Learning Theory and Behaviour Therapy Flashcards
What is Learning?
A relatively permanent change in behaviour, or the capacity for behaviour, due to experience
What is Classical Conditioning?
Type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the ability to elicit the response that is naturally elicited by another stimulus
What is Operant Conditioning?
Type of learning in which responses become controlled by their consequences
Classical Conditioning: Unconditioned Stimulus
Naturally produces the target response
It triggers an unconditioned response
E.g. lemon triggers salivating
Classical Conditioning: Conditioned Stimulus
Does not naturally produce the target response, and prior to conditioning is neutral
After conditioning, the CS triggers a conditioned response
3 Stages of Classical Conditioning
- US (food) alone causes UR (salivation). NS (bell) does not cause salivation
- CS (bell) and US (food) together cause salivation
- VS (bell) produces salivation (now the CR)
Factors that Affect the Effectiveness of Classical Conditioning
- Number of Conditioning Trials: more trials leads to stronger response. Regardless, the CR is usually weaker than the UR
-
Order & Timing of Presentation:
* Delay Conditioning: CS precedes and overlaps w/ US
* Trace Conditioning: CS presented and stopped prior to US
* Simultaneous Conditioning: CS and US presented at same time
Delay is most effective, w/ delay of 0.5 seconds
Classical Conditioning: Extinction
If CS is presented repeatedly without US, the CR gradually disappears or weakens
Classical Conditioning: Spontaneous Recovery
Sometimes after extinction, the CR suddenly returns (though weaker)
CR’s maybe can’t be completed extinguished, but significantly weakened
Classical Conditioning: Stimulus Generalization
Following conditioning trials, stimuli similar to the CS also elicit the CR (e.g. a bell w/ different pitch)
Classical Conditioning: Stimulus Discrimination
Ability to discriminate between CS and a stimulus that is only similiar to the CS but doesn’t come w/ reward
This can be taught w/ discrimination trials
Classical Conditioning: Experimental Neurosis
When required to make difficult discriminations between similar stimuli, animals begin acting strangely (e.g. agitated, sudden aggression)
Classical Conditioning: Higher-Order Conditioning
After initial conditioning trials, if a second NS is paired with the CS, it can elicit the CR
The CS acts as an US, which shows that CR’s can be can be established without using an US (e.g. the food)
Classical Conditioning: Blocking (Kamin, 1969)
When a CR has been established w/ a CS, the presence of the CS may block a connection btwn a second NS and the US if the CS and NS are presented together
Study: light = shock = fear. light + sound = shock = fear. sound = shock = no fear
Animals may not have paid attention to the new NS when it was paired with the OG NS
Classical Conditioning: Watson and Little Albert
Created a phobia of white rats in this poor child
The fear generalized to all white furry objects
3 Types of Therapy Techniques Based on Classical Conditioning
- Extinction based
- Counterconditioning based
- Aversive counterconditioning based
Exposure w/ Response Prevention (ERP)
Extinction Based
Expose person to the fear-arousing stimuli and prevent them from using their usual avoidance response
Flooding: Start with exposure to the stimuli that triggers max fear
Graduated Exposure: start w/ less intense ones
Are Exposure Protocols Effective?
Yes-Prolonged Exposure more helpful than brief exposure (can increase anxiety)
Implosive Therapy (Stampfl & Levis, 1967)
Extinction Based
Influenced by psychoanalytic and learning theory
Imaginal Exposure
Therapist exaggerates the scenes being imagined by the client, and injects psychodynamic themes that they think are a source of anxiety (e.g. hostility towards parents)
Systematic Desensitization (Wolpe)
Counterconditioning based
Techniques Used:
1. Relaxation Training: e.g. progressive muscle relaxation
2. Anxiety Hierarchy: 10-20 stimulus associated with phobic response, beginning w/ the easiest. SUDS is used.
3. Desensitization: work through the hierarchy while pairing relaxation w/ each stimulus.
Start: regulate
Begin: as soon as anxiety noticed, regulate
What Process Underlies Systematic Desensitization?
Reciprocal Inhibition: it works by inhibiting anxiety by substituting a reciprocal (incompatible) response (e.g. the relaxation)
Incompatible responses are controlled by the autonomic nervous system, while anxiety is by the sympathetic nervous system
Sex Therapy
Counterconditioning Based
Many sexual challenges involve performance anxiety
Pair activities associated w/ performance anxiety w/ activities that promote pleasurable physical sensations and relaxation
Homework: start small, progress from nongenital touching to genital pleasuring and eventually to whatever type of sex the couple strives towards
What are Aversive Counterconditioning approaches used for?
