cognitive neuroscience Flashcards

Question 1

Q

1.

what is phrenology and which view does it take

lecture 1

Answer

A

measuring bumps on the **skull to predict mental traits, the localizationist’s view (traits are highly localized**, baso-depending on where bump is)

do have some localisation but conclusions were wrong

Question 2

Q

why did marie jean pierre flourens start his theory…

Answer

A

had bad traits from phrenology reading so wanted to disprove…

Question 3

Q

phrenology related

what is aggregate field theory

lecture 1

Answer

A

behavioural abilities are mediated by **interactions of areas from the entire brain **( not dif bumps so opposes phrenology)

Question 4

Q

beak

who invented aggregate field theory and what study did they do

lecture 1

Answer

A

**marie-jean-pierre flourens,
lesioned (damaging/removing) certain parts of the pigeon brain, without finding evidence for specific behavioural defectits by any of the lesions

Question 5

Q

epil

whos idea also led to the localizationist’s view and what did he do

lecture 1

Answer

A

John Hughlings Jackson monitored epilepsy patients and realized that seizures often resulted in **‘ordered’ **jerks of the muscles. This led to the idea of a **topographic organization of muscle representation in the cortex ** (start in one part of the brain and spread to other parts of the brain in order, muscles represented in an orderly manor in cortex= topographic organisation) – localizationist’s view so similar to phrenology

Question 6

Q

the homunculus in the motor cortex

Answer

A

the face hands thing around brain, dif parts of brain dif parts of body

Question 7

Q

b and w

support for localizationist’s view

lecture 1

Answer

A

Broca (speech prod.) and Wernicke (speech comp) were able to associate specific language production and comprehension deficits with specific brain lesions of a dead patient

Question 8

Q

b- cell staining

support for localizationist’s view

Answer

A

Novel cell staining techniques allowed Broadman to subdivide the human cortex into different cytoarchitectonic (some had big neurons some had smaller) areas
- stain indiv neurons, could identify 52 dif areas of brain

Question 9

Q

before The neuron doctrine ppl thought…
who believed this

Answer

A

neurons are part of one large syncitium , i.e. neurons are not separate units
Freud (along with many others)

Question 10

Q

golgi believed….
cajal debated… leading to the ….

Answer

A

in the **reticular theory **(neurons are part of one large syncitium- i.e. neurons are not separate units) by staining neurons, the golgi stain (only stains a fraction of neurons, )
cajal used golgis staining method to find neurons are individual, discrete cells and communicate via synapses
neurone doctrine

Question 11

Q

golgi theory=
cajal theory=

Answer

A

reticular theory
neuron doctrine

Question 12

Q

The Psychological Perspective
when did it start and when did it flourish
aka. BEH….
who started beh…

Answer

A

started in 1890’s and flourished in mid 1900’s
Thorndike and Watson were instrumental in developing the foundations of behaviourism, arguing that **Learning and conditioning **are the main (sole) determinants of all behaviour. This was crystalized in the teachings of B.F. Skinner.

Question 13

Q

concepts of behaviourism:
who did behaviourism=

Answer

A

Only measurable facts are the subject of scientific inquiry.
Introspection or analysis of internal (cognitive or emotive) states are non scientific.
In its extreme form it is the belief that internal states do not exist. That all living creatures are pure stimulus response ‘machines’ that can be programmed/re-programmed by appropriate conditioning.

= watson and skinner = operant (skinner bird box) pavlov= classical

Question 14

Q

type of conditioning

skinner =
pavlov=

Answer

A

operant conditioning
classical conditioning

Question 15

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limitations of behaviourism

Answer

A

Inability to explain **llanguage or provide insights into perception, emotion, memory, decision making.
cant teach a pigion to speak, therefore have ton move on because not everything can be taught/ conditioned

Question 16

Q

who went against behaviourism?
what did they realise?
in particular…
leading to… which asked…

Answer

A

miller and chompsky
not all learning can be explained conditioning
language cannot be learned simply through conditioning, but requires a brain that has evolved to enable the complex operations.
Cognitive Neuroscience- what r the underlying brain mechanisms ???

Question 17

Q

Phrenology supported the aggregate field theory. true/false?

Question 18

Q

Broca’s findings supported a localizationist’s view. true/false?

Question 19

Q

Behaviourism argued that the neural bases of emotions can be inferred from behaviour.
true/false?

Question 20

Q

Cognitive Neuroscience is the same as Cognitive Psychology.
true/false?

Answer

A

false- because CP didnt try to understand underlying brain mechanisms at the start the ‘black box’

Question 21

Q

What is phrenology, what has it taught us, where was it right, where was it wrong?

Answer

A

bumps in brain, size= importance of traits, taught us about localization of brain function, wrong conclusions about traits

Question 22

Q

What is the difference between the localizationist’s and the aggregate field’s point of view? What is the evidence in favour of these views?

Answer

A

The localizationist point of view argues that specific mental functions and cognitive processes are localized to distinct, specialized areas of the brain vs
The aggregate field perspective suggests that the* brain functions as a whole, with cognitive functions being distributed across the brain rather than confined to specific regions.*

Question 23

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What is the neuron doctrine, who supported it?

Answer

A

the neuron is the basic structural and functional unit of the nervous system, neurons are individual
cajal

Question 24

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What is behaviourism? What are its limitations?

Answer

A

no internal state, machines, everything can be conditioned/taught

not everything can be learned
eg. language

Question 25

Q

cognition= mental activity=

Answer

A

Pick up from external world and transform

Question 26

Q

What are the elementary building blocks of the brain?

Answer

A

neurons and glial cells

Question 27

Q

How is information coded and transmitted in the brain?

Answer

A

Neural Coding
Synaptic Transmission
Neurotransmitters

Question 28

Q

What are the organizing principles of the brain?

Answer

A

Localization of Function
Topographical Representation
Hierarchy of Processing

Question 29

Q

Glial Cells two types
O=
S=
what do they do??

Answer

A

Oligodendrocytes myelinate (insulate) axons in the* brain and spinal cord.*
Schwann cells myelinate axons in the *periphery of the body.

cells contain fat which insulates the axons= speeding up conduction

Question 30

Q

neurons structure
soma=
axon=
dendrites=

Answer

A

cell body
from soma to dendtites tube
gives signal from next neuron through synapse

Question 31

Q

neurons are ….
so they have a … causing…
resting potential

Answer

A

electrically charged
voltage gradient … pressure gradient, ions flow across the gradient
-70

Question 32

Q

resting potential is maintained by …

Answer

A

sodium potassium pump- ion pumps, uses energy in form of atp takes 3 na+ to outside and takes 2 k+ to inside

Question 33

Q

whys the pump neccisary

are protiens + or -

Answer

A

because there are nongated na+ and K+ channels which are open all the time.

A- is a protien, all protiens are negativly charged and lots on inside of cells so lots of negative charge inside cell

Question 34

Q

neuronal signaling goes…

Answer

A

A-> B

presynaptic terminal/membrane and postsynaptic terminal/membrane

Question 35

Q

for neuronal signaling you need an action potential which is…

Answer

A

when a cell gets depolarised inflow of positive NA+ into cell (membrane potential= more postive) reaches threshold the neruon fires an action potential, all or nothing law.
After the peak is reached, the voltage-gated sodium channels close, and voltage-gated potassium channels open.
K⁺ ions flow out of the neuron
The K⁺ channels are slow to close,

Question 36

Q

synaptic transmittion

Answer

A

AP depolarises the presynaptic membrane
inflow of ca2+ causes vesicles (contaning neurotransmitter) to bind with cell membrane
neurotransmitter crosses synaptic cleft by exocytosis
NT binds to receptor on postsynaptic membrane
lots of NT binding to this creates another AP in next neuron and so on…

Question 37

Q

peripheral NS
CNS
autonomic NS

Answer

A

all nerves oitsde of brain and spinal cord
brain and spine
mix of two

Question 38

Q

cns

Answer

A

nucleus, cerebral cortex, gray matter (outside of CC), white matter (glial cells) (Inside of CC)

Question 39

Q

ventral
dorsal

Answer

A

tummy side (front)- bottom of brain
backside (back)- top of brain

Question 40

Q

os

rostral
caudal

Answer

A

front of brain
back of brain

Question 41

Q

ways of slicing brain
saggital
coronal
axial/ horrizontal

Answer

A

side to side
spin like ballet
bbq table football

Question 42

Q

limbic system

Answer

A

combo of hypothalamus, almygdala, hippocampus, mamilliary body, anterior thamalic nucleus
‘where emotions live’

Question 43

Q

cerebral cortex

Answer

A

left hempishpher and right hemisphere

Question 44

Q

gray matter
white matter
why cant is gray darker when staining?

