Social Psychology Flashcards
What is Social Perception?
The ways that people try to make sense of themselves and others
Self Perception Theory (Bem)
Self-Knowledge
When internal cues are weak or difficult to interpret, people make inferences about their own feelings based on the environment
Describe the Epinephrine Studies (Schachter & Singer, 1962)
Self-Perception Theory
Subjects were injected with epinephrine and put into 1 of 3 groups:
1. Informed: knew of the drugs effects
2. Misinformed: given wrong info about drugs effects
3. Ignorant: given no info
They then waited in a room with an actor who behaved either euphoric or angrily
Groups 2 and 3 acted in accordance with the actor
Group 1 was unaffected
Overjustification Hypothesis
Self Perception Theory
Predicts that giving an external reward for people completing an intrinsically rewarding activity reduces the intrinsic interest in that activity
Describe the Preschool Marker Study
Self Perception Theory
Preschoolers put into 1 of 3 groups:
1. Expected reward for drawing
2. Unexpected reward for drawing
3. No expectation and no reward for drawing
Those who were in the expected reward group showed less interest in drawing when the reward was removed compared to the other groups, even though they had shown intrinsic interest in the activity before hand
Social Comparison Theory (Festinger, 1954)
People learn about themselves by comparing themselves to others, especially in the absense of other information
Usually compare to others who seem similar to us
Sometimes may compare to people less fortunate, to make ourselves feel better
Self Verification Theory (Swann, Pelham, Krull, 1989)
Tendency for people to seek confirmation of their self-concept regardless if it is negative or positive
Prefer to interact with people who confirm, pay attention to, recall and believe info that is consistent with our own self-concept
Problematic for things like depression
Self-Promotion
Impression Management
Convey positive info to others through actions or statements
E.g. hanging our rewards
Self-Monitoring
Impression Management
Monitor and adjust one’s behaviour to fit the situation
Basically masking
Self-Handicapping
Impression Management
Purposefully sabotaging one’s performance to ‘save face’
It keeps us in control of the narrative for failure (e.g. I didn’t study, as opposed to ‘I’m stupid’)
Confirmation Bias
Social Judgments: Cognitive Errors and Bias
tendency to seek and remember information that verifies our preexisting beliefs
Describe the Pseudopatient Study
Confirmation Bias
Social Judgments: Cognitive Errors and Bias
8 actors admitted themselves to hospital for ‘hearing voices’
Once admitted, they started acting ‘normally’
The staff didn’t see it, and attributed normal behaviour to ‘pathology’
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Confirmation Bias
Social Judgments: Cognitive Errors and Bias
A person’s expectations about the behaviour of others can lead to fulfillment of those expectations
Barnum Effect
Confirmation Bias
Social Judgments: Cognitive Errors and Bias
Tendency to accept vague descriptions of ourselves, such as in horoscopes, because they confirm what we already believe
False Consensus Bias
Social Judgments: Cognitive Errors and Bias
Tendency to overestimate how much people are similar to us in terms of beliefs and behaviours
Sandwich Board Study:
asked students if they would walk around campus with a advertisement for a cafe
then, asked them to predict how many people would make the same choice as them
people predicted that others answered as they had
Illusory Correlation
Social Judgments: Illusory Correlation
Tendency to overestimate the relationship between unrelated events that happen to occur at the same time
Gambler’s Fallacy
Social Judgments: Illusory Correlation
False belief that the likelihood of a random event is affected by previous independent events
Really, the probabilities don’t change at all
What is a Heuristic?
A mental short cut that people use to quickly form judgments or make decisions
Representativeness Heuristic
Judging the likelihood of an event based on its resemblance to the typical case rather than on base rate information
E.g. assuming someones job based on a basic description of their personality
Availability Heuristic
Judging the likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to recall information about the event
Letter R Study
Asked participants if there are more words that start with R or more words that have R as the third letter
Easier to recall words that start with R, so this was the most common (but incorrect) answer
Simulation Heuristic
Judging the likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to mentally imagine the event
Olympic Study
* Olympians who won silver were less happy with their win than those who won bronze
* Because silver is closer to gold and thus easier to imagine what they could’ve done better to get gold
Anchoring & Adjustment Heuristic
Tendency to identify an anchor point from which you base your decision when estimating a frequency or other quantity
Vodka Study:
what temperate does vodka freeze?