Substance abuse
Paraphilias
Self-injury
In Vivo Aversive Counterconditioning
Undesirable behaviour or stimuli associated with it is paired with a stimulus that naturally elicits pain, nausea, etc.
E.g. cigarette smoking paired with a shock or disgusting smell
Is it effective: in the short term. often requires ‘booster sessions’
Covert Sensitization
Aversive Counterconditioning based
Imaginal exposure in which the client engages in undesirable behaviour and then engages in an alternative behaviour
E.g. Imagine lighting up a cigarette and smoking, but then you get incredibly nauseated and barf all over yourself and your crush. Now imagine throwing the smokes away, and getting a nice cup of tea instead.
What is Operant Conditioning useful for understanding?
Understanding how non-reflexive and more complex behaviours are acquired
What was Edward Thorndike’s Contribution to Operant Conditioning?
Researched feline learning by observing kitties in a puzzle box
The cats could escape or get food by pressing a lever
Once the lever was discovered, it was pressed sooner and sooner (trial-and-error learning)
Connectionism Theory of Learning: learn based on connection between response and consequence
AKA Instrumental Learning
Thorndike’s Laws of Learning: Law of Effect
Responses followed by satisfying consequence are more likely to be repeated in the future
Responses followed by unfavorable consequence are less likely to be repeated
Thorndike’s Laws of Learning: Law of Exercise
Operant Conditioning
Repeated practice (exercise) strengthens the connection between a response and its consequence
Thorndike’s Laws of Learning: Law of Readiness
An organism must be ready (motivated) to act in order to form a connection between a response and its consequence
What was B.F. Skinner’s Contribution to Operant Conditioning?
Operant Conditioning
He popularized Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Coined Operant Behaviour: behaviours that opreate on environment to generate consequences
OB’s are acquired through operant conditioning and are voluntarily emitted/not emitted as a result of consequences
Skinner: Reinforcement
Operant Conditioning
When the stimulus that follows a behaviour increases chance of the behaviour repeating
Positive Reinforcement: applied following behaviour
Negative Reinforcement: removed following behaviour
Skinner: Punishment
Operant Conditioning
When the stimulus that follows behaviour decreases likelihood of behaviour repeating
The punisher can be positive (applied after the behaviour) or negative (removed after the behaviour)
Skinner: Positive Reinforcement
Operant Conditioning
Stimulus is applied following behaviour
Behaviour increases
E.g.: I am studying on Wednesday because Anthony will buy me candy on Friday
Skinner: Negative Reinforcement
Operant Conditioning
Boo
Stimulus removed following behaviour
Behaviour increases
E.g. I put on my seatbelt before driving to eliminate the beeping of my car
Skinner: Positive Punishment
Operant Conditioning
Stimulus applied following behaviour
Behaviour decreases
E.g. I stop calling Bob a dick because whenever I do, he punches me
Skinner: Negative Punishment
Operant Conditioning
Stimulus is removed following behaviour
Behaviour decreases
E.g. I stop calling Bob a dick because when I do, my phone is taken away
What is a Skinner Box?
Operant Conditioning
A box that allowed animals to press something/do something that would lead to reinforcement (e.g. food)
Operant Strength: the rate of the animals responding during acquisition trials when they were trying to extinguish the response (e.g. how often did they keep pushing the lever after food stopped coming?)