Answer

A

where neurons live
where axons live
white matter not stained as no neurons so gray is darker as neurons get stained

Question 45

Q

frontal cortex vs frontal lobe

Answer

A

The frontal lobe refers to one of the four major lobes of the brain and The frontal cortex refers to the outer layer of neural tissue (gray matter) that covers the frontal lobe part of the cerebral cortex

Question 46

Q

what does “Cortex” mean in Latin

Answer

A

outer layer

Question 47

Q

frontal lobe has the … cortex
parietal lobe has the …. cortex
temporal lobe has the … cortex
occipital lobe has the … cortex

Answer

A

motor
somatosensory
auditory
visual

Question 48

Q

What are the main cell types in the nervous system?

Answer

A

neurons
glial cells (Oligodendrocytes in CNS and Schwann Cells in peripher NS)

Question 49

Q

Which are the key structural elements of a neuron?

Answer

A

axon
dendrites
soma
node of ranvier

Question 50

Q

Why is a neuron ‘charged’?

Answer

A

bc of resting membramne potential of -70, ion channels and pumps, electrochemical gradient

Question 51

Q

How does an action potential occur?

Answer

A

synaptic transmittion

Question 52

Q

How does synaptic transmission work?

Answer

A

across synaptic cleft

Question 53

Q

What are the two main subdivisions of the nervous system?

Question 54

Q

What is topographical representation?

Answer

A

the weird body parts thing

Question 55

Q

What does Cognitive Psychology do?
diagram

lecture 2

Answer

A

See/hear/feel—> Mental representations
Mental operations (black box) —> act (do something)

Question 56

Q

cog psychology vs cog neuroscience

Answer

A

what happens vs
what makes it happen

Question 57

Q

mental representation def

Answer

A

anything that ‘means’ something to an individual
eg. the **concept of a ‘tree’ **( when we see it we know it)
we have multiple layers of knowlage
We know a tree from seeing it.
a carpenter would know a tree from smelling the wood.
We know it when we see the word ‘tree’.

Question 58

Q

How are mental processes and mental representation linked?

Answer

A

Your eyes process the incoming light (e.g. of a tree),
your visual system processes the information (i.e. a basic mental process takes place),
you see the tree = mental representation
Seeing the tree triggers a mental process (e.g. ‘avoid’ if you drive a car).

Question 59

Q

How does Cognitive Psychology study mental representations and operations?

Answer

A

posner’s letter-matching task

Question 60

Q

posner’s letter-matching task
how does it work?
what did they find?
whats the technique called?
dif RT reflect….

Answer

A

2 letters on screen
if the same (both vowel or consenent) press same
if dif press dif

if 2 letters r AA dentical = responce time to press same is short
if 2 letters Aa= slower
AU both vowels= slower
SC both consonants= v slow

RT vary:
technique called chronometry - using time measures to infer the workings of the brain
dif Rt reflect the degree of processing required to do the letter matching task.

It follows that stimulus identity representations are activated first, phonetic representations are activated second, while categorizations are activated last.
Thus it is possible to dissect which mental representations differ from one another, and how complex they are in terms of mental processing.

Question 61

Q

Can we demonstrate that during processing representations are transformed?

Answer

A

instead of putting letters simultaniously, he put a time gap between them - technique called- stimulus onset asynchrony

found… dif between RT decreased
have time to transfer the first lettter into a phonetic-identity (aka work out what it is… vowel??) by the time the secon letter comes we can process ot quicker RT is faster.
dont have to process 2 letters at same time, process the first properly so then can react quickler to second

Question 62

Q

memory comparison task
hypothesized stages

Answer

A

4 letters on screen (1)
gap (nothing on screen)
letter shows up on screen (2)
if is one of the 4 letters press ‘yes’ if not ‘no’ (3/4)

stage 1= encode
stage 2= compare
stage 3= decide
stage 4= respond

use chromomotery

Question 63

Q

memory comparison task example

Answer

A

ACHN–> gap–> A (150ms)
BDMX–> gap–>M (150ms x 3 as M is 3rd letter, so 450ms)
sum = 150ms +450 ms= 600ms
sum x 2 (as 2 dif sets)= 1200 ms

we still compare the letter against all the 4 letters even if the letter is first and u have already found it.

Question 64

Q

Cognitive Psychology:
treats the brain as a ….. , and tries to understand what happens …. (at a descriptive level).

Answer

A

black box… inside

Answer 61

A

Posner’s letter matching task

Answer 62

A

all answers are correct

Answer 63

A

answers 1 and 3 are correct

Answer 64

A

Animal research
Neurology
Brain imaging

Answer 65

A

record electrode from brain to see which part of brain being used during task (observe changes in voltage or current in a neuron)

Occasionally used in** treating epilepsy **of the medial temporal lobe (MTL)

vs
Extensively used in a variety of visual and auditory tasks using a peristimulus histogram

Answer 66

A

a delimited medium where some physiological stimuli can evoke a sensory neuronal response in specific organisms.

ON center/OFF surround cell:

part of the external world the neuron is receptive for.

Answer 67

A

either
yes
no has been banned
yes
either
yes
either

Answer 68

A

concussion

epilepsey regions taken out

Answer 69

A

first 3= degenerative
nutritional deficiencey

Answer 70

A

dysfunction in the brain or nervous system

damaged connections

Answer 71

A

electroencephalogram

….attached to the head all to measure electrical activity in the brain. It is used for many different purposes, e.g. epilepsy or cognitive neuroscience, when siezures happen.

6

LT= left temporal
LF= left frontal
RT= right temporal
etc….

Answer 72

A

understad how auditory cortex responds when we present an auditory stimulus

Answer 73

A

** Altering the activity of a brain area** by either using ablation (removing), electrical or pharmacological methods to establish overall more normal patient function.

Parkinson, deep brain stimulation
depression, obsessive compulsive

Answer 74

A

defecit
interest

Answer 75

A

memory more close in time/ more recent

gut feeling, have i heard this before ??? yes but dont remmeber all the details

R is fine
F is bad

bad
fine

double dissosiation

Answer 76

A

true
false
false
true

Answer 77

A

trauma
tumours
stroke
neurodigenerative diseases eg. alzheimers
infections
Functional neurosurgery

Answer 78

A

twins, once in war and one not, both hippocampal volumes decreased over time, not causation but is a correlation, as if was causation the non-war twins hippocampus volume wouldnt decrease

CORRELATION MEANS THAT A CAUSES B…

Answer 79

A

using light to manipulate neuronal activity
**
inject genetic construct into specific part of brain (like vaccination concept) (mRNA into body) cells use mRNA to build protiens, so get an immune responce

this construct allows cells to release ActionPotentials

light= channels open= depolarisation= AP
control neural circuits

Answer 80

A

optogenetics
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
- Low-level currents that result in action potentials under the anodes

Answer 81

A

blood oxygen level dependant
reflects changes in deoxyhemoglobin driven by localized changes in brain blood flow and blood oxygenation, which are coupled to underlying neuronal activity by a process termed neurovascular coupling.
Your brain cells use more oxygen when they’re working. That means following the blood flow (haemoglobin) shows the areas of your brain that are working hardest. Those areas appear brighter on an fMRI scan.

hydrogen

Blood oxygenation levels affect the local magnetic fields, which fMRI can detect due to the differences in magnetic susceptibility between oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. because of iron in haem…

Answer 82

A

magnet
45 mins on average
makes magentic field vary
structural scan of brain for comparison
ALL METALLIC OBJECTS

Answer 83

A

slower dephasing = stronger Mri signal
faster= weaker mri signal

Answer 84

A

Good Spatial Resolution
Poor Temporal Resolution:

Answer 85

A

Good Temporal Resolution:
Poor Spatial Resolution:

compliments as then its good temporal and spatial resolution

Answer 86

A

Allows an understanding how single neurons encode specific features

Answer 87

A

the process by which the mind chooses from among the various stimuli that **strike the senses **at any given moment.
- if u dont attend to something u wont feel it

Answer 88

A

(1953),
at a party, lots of ppl chatting around, ignore one person that talks to you and listen to everyone aroud you.

Answer 89

A

any perception needs sensory input,

early selection= … early in processing stream which are affected by attention
….regestration (first processing stages), perceptual analysis,
- have 1000m photoreceptors, huge amount of info, no way our nervous system can process all of those at once, which is why we need selection (selective attention)
-
late selection=
…its not happening at early stages was argued… it happens when semantic encoding/analysis occurs
- argue for this is that we even if attend somewhere which is irrelevnt eg. somone saying our name

then exerctutiv3 functions and decisios/memory

Answer 90

A

problem= outer ears attenuate sound if it hits them, so deflection would be smaller so may not be just because of the mouse.

not v controlled
(a) While the animal sits passively in the cage listening to sounds (left), the evoked response from the cochlear nucleus is robust (right). (b) The animal’s attention is attracted away from the sounds that it is hearing to visual objects of interest (a mouse in a bottle). (c) The animal is once again resting and passively hearing sounds. The arrows indicate the responses of interest and the horizontal lines indicate the onsets and offsets of the sounds from the loudspeaker.