People used the freezing point of water as an anchor
Can be effect if the anchor is accurate
Attribution Dimensions
Causal Attributions
Three Dimensions
1.Locus: internal/external
2.Stability: stable/unstable
3.Scope: global/specific
Fundamental Attribution Error
Attribution Biases
The tendency to underestimate situational/external factors and overestimate dispositional/internal factors when understanding others behaviours
Castro Paper Study:
* People read papers that either favored or disliked Castro, and were also told that either the professor gave the student a position or the student chose it themselves
* People still attributed whatever was written to the persons true beliefs, even knowing it may have been assigned to them
Actor-Observer Effect
Attribution Biases
The discrepancy in which people don’t use the fundamental attribution bias on themselves
They overemphasize environmental factors for themselves
Inmate VS Counsellor Study
* Both inmate and their counsellor were asked to explain why the inmate committed the crime
* Inmates attributed it to situational
* Counsellor attributed it to dispositional
Self-Serving Bias
Attribution Biases
Tendency for people to attribute their failures to situational factors, but their successes to dispositional factors
Not always the case for depressed people or those with low self-esteem
What is Impression Formation?
The process of integrating information about a person to form an overall impression
Central Traits (Asch, 1946)
Impression Formation
Some traits have more impact on impression formation
Study
Warm vs Cold as descriptors-only those changes in a passage impacted how readers viewed teh person
Competence may also be a cental trait
Primacy Effect
Impression Formation
Information presented first has the most impact on the impressions we form of others
Study by Asch
List of descriptors: begin positive, end more negative
Group 1 read it positive to negative
Group 2 read it negative to positive
Group 1 had more favorable impression of the person than Group 2
Trait Negativity Bias
Impression Formation
When evaluating others, negative information is weighed more heavily than positive information
What is Affiliation?
The desire to associate with others
It is a fundamental drive, according to evolutionary psychologists
Anxiety and Affiliation
Shock study by Schachter (1959)
Kulik and Mahler Heart Study
Schachter Study
Participants were told they would receive a high shock (high anxiety) or a mild shock (low anxiety)
They were then asked if they preferred to wait alone, or with another person
Those in high anxiety group were more likely to want to wait with another person
High anxiety group also preferred to wait with another participant, as opposed to someone not participating in the study
Kulik & Mahler Heart Study
Ppl about to get heart surgery preferred to be roomed with another person getting heart surgery, and preferably someone post-operative
Relationship between Personality and Affiliation
Extroverts more likely to seek affiliation
This may be due to different cortical levels
* Extroverts need social interaction to increase arousal to optimal level
* Introverts avoid social interation to keep arousal at optimal level
Relationship between Gender and Preferred Social Group Size
Dyads or Groups: females prefer dyads, males prefer groups
May be because females tend to prefer intimacy more, where as men prefer power? Gross
Physical Proximity
Impacts on Attraction
Newcomb College Dorm Study
* People in rooms close to one another were more likely to be friends
* Mere exposure effect: can go either way depending on positive or negative initial reactions
Similarity
Impacts on Attraction
We tend to prefer people who are similar based on demographics, attitudes, and other ‘important characteristics’
Competence
Impacts on Attraction
Competence is sexy, apparently
It is more sexy if the person has the occassional blunder, to make them seem human
Reciprocity
Impacts on Attraction
We like people who like us, usually
We like people who are ‘moderatively selective’ in their liking for others
Gain-Loss Theory: evaluations of people that change over time have a stronger impact on likeability
This is why enemies-to-lovers works so well, I guess
Physical Attractiveness
Impacts on Attraction
Tend to react more favorably to people who are physically attractive
Based on the stereotype of what is beautiful is good
But Ted Fucking Bundy, people
What impacts attraction to a romantic/sexual partner?
Think of the most base evolutionary psych bullshit
Men like hotness
Women like resources
Blagh
Social Exchange Theory (Thibaut & Kelley, 1959)
Maintenance of Romantic Relationships
Predicts that a relationship will continue as long as both partners believe the benefits of it exceed the costs
Study
couples who experience large increase in rewards throughout relationship are more likely to stay together than those who experience a small increase or a decrease in rewards
Equity Theory
Maintenance of Romantic Relationships
Based on fairness in relationships, as determined by contributions of each party
People more satisfied with a close relationship and more likely to maintain it when they believe that the input-outcome ratio is similar to that of their partner
Emotion-in-Relationships Model (Berscheid)
A person experiences strong emotions in a relationship when their partner’s actions violate the person’s expectations and affect progress towards achieving an important goal
Positive things are more impactful at the beginning of a relationship, because they are still surprising
What impacts Divorce?