Skinner: Operant Extinction
Operant Conditioning
Response Burst
Spontaneous Recovery
Behavioural Contrast
Reinforcement is withheld from previously reinforced behaviour, making it decrease
Response Burst: end of reinforcement may lead to sudden increase in the behaviour before it decreases (e.g. food stops, so I peck the lever rapidly for a while)
Spontaneous Recovery: may stop, but then occassionally peck the lever again when put in the box
Behavioural Contrast: if two behaviours have been reinforced separately and reinforcement is withdrawn from one, there may be a temporary increase in the other behaviour (e.g. red lever stops putting out, so I increase pecking on the green lever)
Skinner: Primary Reinforcer
Operant Conditioning
They are inherently valuable
E.g. food, water, shelter, contact, sexual pleasure
Skinner: Secondary Reinforcer
Operant Conditioning
Acquire their value by being linked to a primary reinforcer
E.g. parent comforts child + gives positive verbal message –> message is related to contact comfort
Generalized Secondary Reinforcer: secondary reinforcer that is linked to multiple primary/secondary reinforcers (e.g. money-we can exchange it for a number of other reinforcers)
Skinner: 2 Types of Schedules of Reinforcement
Operant Conditioning
- Continuous: behaviour is reinforced every time it occurs. Rapid acquisition, but satiation may occur (reinforcer loses value) and rapid extinction occur when reinforcer ends
- Intermittent: Reinforcing the behaviour only sometimes. Less susceptible to satiation and extinction
What is the best? Start with continuous to get behaviour to desired level, then switch to intermittent (known as thinning the schedule)
Skinner: 4 Types of Intermittent Schedules
- Fixed Ratio: reinforcement given after fixed # of responses
- Variable Ratio: reinforcement given an average of every 10 responses, but it varies (may be 6, 14, etc.) E.g. slot machines
- Fixed Interval: reinforcement given after fixed time period regardless of responses. E.g. paycheck
- Variable Interval: reinforcement given after unpredictable amount of time. May be avg. 20 seconds, but varies. Must do the response w/i that time frame. E.g. unpredictable surprise quizzes
Skinner: What Intermittent Reinforcement schedule leads to the quickest and stableist results and which leads to the Scallop Effect?
Operant Conditioning
The Variable Ratio: fastest and steadiest rate of responding, and the most difficult to extinguish
The Fixed Interval schedule leads to the Scallop Effect: responding increases towards end of each interval
Skinner: Matching Law
Operant Conditioning
When 2+ opportunities for reinforcement are available, the rate of responding becomes proportionate to the rate of reinforcement
E.g. Lever 1 on a VI-15 and Lever 2 on a VI-60 = press Lever 1 more often
Skinner: Stimulus Control
Operant behaviours are often controlled by consequences, but they can also be influenced by preceding stimuli
When someone gives a response in the presence of Stimuli A but not Stimuli B, the response is under Stimulus Control
Discriminative Stimulus: the one that elicits the response
Extinction or S-Delta Stimulus: the one that does not elicit a response
E.g. peck a lever + green light or red light. only green light + lever = reinforcer. Pigeon will only peck during green light.
This is a blend of operant and classical conditioning
Skinner: Stimulus & Response Generalization
Stimulus Generalization: stimuli similar to the discriminative stimulus elicit a response (e.g. all yellow fruit makes me drool)
Response Generalization: a discriminative stimulus elicits similar responses (e.g. we can have different names for the same person)
Skinner: Superstitious Behaviour
If we are doing a random behaviour and then a reinforcement happens, we may continue that random behaviour even though it is actually unrelated
Skinner: Escape and Avoidance Learning
Escape Learning: you learn to escape an undesirable stimulus by engaging in a specific behaviour
Avoidance Learning: you learn to avoid undesirable stimulus by doing something in response to a clue that the undesirable stimuli is coming
AKA Two-Factor Learning
What factors impact the effectiveness of operant conditioning?
- Reinforcer is only available after the target behaviour
- Short interval between target behaviour and reinforcer
- Continuous schedule, switch to intermittent
- Pair reinforcement with verbal/gestural/physical prompts and then gradually remove them
Operant Conditioning: Shaping
AKA Successive Approximation Conditioning
Used when a behaviour doesn’t current exist, so you need to reinforce responses to shape it to what you want
Basically ABA. E.g. training non-verbal Autistics to talk by only rewarding them for eye contact, verbal communication
Operant Conditioning: Chaining
Establish complex behaviours that consist of a sequence that must be linked
It can be done forwards or backwards
E.g. teaching how to make sandwich. 1) gather ingredients from pantry/fridge. 2) get plate. Etc. Prompts and praise are given throughout
Operant Conditioning: Premack Principle
Reinforcement Based
A high frequency behaviour is used as reinforcement to increase low-frequency behaviours
E.g. no video games until homework done
Operant Conditioning: Differential Reinforcement
Premise + 3 types
Premise: take reinforcement away from the undesirable behaviour and reinforce desirable behaviours
Differential Reinforcement for Other Behaviours
Differential Reinforcement for Incompatible Behaviours
Differential Reinforcement for Low-Frequency Behaviours
What affects the effectiveness of Punishment techniques?