Answer 91

A

no matter if you turn your head, if u have headphones u can still hear everything without deflection

= 2 diferent sounds/convo coming in each ear
1) horse galloping across field
2) president lincon often read by the fire…

they have to repeat what they attend to, listen and remember.

-

Answer 92

A

EEG- over primary auditory cortex
everythig over left ear is processed under right cortex and vice verser
- play same sounds ythrough same ears but ask subject to attend to one particular ear, they will use more of that cortex, higher amplitude on side of cortex being used.

negative eeg signals deflect upward
Event-related potentials in a dichotic listening task. The solid line represents the average voltage response to an attended input over time; the dashed line, the response to an unattended input. Hillyard and colleagues found that the amplitude of the N1 component was enhanced with attending to a stimulus compared to ignoring a stimulus.

Answer 93

A

EEG spatial resolution is rlly poor so cant tell if primary visual cortex

with this can see which part of cortex more specifically, so know it happens in early stages.

13.12.14 Mapping attention effects. (a) Topographic map of magnetic event-related fields (ERFs) associated with auditory attention in a selective-listening paradigm. The field map was created by subtraction of the field elicited by unattended tones (in the 20- to 50-ms time range after stimulus onset) from the field elicited by the same tones when they were attended. The arrow indicates the location and orientation of a model dipolar neural generator that best explains the surface field. (b) The localization of the M20–50 attention effect in the brain. When the three-dimensional location of this model dipolar generator (red asterisk) was mapped onto a structural MRI scan (after coregistration of the data sets), the activity was found to originate in the auditory cortex, in Heschl’s gyri in the supratemporal plane.

Answer 94

A

Auditory cortical responses are affected by attention.
Auditory brainstem responses are not affected by attention
But: Otoacoustic emissions are affected by attention?-
…. if a sound played through ear you have tiny hair cells in ear attatched to vasular membrane which can contract, makes membrane to defelct the opposite direction, going back to ear drum, causing ti to vibrate (essentially a sound) ear emmits the sound. very importsnt in newborns to find out if they can hear or are deaf.
What are otoacoustic emissions?- these sounds ears emmit
How can they be affected by attention given b?

Answer 95

A

yes
early - dichotic listening tells us info is stilll attended if ignored and not completely ignored.

Answer 96

A

Exogenous attention (transient, bottom-up, automatic)
- cant help but attend to, automatically captures are attention eg. a massive bang
- comes from outer world (exo)

Endogenous attention (sustained, top-down, voluntary)
- triggered by us, if you try to attend something. eg. watching a film attend to whole thing vs lecture 10 mins.

Answer 97

A

other benefits of filtering out attention

valid invalid cueing task by posner

face computer screen with square, look at cross inside square
arrow appears can point to right or left or can not point any direction
if right= shortly afterwards irrelevant stimulus will appear on the right and vise verser. dosent always happen 80% can appear on opposite side, but expect this.
click button when target appears
measure reaction time
RT faster when we expect the target on the same side.
faster RT= benefit

this is endogenous as the cue gives us hints, we attend to the arrow.

Answer 98

A

no chnage in external world, only internal world as attention goes from left to right.

evidence for… endogenous rlly affects sensory processing in cortex
occipital cortex
measure event related electrodes.
when attend to right and it appears on left=

Stimulus display used to investigate sustained, spatial selective attention. The subject fixates the eyes on the central crosshairs (+), while stimuli are flashed in random order to the left and right fields. (a) During some blocks the subject is instructed to covertly attend left (or right on other trials) stimuli in order to detect infrequent targets, and to ignore distractors on the right. . The dotted lines from the head to the screen indicate the direction of covert attention for the different attention conditions.

Answer 99

A

exogenous

mearure ERP over right opccipital cortex when looking at left ear
sometimes..
attended info= cued, gives alrger deflection= more processing going on in visuak cortex even oif whats going on in retina is identical.

Answer 100

A

attention is less likely to return to a location or object that has already been attended to or explored.

eg. flashing light you learn to ignore it over time, dont need to attend to stuff thats salient but irrelevant

Answer 101

A

yes
yes
yes

Answer 102

A

dont look at stimulus were attending to
eg. at bar reading a book and somone attractive walks in you dont stare cause its rude so look back at your phone but your attention is still with the person. eye contact in tube in london, dont stare so you just monitor while not looking

looking at stimulus were attenting too

Answer 103

A

last 2 correct

2 only exogenous

Answer 104

A

Spatial attention: attention to a specific location in space, irrespective of what is present at that location.

Feature based attention: attention to specific stimulus features irrespective of where they are in our environment.
eg. someone u never met before in station, if there wearing a red coat its easier to spot as u can just scan across room for red.

Object based attention: attention to parts of an object that spreads automatically to the entire object.
eg. if big objects like elephant, outline an object and attend to whole one even if spatial attention is confined on object

Answer 105

A

spatial attention and feature attention at same time

if you find the red o in an array with green x’s and o’s
easier to find if there is only 1. compared to lots
RT to identify red is quicker if one
pop-out search = 1
conjunction search= more than 1, dont see where it is immediatly, get slower as have to go through all the items.

Answer 106

A

measure resonse to flash of white square over a green or blue T= feature attended so faster rt compared to red

Answer 107

A

early selection happens in cortex

Answer 108

A

Figure 9.12 Two methods by which humans can learn about the aversive properties of an event. (a) In fear conditioning, the aversive properties of the blue square are learned by the pairing of the square and shock. (b) In instructed fear, the blue square is linked to the shock by verbal instruction. In both cases the amygdala plays a role in the expression of the fear response.

Answer 109

A

measure the electrical activity of individual neurons (brain cells) by recording their action potentials (spikes)
find out where is the receptive field of the neuron is recieved from?
Monkeys are trained to perform visual tasks
Tiny electrodes are inserted into specific brain areas
the monkey is cued to shift its attention from one part of the visual field to another.
When the monkey directs attention to a particular object or location, neurons that are sensitive to that part of the visual field tend to fire more rapidly.

Answer 110

A

you can record multiple neurons which fire alot more AP indicated by each vertical line. that neuron illicited as a function of time after stimulus onset. neurons fire more AP when monkey attends to receptive field vs when he ignores it
neurons fire more when stimulus inreceptive firld is attended to, leading to EEG effects (millions of neurons) we look at what one neuron does.

Answer 111

A

fMRI in conjunction with retinotopy
Figure 12.21 Stimuli and task used in a spatial attention study. Two conditions of attention are shown: attention left (a) and attention right (b). Subjects viewed rapid sequences of arrays of nonsense symbols (flashed for 100 ms) while maintaining fixation of their eyes on a central fixation spot (yellow box with red dot). The arrays were presented with stimulus onset asynchronies (soa) that varied between 250 and 550 ms. There were always two symbols in the left and two in the right visual hemifield in locations marked by an outline rectangle. The task was to detect and press a button when the symbols in a pair at the attended location matched (labeled “Target”). In the figure (but not in the actual experiment) the focus of covert spatial attention is indicated by a circle.

Answer 112

A

Retinotopic mapping
when visual information from the retina (the light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye) is mapped onto specific areas of the brain, especially the visual cortex.

Answer 113

A

… fMRI is used to map out how different parts of the visual field correspond to different areas of the visual cortex, allowing researchers to see how the brain processes visual information spatially.

right external world is processed in the left side of brain and vise verser
… use boxes to represent the V1, v2 etc…
record responces of cells that represenr that

Schematic drawing of stimuli used to map demarcation of visual areas in human cortex
Representation of visual space in human cortex as measured using fMRI
Cartoon of visual areas present in human cortex as delineated by means of fMRI

Answer 114

A

measure strengt of bold signal in v1, v2 etc and find that attention effects processing in the LGn and can pinpoint in v1,v2 as we have retintopically mapped them

Answer 115

A

yes - brain
yes - fmri
yes - attention

Answer 116

A

record from a monkey in v2 or v4
where receptive fields become bigger so you can identify 2 stimuli in a receptive field at same time
so you attend to the prefered stimulus.

Answer 117

A

monkey fixates centrally and no other task
2 -yellow… present stimuus inside receptive field which is irrelevant to monkey - get some resoponse
1- red… if present prefered stimulis get bigger responce

present both stimuli at once= (like 1 alot and 2 a bit) gives intermediate responce
- attention tells which of the 2 stimuli ger to dominate the respoince, biases which ones are listened too.

