individual differences Flashcards
What is the definition of individual differences?
How individuals differ in personality, thought, behaviour, and emotion.
What are the main questions addressed in the study of individual differences?
- What are the main dimensions of personality?
- How does personality vary across individuals?
- What mechanisms explain personality differences?
- Is personality influenced by genes or the environment?
- Does personality change over time?
What is a personality trait?
A stable, consistent pattern in how individuals behave, think, and feel.
What are the scientific functions of personality traits?
- Description: Classify individuals’ average behaviour and feelings.
- Prediction: Forecast behaviours (e.g., job performance).
- Explanation: Understand why a person behaves in a certain way.
What do trait theories focus on?
- Individual differences that are stable across time and situations.
- Measurement via self-report questionnaires and empirical testing.
How are traits conceptualized in trait theories?
Traits are not categorical but dimensional.
What are the three levels in the hierarchical organisation of traits?
- Trait (e.g., extraversion).
- Habitual Behaviours (e.g., being conversational).
- Specific Behaviours (e.g., greeting a stranger).
What is the lexical hypothesis in identifying personality traits?
Traits are reflected in language.
What significant research did Allport & Odbert conduct in 1936?
Identified 17,953 personality-related words, later reduced to 4,504.
What is correlation in the context of personality traits?
Measures associations between variables (e.g., traits that co-occur).
What does the correlation coefficient (Pearson’s r) range from?
-1 to 1.
What is factor analysis?
Reduces large datasets into smaller clusters or ‘factors’ and identifies traits that correlate strongly within clusters.
Who is Raymond Cattell and what did he contribute to personality psychology?
Used factor analysis to identify 16 basic personality traits.
What types of data did Cattell use for his research?
- L-Data: Life records (e.g., school reports).
- Q-Data: Self-report questionnaires.
- OT-Data: Objective measures (e.g., reaction times).
What is Hans Eysenck known for?
Developed a three-factor model of personality.
What are the three factors in Eysenck’s model?
- Psychoticism: Aggressiveness, antisocial tendencies.
- Extraversion: Sociability, liveliness.
- Neuroticism: Emotional instability.
What are the five broad personality dimensions in the Big Five model?
- Extraversion
- Agreeableness
- Conscientiousness
- Neuroticism
- Openness
What does the dimension of extraversion encompass?
Sociable, energetic vs. quiet, reserved.
What does the dimension of agreeableness encompass?
Cooperative, empathetic vs. competitive, detached.
What does the dimension of conscientiousness encompass?
Organised, dependable vs. spontaneous, careless.
What does the dimension of neuroticism encompass?
Anxious, emotional vs. calm, resilient.
What does the dimension of openness encompass?
Creative, curious vs. traditional, practical.
What historical studies contributed to the development of the Big Five model?
- Fiske, 1949
- Norman, 1963
Who popularised the Big Five model?
Costa & McCrae in the 1980s–1990s.
What are facets in the context of the Big Five traits?
Each broad trait includes finer sub-traits or facets.
What does long-term stability refer to in the context of the Big Five?
Traits remain relatively stable in adulthood.
What did retest correlations over 9 years show for neuroticism?
0.76 in men, 0.55 in women.
What are the two higher-order dimensions proposed by Colin DeYoung?
- Stability: Desire for consistency and order.
- Plasticity: Openness to change and novelty.
What are characteristics of narrow traits?
- Theoretical clarity.
- Clear methods of measurement.
- Distinction from global traits (e.g., Big Five).
Why are narrow traits important?
They may explain unique personality aspects beyond broad traits.
What are the two dimensions of emotions?
lecture 2
Positive emotions (happiness, enthusiasm, excitement) and negative emotions (anxiety, worry, sadness)
How do extraversion and neuroticism relate to emotional experience?
Extraversion is linked to positive emotion activation; neuroticism is linked to negative emotion activation
Define extraversion in the context of the Five-Factor Model (FFM).
Sociable, outgoing, cheerful
Define neuroticism in the context of the Five-Factor Model (FFM).
Worry, sadness, emotional instability
What characterizes high extraversion?
Talkative, assertive, enjoys leadership, high life satisfaction
What characterizes low extraversion?
Quiet, reserved, prefers solitary activities
What are the main causes of high neuroticism?
Genetics, environment/upbringing, cognitive patterns
What are the six facets of extraversion?
Gregariousness, assertiveness, activity levels, excitement-seeking, warmth, positive emotions
What are the six facets of neuroticism?
Anxiety, self-consciousness, depression, vulnerability, impulsiveness, angry hostility
True or False: Neuroticism was historically viewed positively.
False
What negative life effects are associated with high neuroticism?
Increased stress, relationship dissatisfaction, higher likelihood of anxiety and depression, lower self-esteem
List some benefits of high neuroticism.
- Fewer accidents in adulthood
- Less risk-taking
- Better performance in structured environments
Who proposed the three major personality traits including neuroticism?
Hans Eysenck
What does the Ascending Reticular Activating System (ARAS) regulate?
Cortical activity
How does low extraversion relate to cortical arousal?
High cortical arousal leads to avoidance of stimulation
What is the Behavioural Approach System (BAS) linked to?
Extraversion
What is the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) linked to?
Neuroticism
What happens to high extraverts’ mood after positive feedback?
Mood improves
What happens to high neuroticism individuals’ mood after negative feedback?
Mood worsens
What theory suggests extraversion is associated with higher motivation for rewards?
Cybernetic Big Five Theory
Fill in the blank: Extraversion is associated with _______.
[social engagement, reward-seeking, and positive emotions]
Fill in the blank: Neuroticism is associated with _______.
[emotional instability, sensitivity to stress, and worry]
What is the relationship between personality traits and mental health?
Both traits influence mental health, life satisfaction, and behavior