- Must be immediate + consistent
- Moderate in intensity
- Verbal clarification of the relationship between punishment and behaviour
- Reinforcement for target behaviour must be consistently withheld
- Punishment combined with reinforcement for an alternative behaviours
Operant Conditioning: Time Out
Punishment based
Time-out from positive reinforcement
Time-out time should be brief
All opportunities for positive reinforcement should be unavailable
Child is reminded of the reason and duration
Operant Conditioning: Response Cost
Punishment based
Remove a specific reinforcer each time the targetted undesirable behaviour occurs
E.g. take away computer time for swearing
Operant Conditioning: Overcorrection
Punishment based
Restitution Phase: person corrects consequences of undesirable behaviour
Positive Practice Phase: practices a more desirable behaviour
E.g. if you knock over chairs, in phase 1 you pick them all up. In phase 2, you practice ripping paper instead of knocking over chairs.
Operant Conditioning: Contingency Contract
Punishment and Reinforcement based
Written agreement between people that identifies the behaviours to be modified and the consequences of not
- Outline short and long term goals
- Describe target behaviour in observable & measurable terms
- Indicate reinforcers for compliance and sanctions for noncompliance
- Specify how to renegotiate and terminate
- Signed by all
Operant Conditioning: Token Economy
Tokens provided for desirable behaviour & removed for undesirable behaviour
Tokens can be exchanged for other reinforcers
- Specify target behaviour
- ID what token will be
- ID back-up reinforcers and their cost
- System for recording delivery and removal
- Plan for moving from tokens to more natural reinforcers
Operant Conditioning: Function-Based Interventions
Reinforcement and Punishment based
Based on results of Functional Behavioural Assessment (FBA)
Determines the function of a behaviour by looking @ trigger and consequences
Behaviour plan targets a more appropriate replacement beahaviour that serves the same function
E.g. acting out when wanting connection. Punishment for bad behaviour but reinforce the good behaviour
Kohler’s Insight Learning
Cognitive Learning Theories
Didn’t agree with Trial and Error learning
Rather, we can experience sudden insight into problems
Study: on Chimps and problem solving
- Learner perceives situation as a whole
- Learner perceives and tries to understand the elements of a situation
- Learner is suddenly able to grasp the solution
Tolman’s Latent Learning
Cognitive Learning Theories
Learning and performance are distinct and learning can occur without reinforcement
Rat Maze Study:
Group 1 rewarded each day they reached the goal box; gradually improved speed in reaching box
Group 2 never rewarded. behaviour never changes
Group 3 not rewarded until 11th day. No change in those 11 days, but after reward they reached the goal box significantly faster.
Suggests that the rats did learn the maze even without reward, they just weren’t as motivated to get there quickly
Bandura’s Observational Learning: 4 Steps (ARMM)
Cognitive Learning Theories
AKA Social Learning Theory
Bobo Doll experiment
Attention: observer pays attn to and perceives models behaviour + consequences
Retention: observer creates mental representation of model’s behaviour
Motor Reproduction: observer transforms mental representation into overt behaviour
Motivation: observer motivated to perform behaviour.
Reinforcement not necessary to learn, but it impacts motivation to perform.
Motivation also impacted by self-efficacy beliefs
Bandura’s Observational Learning: when are observers more likely to imitate a model?
Similarity w/ model
Model perceived as respected and competent
Model reinforced for engaging in behaviour
Observational Learning for Phobias: Participant and Coping Models
Cognitive Learning Theories
Participant Modeling: individual observers model doing the behaviour, and then performs on own with assistance
Coping Model: starts w/ some fear but it is overcome. More effective than mastery model where the model exhibits no fear from the start.
Multi-Store Model of Memory: 3 Memory Stores
Incoming info passes through three memory stores
1. Sensory Memory: large amount of sensory info for 3 seconds. Visual = iconic memory Auditory = echoic memory
2. Short-Term Memory: if sensory memory is focused on, it gets moved to ST. 30 seconds w/o rehearsal. Primary Memory & Working Memory
3. Long-Term Memory: after sufficient rehearsal, moves to LT. Thought to be unlimited and permanent
Multi-Store Model of Memory: Primary & Working Memory
Primary: the capacity of ST memory
Working: processing part of ST memory. Ability to mentally manipulate information in ST memory
Capacity of ST Memory: 7 + 2; can be increased with chunking
Multi-Store Model of Memory: Serial Position Effect
When recalling a list of words, people remember words at the beginning & the end more
Primacy Effect: time for those words to be rehearsed and transferred to LT
Recency Effect: those words are still in ST memory
Levels of Processing Model of Memory
- Structural Processing: encode physical properties of stimulus (e.g. length, capitalized letters)
- Phonemic Processing: encoding sound properties of stimulus (e.g. what is rhymes with)
- Semantic Processing: endoding info in terms of its meaning. Greatest retention and recall of meaning.