Answer 118

A

The right now shows the average activity after stimulus onset for 2 conditions performed consecutively, namely when a preferred stimulus is shown (as previous slide, red) , and when a non-preferred stimulus is presented (i.e. yielding low responses [yellow line]).
If both stimuli are shown simultaneously, an intermediate response is elicited, i.e. although both stimuli individually excite the cell, the presence of the non-preferred stimulus suppresses the response to the preferred stimulus := competition.
The competition can be won by the stimulus the animal attends to.

Answer 119

A

resources
suppress their competitors.

Answer 120

A

attention
fmri
biased

Answer 121

A

1) feature encoding… specialized areas of the brain that break down and process specific elements of sensory information
eg. visual system= PVC (V1), v2…. etc
2) Visual Processing Hierarchy
.. ventral stream= colour shape and texture
.. dorsal stream= objecgt location depth…

Answer 122

A

the dorsal and ventral stream
dorsal= “Where is it?” and “How do I interact with it?”
ventral= “What is it?”

Answer 123

A

brain prioritizes specific features of stimuli in the environment while filtering out irrelevant information.
.. associated with increased activity in particular areas of the brain that represent those features

Answer 124

A

V1 is the first area of the visual cortex that processes visual information
V4 is critical for color perception and the analysis of complex shapes and patterns.

Answer 125

A

we have cueing
valid and invalid cuing
arrow either pointing to left or right, locations of holes dont change but some have holes and if so press button
does rt dif depend on whetehr or not uncued change happens on same object? -
Object representations can modulate spatial attention.

Enhancement of the attended stimulus.
Suppression of the unattended stimulus.

Answer 126

A

drawings of boxes with reinotpical mapping, computer screen, are of v where neurons fire.

Answer 127

A

task, monkey attended to either receptive field of the study or elsewhere
when was receptive, lots of black dots= representing an action potential
fewer AP dots ehen monkey didnt attend to receptive field.

Answer 128

A

different stimuli in the visual field compete for neural representation, and this competition is biased in favor of stimuli that are behaviorally relevant or attended to.

we focus our attention on a particular object or location, the neural processing of that object is enhanced, while the processing of other, non-relevant stimuli is suppressed.

Answer 129

A

object features, colour, shape represented in ventral pathway
spatial features like depth in dorsal pathway
if we attend tpo motion of stimulus, dosral pathway gets activated
if we attend to colour of object ventral pathway activated.

Answer 130

A

computer screen shows pointers of cues where likley change is going to happen.
eg. arrow pointing to left corner something in left corner will change.

figure slide 4

When we attend to one part of an object, the rest of the object also receives enhanced processing, even if it’s not in the spotlight of attention.

Answer 131

A

attention is not only directed to specific locations in space (as in spatial attention), but also to entire objects as coherent units.

when we focus our attention on an object, all parts of that object are processed more thoroughly than the surrounding environment, even if parts of the object are not in the center of the attentional focus.

Answer 132

A

Model of executive control systems and the way in which visual cortex processing is affected by the top-down control of a network of brain areas.

Answer 133

A

enhancing the representation of relevant stimuli and suppressing irrelevant or distracting information. brain to efficiently allocate resources to process important sensory inputs while ignoring others

Answer 134

A

yes, The primary forms of attention—selective attention, divided attention, and sustained attention—are associated with different cognitive demands and contexts, leading to the recruitment of specific brain regions and networks. Here’s a breakdown of how various forms of attention correspond to distinct neural networks:

Answer 135

A

midbrain= early stages of attention, particularly in the orienting and alerting phases.
cortical= higher-level cognitive processes related to attention, including selective, sustained, and divided attention

Answer 136

A

frontal= executive functions, including attention regulation.
parietal= spatial attention and integrating sensory information
temporal= processing of auditory information and object recognition.

Answer 137

A

we need ppl to attend to a location for an exptended period of time, without anything happening in the external world that triggers responces, because we want the attentional signal to be high. to activate attentional areas.
in fMRI experiment- present a cue, this is an endogenous cue pointing to right, pointing to target. long delay = blood flow neeeds to change, need signal to build up to stay there so we can reliably record.
present stimulus, activating all our visual areas. show target and press button, activating motor areas.

attentional
then sensory
then motor

Answer 138

A

this allows us to identify which areas are part of the attentional control network.

areas attending 8s, when active can measure responces.

Response related to cue offset
Delineates the attentional control network

Response related to stimulus onset
=> Delineates areas activated by stimulus and task

Answer 139

A

specific neural networks that coordinate cognitive functions, facilitating the regulation of attention and other cognitive processes

the cognitive and neural mechanisms involved in identifying and responding to relevant stimuli (targets) in the environment.

Attentional control network activated in response to an attention-directing spatial cue and identified using event-related fMRI in a cuing paradigm.

Answer 140

A

i.e. these areas (blue) are involved in attentional control.
= dlf: Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex
= Inferior Parietal Lobule
= Superior Temporal Sulcus
=Posterior Cingulate Cortex
=Medial Frontal Cortex

The areas highlighted in red/yellow of the previous slide became only active when the stimulus was presented, i.e. they are involved in stimulus processing, but not in directing attention (even if their activity can be modulated by attention).

Answer 141

A

= “Top-down”, fronto-parietal network
for voluntary attentional control
= “Bottom-up” network
for novelty and attentional reorienting

Answer 142

A

You may recall that two main types of attention exist:

Bottom-up attention and top-down attention.

Are they controlled by the same control system?

The answer is no.

…. more lateral parts of the parietal and frontal cortex are active to direct attention.
…. more medial parts of the parietal and frontal cortex are active to direct attention.

Answer 143

A

motor
attention
sensory

Answer 144

A

consist of superior colliculus
Brain regions involved in early visual processing (introducing the superior colliculus)

Answer 145

A

snakes…
So far the focus of our analysis was on areas in the cortex that mediate attention.

But more ancient parts of the brain are also involved.
This is not surprising, as attention is vital for many animals even if they do not have a cortex (e.g. birds, reptiles, amphibia, fish,….)

A part in the midbrain, called the superior colliculus is very important in directing attention and directing our eyes so that we look at what is relevant to us.

The location of the superior colliculus in the brain is shown in the previous slide.

Answer 146

A

record from SC, mokneys fixate on centre of screen, present a stimulus, in receptive field, get action potentials.

Experimental setup and responses of the superior colliculus for different conditions

Answer 147

A

…It integrates sensory information and helps allocate attention to relevant stimuli in the environment

Left lateral view of macaque monkey brain. The intraparietal sulcus (IPS) in the parietal lobe is shown retracted to reveal the depths of the sulcus, which contains several distinct areas. One of these distinct areas, the lateral intraparietal area (LIP).

Answer 148

A

monkey, human, human, superior colliculus, frontal and the parietal cortex.

Answer 149

A

Neglect and extinction are both disorders that involve attentional deficits, typically following brain injury, particularly to the parietal lobe.
=individuals fail to respond to or acknowledge stimuli on one side of their body or visual field, typically the left side, following right hemisphere damage.
=person can perceive stimuli presented to both sides of their visual field when presented separately but fails to acknowledge stimuli on one side when both sides are presented simultaneously.

Answer 150

A

stroke affecting the right hemisphere , left and right visual field,right, extinction

Answer 151

A

differs, objects in a part of the external world.
= A patient might eat food only from the right side of their plate, ignoring the left side as though it doesn’t exist. Even though their left-side vision and movement are intact, they behave as though food on the left side is not there.

Answer 152

A

Lateral view of the right hemisphere, showing the major anatomical regions implicated in neglect, including the temporoparietal junction (TPJ), angular gyrus, supramarginal gyrus, and superior temporal gyrus.

Answer 153

A

damage to the right hemisphere of the brain, particularly in areas involved in spatial awareness and attention.
…failure to attend to stimuli on the contralateral (opposite) side, typically the left side.

Answer 154

A

the greatest overlap in the superior temporal gyrus (STG), especially in the inferior parietal lobule (IPL). (many patients with neglect have damage in that particular area.)

Answer 155

A

= Right Inferior Parietal Lobule (IPL):
= right Premotor Cortex
= Right Parietal Lobe
= Right Superior Temporal Gyrus (STG)

Answer 156

A

damage to the right hemisphere, leads to a failure to attend to stimuli on the opposite (usually left) side of space.

Right Inferior Parietal Lobule (IPL):
Temporoparietal Junction (TPJ):
Superior Temporal Gyrus (STG):

Answer 157

A

impairments in memory and attention processes, often resulting from damage to brain networks involved in maintaining and directing focus over time.
… Common causes of attentional memory deficits include brain injury, aging, and neurological conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease or traumatic brain injury (TBI).

Visual recollections of two ends of an Italian piazza by a neglect patient.