Positive to negative interactions
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
1. criticism
2. defensiveness
3. contempt
4. stonewalling
Contempt is the most predictive of divorce
What makes Prosocial Behaviour more likely?
- Social Norms: reciprocity norm, for example
- Social Learning Theory: learned by observing others
- Evolutionary Theory: natural selection, prosociality leads to survival of species
What leads to Bystander Apathy?
- Diffusion of Responsibility
- Social Comparison: look to others for cues on how to react
- Evaluation Apprehension: may fear embarrassment if action of taking help ends up being unwarranted
What factors increase chance of bystanders helping?
- Less bystanders
- Victim is obviously in distress
- Bystander believes they have the competence to help
- Another person has already intervened
- The situation occurs rurally, rather than urban (thought to be bc urban settings are more overstimulating, ppl become desensitized)
What factors impact Cooperation?
Murder Investigation Study
- Pairs of players are suspects in a murder investigation
- They can either confess or remain silent (cooperate) during the interrogation
- The best outcome will be had by both partners remaining silent
But will they?
* They are more likely to if they can communicate prior to the interrogation
* If cooperation is emphasized at outset of game, it is more likely
* If played repeatedly
What is Person Perception?
How do we recognize others as people?
How individuals process information about others
How do we recognize others?
1. Identifiability: extent to which one person can be differentiated from another
2. Personality: individual characteristics (way of thinking, feeling, behaving)
3. Moral character important
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
3 Theories
Dollard:
* Frustration results from a goal being blocked, aggression is inevitable
Miller:
* Frustration elicits multiple responses, one of which is aggression
Berkowitz:
* Frustration primes us to act aggressively, but we only do in the presence of an aggressive cue
* E.g: participants delivered higher shocks to a subject w/ a fire arm as opposed to one with a badminton racket
Social Learning Theory of Aggression
Bobo Doll Study
Group 1: reward film
Group 2: punishment film
Group 3: no consequence (+ or -) film
All but group 2 exhibited aggressive behaviour
When afterwards offered a reward for acting aggressively, all children did it
Anderson & Bushman
Repeated exposure to aggressive media creates a hostile expectation bias (expect others to act aggressively) which then makes us act more aggressively
Deindividuation
Factors that Affect Aggression
When you can act anonymously, you are more likely to act aggressively
Loss of self awareness = decreased ability to monitor and regulate behaviour, reduced ability to think rationally, begin to act deviantly
Social Roles
Factors that Affect Aggression
Milgram’s prison study
Roles of power turn people into dicks
Gender
Factors that Affect Aggression
Males:
More prone to physical aggression
Slightly more prone to verbal aggression
Females:
More indirect and relational forms of aggression (Regina George Syndrome)
Catharsis
Factors that Affect Aggression
Performing or witnessing an aggressive act can reduce a person’s inclinations towards aggression
Not supported by research
Temperature
Factors that Affect Aggression
Higher temperatures lead to increases in all sorts of crime
But! once it gets TOO hot (85F), crime’s reduce. People just be melting too much to even kill.
What is Prejudice?
Negative attitudes and feelings toward people based on their membership to a particular group
What is Discrimination?
