ years
Stage 5:
importance of functioning society AND individual rights
Usually not until 20+ yrs, and not everyone!

Stage 6
Following universal ethical principles
When law violates principle, act in accordance to principle

235
Q

kohlberg’s example

Heinz’s Moral Dilemma

what does he think at different stages?
1=
2=
3=
4=
5=
6=

A

He shouldn’t steal the drug because:
Stage 1: “he might get caught”
Stage 2: “it won’t do him any good because his wife will be dead when he gets out of jail”
Stage 3: “others will think he is a thief”
Stage 4: “his wife’s condition doesn’t justify stealing”
Stage 5: “although the druggist is being unfair, we must respect the rights of others”

Stage 6: He should steal the drug, but should give himself up. He’ll have to pay the price, but will have saved a life

236
Q

Kohlberg’s Stages

A
237
Q

Real life examples of Kohlberg’s Stages

(Shapiro & Johnna, 1995)

we shouldnt consider war because….

1=
2=
3=
4=
5=
6=

A

“We shouldn’t consider war…”

“because it would hurt our economy…“(Stage 1)
“because we’ll have more money for domestic issues…“(Stage 2)
“because we don’ t want to appear too militaristic…“(Stage 3)
“because war is killing and killing is against the law…“(Stage 4)
“even though the situation is bad, war is damaging to people and property and society agrees that is bad…“(Stage 5)
“although atrocities have been committed, it would be an even greater atrocity to wage war…” (Stage 6)

238
Q

3 critisisms of kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning are…

A

diallemas are too artificial, not reliable
cultural bias
gender bias

239
Q

1st
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory of moral reasoning

dilemmas critizised for being too…

Clinical interview method too…..

cultural bias= stage 5 was only found in ….. societys. and biased toward cultures favouring ….

A

…. artificial, and not reliable

Clinical interview method too subjective
** Better scoring system developed by his phd student (Colby et al. 1987)

Cultural Bias
Snarey (1985) review of studies in 27 cultures
Similar progression through stages 1-4, but Stage 5 only found in urban societies
Biased toward cultures favouring individualism
** Approaches which take into account the diversity of values within cultures

240
Q

2nd
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory of moral reasoning

gender bias=

all participents are….

Gilligan (1982) critisized both paiget and kohlberg…. and argued…. and the idea that….

A

Gender bias
All original participants male
Stages reflect specifically “male morality”

Gilligan (1982)
Criticized both Piaget and Kohlberg of negative views of “female morality”
Argued females more concerned about impact behaviour has on others
“people before principles” (female) vs. “principles before people” (male)

241
Q

Summary

A

Prosocial behaviour
Develops rapidly throughout toddler/preschool years
Shaped by reinforcement and modelling
Linked to many other cognitive abilities
Are we inherently prosocial and this then encouraged or do we learn to be prosocial?

Moral reasoning
Continues to develop into adulthood
Views of morality shaped by culture
More diverse, cross-cultural studies needed! (see Atari et al., 2020 for an example)

psychology (7 decks)

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