Answer 158

A

Neglect is not restricted to visual perception of actual objects. It also occurs in the domain of memory.

In this study memory neglect was tested for known spaces.
The patient had a neglected side in visual memory (shaded gray), which was contralateral to the side with cortical damage. If the patient was asked to turn around the neglected memory side turned as well.

Answer 159

A

dorsal attention network (DAN) - goal-directed, top-down attention
and the ventral attention network (VAN).- stimulus-driven, bottom-up attention

Answer 160

A

Learning: process of information acquisition
* Memory: The result of acquired (and stored)
information.

Answer 161

A

Encoding (acquisition and consolidation, conciously or subconciosuly go over aquired info to help store it)
Storage (representation of the acquired and
consolidated information)
Retrieval: utilization of stored information to
perform specific acts (use memorized items to
recreate events of the past or perform motor acts).
3

Answer 162

A

long term and sensorymemory/short term memory/ working memory

Answer 163

A

declarative (explicit) and non declarative (implicit)

Answer 164

A

events (episodic memory, specific personal) and facts (semantic memory, world knowlage)

Answer 165

A

procedural memory (skills, motor and cog), perceptual representation system(perceptual priming) , classic conditioning, nonassosiative learning (habituation, sensitization).

Answer 166

A

medial temporal lobe, middle diencephalon and neocortex

Answer 167

A

basal ganglia and sceletal muscle, perceptual and assosiation neocortex, cerebellum, reflex pathways

Answer 168

A

ms to s , high, no, primarily decay
s to m, limited 7+-2 , yes, primarily decay
days to years, high, no, primarily inteference
days to years, high, yes, primarily interference

Answer 169

A

iconic (visual)
and echonic (auditory, operates unconsciously. However, even though we are not consciously aware of it while it happens, we can become aware of it or recall it shortly afterward.eg.

echonic with eeg

Answer 170

A

half-paying attention to a conversation or a lecture. Suppose you’re daydreaming or distracted while someone is speaking to you. They suddenly ask, “Did you hear what I just said?” Even though you weren’t fully listening, you can often still recall the last few words they said,

Answer 171

A

Hierarchical modal model
3 component working memory model

Answer 172

A

Main ideas:
* Discrete stages of memory.
* Attention and rehearsal required
to establish long term memory.
* Serial processing steps. serial in nature- if one event dosent happen the next cant happen!!!
Prediction: no short term memory
means no long term memory!

sensory inputs-> sensory register (attention) -> short term storage (rehersal) -> long term storage
The Atkinson and Shiffrin modal model of memory. Sensory information enters the information-processing
system and is first stored in a sensory register. Items that are selected via attentional processes are then
moved into short-term storage. With rehearsal, the item can move from short-term to long-term storage

Answer 173

A

1) Sensory memory: automatic, short lived (seconds), large
storage capacity
2) Short term memory: short lived (seconds to minutes),
limited capacity.
3) Working memory : similar to short term memory, but
memory content is more active (manipulated for active use).
4) Long term memory: long lived, unlimited capacity
) DO NOT confuse sensory and short term memory!
) DO NOT confuse short term and working memory!

Answer 174

A

top= visuospatial sketchpad
middle= central executive (selection mechanism, attend to some info ignore others)
bottom= phonological loop (auditory)

not serial, process happen in parallel.

Proposal: Working memory is distinct from STM, as it operates on memory content, and can use
sensory information as well as information retrieved from memory. The model consists of a three parts
working memory system which has a central executive that controls two subordinate systems: the
phonological loop, by which information can be phonologically (acoustically) coded in working memory;
and the visuospatial sketch pad, by which information is visually coded in working memory.
11

Answer 175

A

phonological loop (auditory)= BA44 and supramarginal gryrus
visuospatial scetchpad= parietal lobe
frontal lobe= working memory

Answer 176

A

1) verbal memory task or spatial memory task
2) verbal area 44 ights up
3) spatial other side o brian lights up

Changes in local cerebral blood flow, measured with positron emission tomography for verbal (a) and
spatial (b) working memory tasks in healthy volunteers. In each part the views of the cortical surface show
the left hemisphere (left); superior (dorsal) surface of both hemispheres, with the frontal lobe at the top
(middle); and right hemisphere (right).
13

Answer 177

A

Key points: Memory models
1) Modal Memory Model: 4 stages of processing; serial
processing; if there are deficits at any one stage, the next
stage will not operate properly.
2) Working Memory Model: 3 stages of processing; at least in
parts parallel processing. A central executive handles the
information and holds it in working memory. The latter is
similar, but not identical to Short-term-memory.
14

Answer 178

A

Declarative and Nondeclarative
Verbal
* Explicit memory for
o Events
o Facts
o Relationships

Nonverbal
* Implicit memory for
o Priming
o Conditioning
o Habituation
o Sensitization
o Procedural memory

Answer 179

A

non verbal/non-declarative – not supported by medialtemporal lobe, suported by basal ganglia

Procedural learning of sequences in the serial reaction-time task.(clicking dif buttons for diferent sequences)

Procedural learning of sequences in the serial reaction-time task.
Over time, subjects’ reaction time to the repeating sequence becomes faster as compared to a sequence that
is totally random, although they apparently have no knowledge that any pattern exists ( they dont know that they are being given the same one on repeat- not concious)

over time reaction time decreases- better at task eithout knowing underlying structure.

Answer 180

A

Priming refers to a change in the response
to a stimulus, or in the ability to identify a
stimulus, following prior
exposure to that
stimulus
**previous exposure makes you faster at filling in stuff subconsiously. **

– Word fragment task eg= given word list after a while given some priming of perceptual cues eg. _ic__p
conceptual cues eg. ‘medicine cured…..)

Answer 181

A

fat dog sees a certail sound/or sees you walking and sees that as a cue for food and salvate
* US= food, dont need to pair with something to salvate
* CS= bell, alone nothing happens
* US and CS= when bell conditioned with food salvates forming a
* UR= food causes salvating.
* CR= salvates when bell rings

Answer 182

A

A= loss of memory
AA= amnesia for future, inability to learn new things
RA= amnesia for past, forget things from past

Answer 183

A

incurable epilepsy
new source was in hippocampus and medial temproal lobe
decided to remove most of hippocampus both
he suffered from complete anteriograde and some retrograde episodic amnesia.

H.M.’s Brain
Coronal MRI scans of H.M.’s brain Region of the medial temporal lobe actually
removed from H.M.

Answer 184

A

requires, what and where and when
then get ‘relational memory’
HM had none of these structures so he had no episodic memory

what and where = process in parts of medial temporal lobe
parahippocampal cortex (where) Perirhinal cortex (what)
The hippocampus integrates the “what” and “where,” helping us form complete episodic memories that combine both the details and the context of experiences.

Answer 185

A

Delayed Nonmatch to Sample (1)
sample phase= The monkey is shown two cards on a tray. One of the cards has a piece of food (e.g., a grape) underneath it. The monkey is allowed to lift the card with the food, eat it, and become familiar with the object (the sample card).
delay= After the monkey has eaten the food, the cards are taken away, and a delay is introduced.
Test Phase (Non-Match Choice)= monkey is presented with the sample card (the card it saw earlier) and a new card (non-matching object). Only one of these cards will have a piece of food under it. To get the food, the monkey must choose the non-matching card (the new card that it did not see during the sample phase). This means the monkey needs to remember the original card and select the other one in order to obtain the food reward.

must remember the card it saw previously (the “what” component of memory) and avoid choosing it, opting instead for the new, non-matching card.

8s= stm
15s = transition to LTM
10 minutes the performance foes to chance level (50% randomly pick)

Answer 186

A

form of amnesia often associated with chronic alcohol abuse and thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency

mammilary bodies= mammillary bodies (part of the hypothalamus) often undergo atrophy or degeneration

dorsomedial nucleus of thalamus= also experiences degeneration

symptoms= Severe memory deficits, especially for recent events (anterograde amnesia).
Confabulation (making up stories to fill memory gaps).

Diagrammatic coronal section of the brain at the level of the anterior nucleus of the thalamus, mammillothalamic tract, and the rostral portion of the crus cerebri. The dorsomedial nucleus of the thalamus and the mammillary bodies are damaged in Korsakoff’s syndrome. It is caused by vitamin B1 difficiency

Answer 187

A

patient EE who had brain cancer, which was removed, part of brain removed was where short term auditory memory takes place (angular gyrus -affecting left superior
temporal and left inferior parietal cortex), did selective short term memory tasks- (digit span 1-2)
stm severly impaired, but long term memory unaffected.