Negative actions toward people due to their membership in a particular group
The Authoritarian Personality
Factors that Influence Prejudice & Discrimination
Post-WWII Adorno et al Studies
Looked at Nazi’s
Authoritarian Personality: high conventionality, rigid thinking, submissive to authority, intolerance of difference
This personality also linked to fascist thinking
Social Identity Theory (tajfel, 1982)
Factors that Infuence Prejudice & Discrimination
People always seek to maintain and enhance their self-esteem, which is impacted by personal and social identities
People can enhance social self-esteem by viewing the in-group as more favorable than the out-group
Realistic Group Conflict Theory (Levine & Campbell, 1972)
Factors that Influence Prejudice & Discrimination
Prejudice is the result of competition between groups for scarce resources
Robbers Cave Study:
* Pre-teen boys at summer camp divided into groups and separated
* When groups competed against one another, they became competitive and hostile
* Only way to fix is to give goals that require cooperation
Aversive Racism
A dangerous combo of egalitarianism and unacknowledged negative feelings towards groups
Deny being racist yet avoid members of certain groups
Symbolic Racism
Combines negative racial views with the belief that members of groups violate traditional conservative values
Reject overt discrimination, but don’t support policies that help exploited groups
Ambivalent Racism
Not overtly prejudiced and they recognize racism
But, they think different in outcomes between races is due to good ol’ hard work and taking advantge of opportunities
Ambivalent Sexism
Combines hostile and benevolent sexism
Thought to be the most common in men
Intergroup Contact
Reducing Prejudice
Having contact between members of hostile groups can reduce prejudice, if the meeting occurs in these conditions:
1. Interactions between individuals
2. Members have equal status
3. Opportunities to work together and achieve mutual goals
4. Cooperation and equality are supports by norms and authority figures
Superordinate Goals
Jig Saw Classroom
Reducing Prejudice
- A cooperative learning strategy that divided students into inclusive groups (e.g. white and black students)
- Curriculum topics were divided amongst the group, and each student had to learn one and teach it to the others
Findings: - Students in jig saw classrooms were less prejudiced
- Had higher self esteem
- Academic achievement of minority students rose
Ethnocentric Monoculturalism
A state of privilege in which you believe that you are superior, and that you hold power to impose standards upon others
believe your experience is the same as everyone elses
Privilege
the ADDRESING framework
A age
D dev. disability
D disability
R religion
E ethnicity
S socioeconomic status
I indigeneity
N national origin
G gender
Conformity
Change in attitude, belief, behaviour that is caused by social pressure
Compliance
Change in behaviour that occurs at the request of another person or group of people
Autokinetic Effect: Sherif
Conformity to Group Norms
Optical illusion of a moving point of light, estimate length of movement
When alone:
Estimates given varies
When in a group
Estimates began to converge towards similarity, often w/i three turns
Normative Social Influence: Asch’s Line Study
Group conformity
Estimate length of line in a group
When actors gave true answer:
Participants answer aligned with theirs
When actors gave obviously false answer
37% of participants still gave same answer as the actors
Driven by need to belong to a group
Informational Influence
Group Conformity
When you use other people as a source of info when a task is ambiguous or difficult
Factors that Affect Conformity to a Majority
G U A C P
- Group Size: increases conformity up until 3-4 people
- Unaimity: even one other dissenter will help people not conform
- Ambiguity: ambiguous info = more conformity
- Cohesiveness: higher cohesion = higher conformity
- Personality Characteristics: low self esteem, low intelligence, high need for approval, and authoritarianism are all associated with greater likelihood of conforming
Minority Influence
Group Conformity
Dissenters/minority must rely on behavioural style to have influence
1. Consistent presentation of message
2. Appear flexible and open
Dissenters are more likely to influence peoples views
Idiosyncrasy Credits
Minority Influence on Groups
A history of conforming to group norms and contributing something special, or being a group leader, make dissenters more persuasive
Foot-in-the-Door Technique
Gaining Compliance
Start with a small request and get agreement to it, and then move on to larger requests
Door-in-the-Face Technique
Gaining Compliance
Start with a large request that is likely to be refused, and follow it up with a more reasonable request
Cialdini College Volunteer Study
1st ask: two year volunteer commitment at prison-most said NO
2nd ask: 2 hour trip to the zoo with inmates-50% said YES compared to 17% when asked this request alone
Milgram’s Obedience to Authority Studies
65% delivered near fatal shock in lab
48% delivered near fatal shock when study moved to creepy building
Factors that broke obedience:
* Having another person refuse
* Being close to the person being shocked
* Receiving telephone instructions as opposed to in person
Bases of Social Power (French & Raven)
LECRR
Reward Power: ability to provide DESIRED outcomes
Coercive Power: ability to provide UNWANTED outcomes
Legitimate Power: role as a legit authority
Referent Power: desire of others to identify with and respect the person
Expert Power: knowledge/expertise
Informational Power: access to info that is needed by others
Expert and referential power has good outcomes for supervisors
Reactions to Social Influence (Kelman)
3 types
Compliance:
Change overt behaviour, but not attitudes. Often for reward/avoid punishment
Identification:
Change behaviour because attracted to source of influence. Temporary change in attitude (until relationship w/ source of influence ends)
Internalization:
change behaviour and attitude because it’s consistent with their beliefs and values
Psychological Reactance
Conformity & Compliance
If people perceive that their freedom of choice is being threatened, they may reject attempts at conformity and compliance
What is an Attitude?