Answer 188

A

EE= no stm but ltm
HM= had STM but no LTM

double dissosiation

Contrast Patient E.E. with patient H.M (no LTM, hippocampal lesion):
1. It is not a true double dissociation, as EE had not entirely lost his STM.
2. More on this in the seminar relating to memory systems

Answer 189

A

particularly for declarative memory, which includes episodic (events and experiences) and semantic (facts and knowledge) memory. However, it does not typically cause anterograde amnesia for all forms of memory.

Answer 190

A

Drawings from memory by patient H.M. of the house where he lived beginning 5 years after his surgery.

Answer 191

A

place preferences are a form

yet another form of memory spared by
hippocampal damage
Testing amnesia patients for ability to learn new information. Investigators read lists of words to amnesic patients.
Then, one hour later, the words were read again together with new words that had not been in the previous reading.

Answer 192

A

A technique that allows to measure brain activation
during retrieval.
A behavioural test that separates different forms of
memory (familiarity, recollection and source
recollection).

Answer 193

A

word in green= small or big (left finger for big, right for small)
word in red= is it alive or inanimate (left finger for alive, right if not)
do task fo putting fingers up
day later do retrieval
see some words again and some new
say…
6= v familiar
1= very unfamiliar
scale 1-6

get confidence ratings= old word good at remembering

Answer 194

A

related to recognition confidence
Behavioral results of testing for involvement of the hippocampus in information encoding.
Mean proportions of studied (“old”) and unstudied (“new”) items endorsed at each confidence.

After we collect the behavioural results, we go
back to the fMRI data at encoding, and we ask:
1. What was the activity if later we gave a
confidence rating of 6?
2. What was the activity if later we gave a
confidence rating of 5?
3. ….
4. What was the activity if later we gave a
confidence rating of 1?

Answer 195

A

entorhinal cortex

Answer 196

A

participents see an image presented on a screen which either has a green or a red background
participents arent told its a memory test but if they see a word on a green background you make a size judgement (left arrow for small, right for big)
if the background is red you have to make an animacy judgment (is it alive or not)

participents scanned for fMRI while doing the discrimination phase
after the scan phase patients asked to make a confidence judgment on have they seen this word before- retrieval phrase (done outside fo a scanner) to see strength of confidence judgment. some new words added some old. to test false positives.
6= v strong
1= dont remmeber seeing
also asked to make source judgments- green or red size or animacy judgment

fine fam

Answer 197

A

look at areas of the brain that show a signal that correlates with recognition confidence.
the participants were asked to rate on the recognition scale from 1-6 how confident they are that they saw that word yesturday?

looked at how strong the signal was in the entorhinal cortex (near the hippocampus)

found= when participants had low regognition of an image the activity in that region was low ,, when high recognition= activity in brain was high. (during encoding)

Answer 198

A

in the entorhinal cortex, activity strenght determines how familiar items are to us in the future.

Activity during encoding that correlates with the confidence of recognizing an item (later) as having been seen before. Functional-MRI activations that correlated with confidence ratings can be seen in the entorhinal cortex

Answer 199

A

b

for a butcher the source would be the butcher shop, context would be red or green backgrounds

Answer 200

A

recollection tends to be a binary thing, you either do remember the whole episode or not. familiarity is i think i saw… graded from unfamiliar to very familiar but dont expliciity remember the context in which i saw it.

Answer 201

A

good evidence as shows for these 2 regions, at the time memory was encoded, their was a really strong signal if memory is subsequently remembered as correct.
short term recolection 24hrs. the medial temporal lobe, hippocampus and posterior hippocampul gyrus in memory encoding and retrieval

Sagittal section through the right medial temporal lobe. Two regions in the medial temporal lobe that exhibited subsequent recollection effects were the posterior hippocampus (shown within the red square) and the posterior parahippocampal cortex (yellow square). The plots for the parahippocampal cortex and the hippocampus show the statistical parameter estimates (indexing response amplitude) for recognized items eliciting correct (filled bars) versus incorrect (open bars) source judgments.

Answer 202

A

find both left and right hippocampus, time scales consisitent with increase blood usage because of neural activation about 5 seconds from the time of stimulus onset.
strong activity detectable i hippo for correct recolections, consistent with the idea that the hippocampus is important for the episodic memory component. no activity in the hippocampus for the other options.
… so the activity in the hippocampus can predict whats going to happen the next day.

options:
correct recolection=
correct familiarity=
correct rejection=
miss=

Answer 203

A

connected to the hippocampus, rlly close tother not spatially but anatomically. on midline of brain.
two work together for episodic and spatial memory.strongest evidence is in patients with korsakoff syndrome (alchahol) thymine difficiency get damage to mamiliarty bodies, if not reversed permenant damage to thm means can remmeber nothing moving forward. no new memorys.

Answer 204

A

d - none of them have an episodic or source component

Answer 205

A

familiarity= what but not where
episodic= both
… comes in through unimodal areas like the PVC, primairy auditory cortex, primary olfactory cortex,
then spreads down (PVC example..)
the temporal lobe into these parahippocampal and perihinal regions,.

perihinal and entorhinal are adjacent areas, parahippocampal and entorhinal are also adjacent, but in a more sequential sense.

parahippocampal cortex
perihinal cortex.
entorhinal cortex, integrated
multiple layers of the hippocampus

Answer 206

A

‘gut’, you cant recal a specific episode its graded
‘confidence’, i think i saw and fairy certian, never i know i did
entorhinal/perirhinal cortex.
WHAT-PERIRHINAL CORTEX; WHERE-PARAHIPPOCAMPAL CORTEX)
entorhinal
hippocampus

Answer 207

A

ppl shown either images eg. a bell with the word bell under or a sound with a word. done with lots of objects, half are image and half are sound.
retrieval, fMRI used again, measure use of blood, scanned areas during encoding and retrieval.
during encoding:
when u see image of bell= lots of activity in the primary visual cortex.
when you hear sound= lots of activity in the primary auditory areas
during retrieval: only word presented
when you remember word= the areas of visual cortex are reactivated when the memory is being recalled
when word is being recalled (sounds)= auditory area, brocas area reactivated.

evidence for= reactivation of modality specific cortex during long term memory retrieval, memories are stored in the higher order sensory areas.

Answer 208

A

short term working memory for attention, so in terms of what it’s doing during long term memory is not entirely clear cut.

Answer 209

A

the left prefrontal cortex has a lot of activity during episodic encoding and semantic retrieval and a little bit of activity during episodic retrieval,
Whereas the right prefrontal cortex is heavily active during episodic retrieval and minimally so during episodic encoding and semantic retrieval.
however the left frontal cortex The tasks that provided this evidence were confounded in some regard, because the left frontal cortex is also associated with verbal material, verbal memory, and the right frontal cortex with object in place material memory.
So there’s some ambiguity as to, um, why this apparent differentiation in activity in the left and right prefrontal cortex occurs.

Answer 210

A

words activate left frontal cortex during encoding, Unnameable objects activate both left and right frontal cortex during encoding, Encoding of faces activates primarily right frontal cortex.

Answer 211

A

words= left frontal cortex
Unnameable objects activate both left and right frontal cortex during encoding
faces= primarily right frontal cortex.

= consistent with this idea that the left flanking cortex is important for verbal material memory,and the right frontal cortex is important for object and place.
= it is possible to get different levels of activity in different regions of frontal cortex depending on what task the participant is being asked to do.

Answer 212

A

intrinsic properties of the objects presented

naming a tool on screen, presentation of tool to eyes automatically activates parts of the brain used to use a tool. interconnected, memories for objects stored across dif areas of the brain.

= Regions selectively activated when subjects silently named drawings of animals include the calcarine sulcus, the left and right fusiform gyri of the temporal lobe, left putamen, left thalamus, left insula and inferior frontal region (Broca’s area), and right lateral and medial cerebellum. Active regions are identified by increased blood flow (fMRI). In the statistical procedure regions that are active during the naming of both animals and tools cancel each other and do not show a signal. In this panel and in part B the top pair of brain images are medial views, the lower pair are lateral views. SPM = statistical parametric maps.
B. Regions selectively activated when subjects silently named tools are predominantly in areas of the left hemisphere associated with hand movements and the generation of action words.

Answer 213

A

We perceive semantic (and episodic) memory to be smooth and seamless – does it argue for one memory store?

lesion= earlier part of the temporal lobe,
find is that when you ask a patient to copy a model, (so they generally have some kind of lesion because of trauma or a schema damage) there not able to correctly recapitulate the the item being asked to draw.-
when you ask them to verbally identify the object, um, they have perfect accuracy and they can say, yeah, this is a circle, this is a diamond.

prior to the memory phase, a perceptive problem- can’t see object parts as a unified whole.
= patients are unable to construct sensory representations of visual stimuli,

Answer 214

A

the lesion is further along the temporal lobe.
=You give them a model and they have no trouble reproducing the model
=they have no idea
problem= the patients can’t interpret, understand or assign meaning to objects- episodic like deficit.
= the sensory representation is created normally but cannot be associated with meaning functional utility

Answer 215

A

the cortex

if you take out hippo and mamilliary bodies the patient cant form new memories (encoding is damaged) but retrieval of old memories is fine, hense korsakofs patient think their parents are still alive even tho they arent.

Answer 216

A

evidence shows that e is right. B AND C

sometimes u dont need working memory, but lots of detail u need to use working memory.

Answer 217

A

episodic memory is the recollection of specific events or experiences, including details of time and place. Familiarity is a sense of recognition without specific details
Episodic memory encoding primarily involves the hippocampus and medial temporal lobe. Familiarity relies more on the perirhinal cortex.
distributed networks in the cortex, brain imaging studies and cases of hippocampal damage where old memories are often preserved.
he frontal cortex helps organize, encode, and retrieve memories,
stored dispersed across networks in the cortex and are not in one single location. They are seamlessly integrated, so various parts of a memory (e.g., sights, sounds) are stored in the relevant sensory areas and brought together by interconnected networks during recall.

Answer 218

A

is mostly required for encoding of declarative memory.

Answer 219

A

the entorhinal cortex encodes familiarity.

Answer 220

A

Action Potential Arrival:
An electrical impulse (action potential) travels down the axon to the synaptic terminal.
Calcium Ion Influx:
The action potential causes voltage-gated calcium channels to open, allowing Ca²⁺ ions to enter the synaptic terminal.
Neurotransmitter Release:
Calcium influx triggers synaptic vesicles to merge with the membrane, releasing neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.
Neurotransmitter Binding:
Neurotransmitters cross the cleft and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron’s membrane.
Post-Synaptic Potential:
Binding causes ion channels to open, leading to either depolarization (excitatory) or hyperpolarization (inhibitory) of the postsynaptic cell.
Termination:
Neurotransmitters are either reuptaken, degraded, or diffuse away, ending the signal and resetting the synapse for the next transmission.

Answer 221

A

glutamate(exitatory) and gaba (inhibitory)

… dont actually open channels
= NMDA (Ca+), AMPA (Na+) and kainate (mainly na but some ca)
NMDA AND AMPA ARE main 2.

NMDA AND AMPA= glutamate

Answer 222

A

glutamate neurotranmitter
allows CA+ through
has magnesium constitutively bound inside the channel pore, So just the binding of glutamate by itself to that in game receptor doesn’t do much. (while that manganese is still bound, nothing can come in through the NMDA receptor)
To remove the magnesium block. An action potential has to hit in the cell first (membrane depolarisation)

For example, a presynaptic neurone activates glutamate binds to AMPA receptors, AMPA receptors cause the depolarisation that releases the manganese block from NMDA and then if glutamate is bound to the NMDA receptors, you get influx of calcium as well as sodium through that.

Answer 223

A

presynaptic neuron releases glutamate
glutamate activates non NMDA receptors primarilly AMPA
sodium influx
depolarises postsynaptic neuron
which alows the magnesium to exit the NMDA receptors
calcium influx triggers LTP induction

Answer 224

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is a lasting increase in the strength of synaptic transmission between neurons. It’s considered one of the main processes by which the brain stores memories and enables learning.

Answer 225

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to induce LTP in slice work in a lab= apply a very rapid strong strain of electrical activity, so alot of electrical activity arriving at the synapse, one right after the other.
so….
1. the magnesium block gets removed,
2. the NMDA gets activated,
3. and you get LCP.

probably most important for memory formation.
idea= if a whole load of different neurones activate the same neurone at the same time, cause a lot of depolarisation, a lot of activation of that post-synaptic neurone so get strengthening of the synapse.\

The calcium influx triggers enzymatic reactions which result in AMPA receptor sensitization and in recruitment of additional AMPA receptors into the postsynaptic membrane.

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early=the sensitisation of receptors and the insertion of AMPA receptors into the membrane that are already available into the synapse that strengthens the synapse. so….. So next time an electrical impulse comes down the presynaptic neurone and releases glutamate, you’re going to get a stronger reaction in the post synaptic neuron

late= all this activity generate more activity and the level of DNA transcription and translation in the nucleus.

Answer 227

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generate more activity and the level of DNA transcription and translation in the nucleus.
so you get more NMDA receptors and AMPA being made and sent out to the synapse.
formation of new mutants (tends to happen earlier in development, but it can happen at any phase of really strong memory formation.)
So the calcium influx also triggers protein synthesis and the generation of additional synapsis.

= if in animals you inhibit protein synthesis then you weaken the strength of the memories that get formed.

Answer 228

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synaptic plasticity
neuronal connections.
long term potentiation (LTP) and long term depression (LTD).
NMDA- srtudied by blocking it.
Ca+

Answer 229

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THE OPPOSITE OF LTP
causes neuron depression not exitation
Rather than many neurones activating the post about the neurone at the same time, or a really strong chain of action potentials, and the way you induces in the slice is to do a really weak training of action potentials. and then the postsynaptic neurone is not heavily activated and it almost desensitises in a fashion. Some of the AMPA receptors will be taken out of that synapse.

Answer 230

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cues

neuron to become exited
neuron to become depressed
eg. a mouse sees an eagle coming to kill it = initiating a flight reponce
eg. a mouse sees an acorn- it causes the neurosn to become depressed

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mouse running around an arena
There’s a TV camera overhead tracking the position of the mouse.
There’s a wire connecting, um, to electrodes that are implanted in the mouse’s brain directly into the hippocampus. pick up extracellular electrical activity. detecting action potentials

looking at a place cell, when mouse is in an area of the arena, when its in a place that ISNT activated by the place cell= low level of activity
when it gets into the area where place cell IS activated= lots of action potentials

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are specialized neurons found in the hippocampus, a region of the brain that is critically involved in spatial navigation and memory. These cells are responsible for creating a mental map of an environment and encoding the spatial location of an individual within that environment.

rats have been observed navigating mazes while the activity of individual hippocampal neurons (place cells) was recorded. Researchers found that different neurons fired when the rat was in different places within the maze, showing how the brain encodes spatial locations.

Answer 233

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whenever the animals in part A of the arena across multiple sessions, the cell would always fire when it’s in the same place.

to eliminate NMDA receptors in the C1 region of the hippocampus
(the NMDA receptor is key for LTP and LTD- formation of spatial memory)
data from mice that selectively have no NMDA receptors in C1 , but have NMDA in rest of hippocampus

-= first day didnt find platform, after multiple days and trials has learnt where the platform is so gos straight there to escape

Answer 234

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LTP strengthens synaptic connections and supports the encoding of new memories,
while LTD helps with refining memories, updating or removing less relevant information, and preventing over-consolidation of unnecessary connections.

so LTD is like synaptic pruning

Answer 235

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there are proximal cues around the maze to help the mouse navigate to where it needs to go
2 dif types of mice wild type (normal) and mutant ones that have no NMDA receptor in C1 region of hippocampus.
baseline= little input= little activity
introduce LTP (rapid pulse of electrical activity) then take electrical activity away
mutant mouse returns back to baseline actiivity straight away because theres no LTP as theres No NMDA receptors
with wildytpe mice, get the induction of LTP, baseline level is now higher because (strong activation of postsynaptic membrane, lots of AMPA receptors inserted= strengthened synapse)

Answer 236

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wildtype= slow to find platform, but quickly learns because NMDA receptors help.
mutant rats= do learn so must be some alternative but a much slower rate and dont learn as well.

Answer 237

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once mice know well and have learned where the platform is, you take it out and look where they swim.
wildtype= spend lots fo time by the old platform cause they remember where it is trying to find it. but they cant
mutant mouse (same amnount of experience) swims around whole area as hasnt formed the same strong spatial memory about where the platform was.

Answer 238

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w= mapping remains the same across all sessions (aka went to same areas)
m= dont form nice place cells in first place, alot more variability across sessions

= LTP in the hippo is important for allowing place cells to exist, and when you impair NMDA receptor, see behavioural defecit aswell.

Answer 239

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place cells in the hippocampus.
hippocampus
episodic

Answer 240

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e

a= not mouse is morris
b= Not AMPA but NMDA
c= not in synaptic cleft but in the NMDA channel
d= occurs early and late

Answer 241

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Bilateral amygdala damage, severe atrophy of the amygdala, with the brain tissue now replaced by cerebrospinal fluid (black).

certain defecits relating to how they can/cant clasify diferent emotions.