Relatively stable and enduring predisposition to act, think, or feel in a certain way towards an idea, person, object or situation
LaPiere’s Chinese Road Trip Study
Attitude
10,000 mile USA road trip with a Chinese couple
They were refused service only once
In writing, 90% of those same places afterwards said they wouldn’t accept Chinese customers
- Demonstrates inconsistency between attitude and behaviour
What impacts relationship between Attitude and Behaviour?
- If measures of attitude and behaviour are more specific, they are more accurate
- Attitudes based on strong beliefs that are backed by personal experience
- Attitude is readily available to awareness
Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, Fishbein)
Attitude
Behaviour is preceded by a behavioural intention, which is affected by 3 things:
1. Person’s attitude towards the behaviour-will it have + or - consequences?
2. Person’s subjective norms related to behaviour (do others approve or disapprove of it?
3. Person’s perceived behavioural control (do you have or not have the ability to do the behaviour?)
*To predict behaviour, all of these need to be considered rather than just the persons attitude
Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger)
Theories of Attitude Change
Assumption: people strive for cognitive consistency, and when dissonance arrives that must:
1. Change attitude or behaviour
2. Acquire new info that eliminates the inconsistency
3. Reduce importance of inconsistency
Festinger’s Dissonance Study
The task: extremely boring
The test: recruit other participants by telling them it’s FUN
Groups:
Group 1 paid $1 for lying
Group 2 paid $20 for lying
How did they feel about the study in follow-up?
Group 1 = more favorable views
Group 2 = less favorable view than G1
Group 1 had less justification for lying, so they had to change their view of the experiment to reduce dissonance
Balance Theory
Theories of Attitude Change
Assumption: people desire cognitive consistency
Cause of Dissonance: inconsistency between 3 entities
e.g. if we like someone but disagree with their views, we need to either change the way we feel about them or change our views
Social Judgment Theory
Theories of Attitude Change
Latitude of Acceptance: all positions a person considers acceptable
Latitude of Rejection: all positions a person considered unacceptable
Latitude of Noncommitment: all positions the person neither accepts nor rejects, but will consider
We are more likely to be persuaded by messages that fall in latitude of acceptance
Elaboration Likelihood Model
Theories of Attitude Change
Persuasive messages change attitude through 2 routes:
Peripheral:
* cues unrelated to message (e.g. attractiveness of communicator)
* based on mental shortcuts
* Likely when: message feels unimportant, uninformed, distracted, you’re in a good mood
Central:
* careful processing
* Likely when: message feels important, well-informed, not distracted, you’re in a negative or neutral mood
* More likely to create long lasting change
Communicator Characteristics
Factors that Affect Attitude Change
Credibility:
* perception of competence (credentials) and trustworthiness (motives)
* Trustworthiness increased when the speaker has nothing to gain from the argument
This only has a short term impact
Long term, credible and uncredible communicators had same results
When to use One-Sided VS Two-Sided Communication?
Factors that Affect Attitude Change
One Sided:
* only give one side of argument
* Effective when the audience already favors the communicators position
* More effective on uninformed people who are unlikely to encounter the counter argument
Two Sided:
* Most effective when audience initially DISAGREES with communicators side, and they are well-informed of the topic
What is the ideal level of Discrepancy to have to change someones Attitudes?
Factors that Affect Attitude Change
MODERATE discrepancy
High-credibility communicators have the best luck with moderate discrepancy
Primacy & Recency Effects
Factors that Affect Attitude Change
Primacy Effect
When two arguments are presented back to back, the first one has more impact (based on a measure given of attitude change)
Recency Effect:
When two arguments are presented with a time gap between, the second one presented has more impact on attitude change
Is Fear effective in changing attitudes?
Factors that Affect Attitude Change
They are only effective if they include information about how to avoid the danger, or if they make the audience feel more vulnerable to the danger
What personality traits make people more persuadable?
- Low self-esteem
- High self-monitoring
- Low need for cognition
How does Mood impact Persuadability?
- Good mood makes us more persuadable usually
- Weak Argument: more persuaded by these when in a good mood
- Strong Argument: more persuaded by these when we are in a neutral or bad mood
How does Forewarning impact Persuadability?