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of faces that had emotional expressions, and rated them in terms of the intensity. eg. rlly scared would be high.

good at rating happy, disguised, angry , disgusited and sad but whenever confronted with a fearful face she dosent think it looks fearful. so the one emotion is lacking when have lesion in amygdyla

Answer 243

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managed to do all of this but she couldnt draw a fearful face she drew a baby instead

Answer 244

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judge fearful expressions or draw them but was fine with all other emotions

Answer 245

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loss of innate fear, becoming hyperoral (everything in mouth), hypersexual and docile (not agressive)

… subtle

Answer 246

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darwin, book called ‘the expression of emotion in man and animals’
… widespread universality of a number of emotional expressions between diferent species (cat and human shouting look somewhat similar)
… biological
… social communication ( however , we think emotions without commuication is useful)

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universal
cultures both modern and archaic
they went to different archaic tribes and asked people to make an emotion/express it, if they were told their child had died, about to fight, your happy, or see a dead pig.
… 6 basic emotions eg. happy, anger, supprise, fear, sadness, disguist.

Answer 248

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All facial emotions are social tools for communication
.. used to decieve ( can pretend we are happy, we lie)… therefore not a fundemental underlying biological mechanism.

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the circumplex model
a circle with df colours around- have all these different emotions, and can classify them in whether they are in an activated state (active) or deactivated state (depressed) and/.or pleasenteness and unpleasentness.
eg. anger= whe angry, pretty activated and mostly unpleasent ( end up on green/blue side 10 ocolock)

                   activation

unpleasent pleasent

                 deactivation

Answer 250

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circuit models - uses brain circuits involved in processing specific emotions

the limbic system

Answer 251

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hippocampus, the cingulate cortex, precuneus cortex, hypothalamic nuclei, amygdala

Answer 252

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early and mid 20th century
… emotional processing.
… outdated.
emotional processing

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james-Lange theory
argued that when you see something that triggers an emotion, like a threatening stimulus that would induce fear, There would be a bodily response eg. increase HR/sweating/ facial expression. then theres a cignitive readout of that bodily state that then triggers the concious percept of he emotions
so bodily emotional responces triggers the emotional perception

cannon-bard theory
argued cant be the case because they did experiments in cats where cut all the body feedback (nerves from body to brain) those cats were still able to express fear etc.
so argued its the emotional perception that, then triggers bodily emotional responces

Answer 254

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james-lange theory
russel visiting the dentist
no aneasthesia so either knock on head, or alchahol or adrenaline ( causes release of endogenous opiod endorphines and increase HR/sweat, similar to fear) so when you use adrenaline you should feel fear? so he argued that when he goes to dentist he should be scared but adrenaline didnt make him fearfull.

if james-lange were correct (body then mind), he should be fearful but he wasnt so argued james-lange cant be right

Answer 255

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easier to study in animals, and is universal and easy to trigger.
.. classical conditioning use an US (shock) causes UR (rat to jump). CS would be (the light as dosent bother rat at start) before its paired dosent elieict a responce. during training pair the US (shock) with the CS ( light). after traning the rat should jump after turn the light on as the light predicts a shock. if play light and loud sound at same time theres an even bigger jump called potentiated startle responce.

if CS (light) is repeatedly presented without the aversive stimulus after learning, the fear response will diminish (extinction:=unlearning).

Answer 256

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skin conductance, show scary photos, if you think scary you will have slightly more moist/sweaty fingers. electricity conducts better through mpist surfaces (water with ions in it is a good conductor) so resistence of skin goes down. so measure resistence with devices. if resistence goes down= skin more moist= emotions/scared gone up
… lie detector tests.

Answer 257

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(james= body responce-> mind
cannon= mind -> body responce)

card game investigates the somatic marker hypothesis ( test for james lang theory)
says that= out body tells us whats good/bad for us and then from that we devise some emotions.
work by= 2 stacks of cards, pick from any of them. if we pick left= massive yeild ( bingo), may then get another massive one or a rlly big loss. if you choose from right= all very similar steady small yeild, gains arent as big but neither are losses.

measure skin while doing this and quiz them, body reports dont pick from left as shows anxious state of what will happen

conclusion= damasio argued that yes, james-lange is right is body first (because readout from the body by doing skin conducance is faster than the concious percept of whats going on here.)

Answer 258

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estimation of value

orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala which is where rewards are represented and value processing.

2 parts of the orbitofrontal cortex= lateral and medial

Answer 259

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estimate value very well anymore,

in the damasio’s card game they would stick with the left (risky ) one as they only think short term gains not long term.

normal intelligence, but cant function long-term.

Answer 260

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2 pathways that feed into the amygdala

Answer 261

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1= the subcortical low-road pathway direct to amygdala
( that may trigger bodily responces) that goes from our senses through thalamus directly to amygdala, arriving without alot of information surrounding it (because of thalamus) so a scary thing may trigger an emotional responce which makes us jump faster, trigger body reaction, then feel fear.
thalamus= not a sTructure where high cog detailed processing Takes place, It is a structure that transmits information filter some, but mostly at transmission station, not high level analysis.

Answer 262

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2= the cortical high road where the sensory information goes through all the cortical areas to high level analysis. then feeds to the amygdala

Answer 263

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The cortical (slow/high) road entails high level processing of information, where most likely conscious awareness of e.g. danger triggers fear and the associated responses.

The subcortical low road allows for fast processing of potential danger/benefit, and physical reactions can be triggered before an awareness of and emotion.

Answer 264

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1st input stage=
emotional stimulus–> sensory thalamus –> lateral nucleus of the amygdala

other stages=
sensory thalamus–> primary sensor, unimodal assosiation, polumodal assosiation, entorhinal cortex, hippocamus, subiculum–> lateral nucleus of the amygdala ( the CONCIOUS PERCEPT is formed)

total=
emotional stimulus–> sensory thalamus –> from the lateral nucleus of the amygdala–>output to basal lateral nucleus and basomedial nucleus –> which lead to the central nucleus of the amydala–> emotional responces triggered.

Answer 265

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aversive or fear conditioning.. humans
a) IMPLICIT= learn through expereince (fear conditioning)
.. skin conductance (some trials give them an electric shock)
blue square vs orange square
blue = electric shock
orange= nothing happens
over time, skin moisture goes up when blue square , skin conductance goes up because of fear conditioning.

B) EXPLICIT = learn from instruction
.. instruction instead of electric shock
told every time you see a blue square your going to get an electric shock (you never do but ) when it comes up you are anticipating it so skin conductance goes up, and show bodily signs of fear

Answer 266

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implicit= normal ppl= earned by experience that blue square gives them an electric shock. when normal ppl see a blue square show an increase in skin conductance. and again when electric shock is given.

for patient SP= There is no change in skin conductance when the blue square comes on. But it shows the normal skin conductance change when the electric shock comes.

if you ask the what the blue square means? answer= they are going to get an electric shock.
so they have learned it conciously but wihtout ther amygdala theres no way of informing body about whats going to happen. concious learning without any bodily responces.

= means there must be 2 seperate systems of learning

Answer 267

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Hippocampus mediates learning by awareness (declarative memory system).
Amygdala mediates conditioned autonomic responses.
Amygdala activation aids the retention of hippocampus dependent memories (emotional events are much better remembered).

= because the amygdala helps the hippocampus to store the information, We remember things very, very well that are emotionally arousing. either rlly rlly happy memory or rlly rlly sad will remember forever.

Answer 268

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fearful
looked at what do people look at when they scan emotional expressions.

control= look at the eye, nose, mouth and then they know what it is.
patient SM= look mostly on nose, not eyes (which is probs the most obvious one for emotion)

if we dont look at it we dont percieve it

told to look at eyes in second stage, when she did this for all emotions, it made no diference when asked to look
but…. when she looked at fearful expressions she could tell its fearful, telling us yes the amydgdala is involved in emotional expressions, but it’s also involved in our ability to actually look at subject’s eyes, and social skill and something where autistic ppl are poor at. ehich is why they cat read some emotions very well.

Answer 269

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lots of white= fearful face

Answer 270

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Positive or negative thoughts, feelings, or actions towards objects which arise due to past experiences which one is either unaware of or which one cannot attribute to an identified previous experience

Answer 271

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very brief automatic assesment requires amygdala.
when less brief (faces shown for longer) = the differential response happens in the medial cortex and in the cingulate cortex, at a high level of processing not the amygdala.

Answer 272

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implicit attitude test (IAT).
implicit and explicit attitudes.
amygdala activation, explicit attitudes
implicit learning of emotional information and implicit coding of information.

Answer 273

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modern computer,
start with neutral expression, morphe faces it becomes more and more happy/sad/disguisted. till you have an extreme facial expression.
which brain areas are active when i view these diferent expressions=
anger= right orbitalfrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex

Answer 274

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fear= amygdala
anger= right orbitalfrontal cotex and anterior cingulate cortex
sadness= amygdala, right temporal pole
disgust= anterior insula, anterior cingulate cortex.

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