Being told that a message will be persuasive, makes it less persuasive
Inoculation Theory:
A person’s resistance to persuasion is increased when they’re provided with a weak version of the arguments prior to hearing the actual message
5 Stages of Group Development
- Forming: low commitment, ambivalent, rely on leader
- Storming: conflicts develop as members work out ways to meet group goals and establish their role in it
- Norming: cohesion develops. Group norms established, cooperation increases
- Performing: efforts on accomplishing goals, members able to work through conflicts
- Adjourning: concludes activities, address feelings about it ending
Group Tasks: Additive Task
Members work on the task individually
Group product is the sum of all members work
e.g. team work house painting
Group Tasks: Complementary Task
Each member contributes a different skill to the task
The product is a result of all the skills coming together
E.g. orchestra
Group Tasks: Conjunctive Task
Group product/performance is dependent on the least competent member
E.g. sports team
Group Tasks: Disjunctive Task
Group product/performance is determined by most skilled member
E.g. group work, person with best ideas leads to best outcomes
Group Tasks: Compensatory Task
Members average their input to arrive at a result
E.g. independent raters of employee performance; their scores are averaged to reach the final score
Social Facilitation & Inhibition
Effects of Groups on Performance
Social Facilitation
* presence of others improves performance
* More likely on easy tasks (dominant response likely to be the right one)
Social Inhibition
* presence of others worsens performance
* more likely on difficult tasks (dominant response less likely to be the right one)
Presence of others may increase drive (physiological arousal) which increases likelihood of using dominant response
Social Loafing
Effects of Groups on Performance
What is it?
Tendency for people to put in less effort in group efforts
Ringelmann’s Study:
More people pushing the cart, the less effort each individual put in
How to reduce?
* If members think individual efforts are identifiable
* When group membership is important
* The task is intrinsically meaningful or interesting
Group Polarization
Problems with Group Decision Making
What is it?
Members opinions shift to more cautious or more risky after group discussion
Myers & Bishop Prejudice Study
* Participants divided into high-prejudice and low-prejudice groups based on measure scores
* Subsequent groups met to discuss racial issues
* Low prejudice group came out even less prejudiced
* High prejudiced group came out more prejudiced
Group Think
Problems with Group Decision Making
Started with Janis studying decision making in the Bay of Pigs, Vietnam War, Watergate cover-up
Components of Group Think:
Antecedent: external stressors, high group cohesion, problematic group dynamic
Symptoms: feel invulnerable, think group is the moral peak, discourage dissent and provide an illusion of total agreement
Outcomes: don’t ID alternative actions, don’t consider risks, decision based on high bias
How to prevent?
* 1 member assigned devils advocate
* Critical thinking encouraged
* External consultation encouraged
Brainstorming
Improving Group Performance
Research found that people working alone generated more good ideas than people working together
Can improve by:
* having a leader trained in brainstorming who leads the session
* done electronically
What is Environmental Psychology?
Study of the effects of the physical and social environment on perceptions, attitudes, behaviours
Field Theory (Lewin, 1936)
Assumption:
Behaviour is the function of interactions between person and their perception of the physical & social environment they occupy
Field Theory: 3 Intrapersonal Conflicts
Conflict occurs when forces directing a person toward or away from a goal are equal in desirability
Approach-Approach
* Choose between 2 equally desirable goals
Avoidance-Avoidance
* Choose between equally undesirable goals. Difficult, freeze/escape common
Approach-Avoidance
* 1 goal, has both desirable and undesirable parts. Difficult to resolve. Moving closer activates higher avoidance
Double Approach-Avoidance
* 2 goals, both with desirable and undesirable qualities
* Hardest to resolve, lots of vacillation
Effects of Crowding
- When in good mood, it can increase + feelings
- Bad mood = - feelings
- When distracted, crowding not as perceived (e.g. action packed vs documentary in theatre study)
- May negatively affect performance on complex tasks, but not simple
Personal Space
- Culture dependent
- Kinda gender dependent (dudes need space from other dudes lest they become gay)
Health Belief Model
What is it?
Predicts likelihood that a person will engage in a health related behaviour
Assumes Behaviour Determined by…
1. Perceived Susceptibility: person’s estimate of risk of getting ill
2. Perceived Severity: beliefs about seriousness of illness
3. Perceived Benefits: what are the + consequences of doing the thing?
4. Perceived Barriers: what are the difficulties in doing the thing?
Interventions:
Focus on providing accurate information
What 2 factors Reduce Negative Impact of Stress?
Hardiness:
1. Personal Control of life
2. Commitment to one’s activities, etc
3. Challenge: challenge makes us stronger (b.a.r.f)
No. 1 most impactful
Stress-Buffering Hypothesis:
Perceived high level of support protects against harmful effects of stress