Multicomponent Model of Working Memory: 4 Components
WM is a system of temporary storage and manipulation of info needed for other cognitive tasks
Central Executive:
* Control centre of WM
* Directs attn to relevant aspects of task and supervises 3 other systems
Phonological Loop:
* Processes and temp storage of verbal info
Visuospatial Sketchpad:
* processes and temp storage of visual info
Episodic Buffer:
* Integrates verbal and visual info and helps transfer it to LTM
Long-Term Memory: Procedural Memory
Remembering HOW to do something
E.g. riding a bike
Long-Term Memory: Declarative Memory
Semantic & Episodic
Remember WHAT or THAT
Semantic Memory: factual knowledge
Episodic Memory: personal experience
Long-Term Memory: Implicit Memory
Recalled outside of conscious awareness
Long-Term Memory: Explicit Memory
Require deliberate and conscious effort to be recalled
Encoding Specificity: Context & State Specific
Factors that Affect Memory
Encoding Specificity: the more similarity between learning and recall conditions = easier to retrieve info
Context-Specific: retrive info more easily when recall occurs in similar context it was learned in
State-Specific: retrieve info more easily when recall occurs in similar state that it was learned in
Arousal: Yerkes-Dodson Law
Factors that Affect Memory
There is an optimal level of arousal for performance on memory tasks
Optimal levels depends on complexity of the task
* Difficult tasks: optimal level is lower
* Easier tasks: optimal level is higher
* Moderate levels are always better
Amnesia: Anterograde & Retrograde
Factors that Affect Memory
Memory loss following brain trauma
Anterograde: recall info prior to trauma, none retained after
Retrograde: can’t recall info prior to trauma, but retain after.
* Affects recent past memories more than distant past
Brain trauma often causes both types
Misinformation Effect
Factors that Affect Memory
Distortions in memory due to inaccurate info being added
Explains inaccuracy of eye witness testimonies (e.g. Car accident-hit VS smash)
Rehearsal: Maintenance & Elaborative
Factors that Affect Memory
Maintenance: repeating info. Most useful for ST retainment
Elaborative: making info meaningful by forming association between new info and info already in LT memory, organizing info into categories, or creating a summary in your own words
Mneumonic Devices: Verbal & Visual
Factors that Affect Memory
Techniques for enhancing memory
Verbal: acronyms (OCEAN), acrostics (each word begins with first letter of item to be remembered)
Visual:
* Method of Loci: imagine walking through a familiar place and visually associate each item with a thing. Lists.
* Key Word Method: form visual image that links multiple items. (a load of bread in pain hehehe)
Ebbinghaus’s Theory of Forgetting
Has a predictable ‘forgetting curve’
Steep loss of retention in hours following, then it levels off
Decay Theory
Theory of Forgetting
Memory involves physiological change in brain, which decays over time if memory not accessed
Not well supported.
Study: two groups memorize list, then some sleep and some stay awake. Based on decay theory, they should remember the same amount. But, those who slept remember more
Interference Theory: Proactive & Retroactive
Theory of Forgetting
Recall impacted by interference of info learned before or after
Proactive Interference: previously known similar info interferes with recall for more recently learned info
Retroactive Interference: Newly learned info interferes with recall of previously known info.
FUCKING FRENCH REPLACING SPANISH.
Studied by making people memorize either 1 or 2 lists and then recall them
Cue-Dependent Forgetting
Theory of Forgetting
Lack of retrival cues leads to inability to access information stored in LT memory
What is Attention?
A cognitive process that allows us to selectively attend to environmental and internal stimuli
What is Sustained Attention?
The ability to direct and focus cognitive activity on a specific stimulus over a period of time
What is Divided Attention?
The ability to focus attention on more than one stimulus simultaneously
What is Selective Attention?
Focus on one stimulus and filter out irrelevant stimulus
E.g. Cocktail party phenomenon. Wtf I can’t do that?
Feature Integration Theory of Visual Attention
Treisman’s (1998)
2 stages of visual processing:
1. Detection of Features (pre-attention): automatic, parallel processing. take in basic features of stimuli
2. Integration of Features (attention): features are processed one by one and more slowly. results in perception of stimulus as an integrated whole
Filter Theory of Selective Attention
Broadbents (1958)
Bottleneck Theory: only a small portion of info presented to us actually makes it through
Sensory stimuli get put in ‘sensory buffer’ and then one of them is allowed past the filter (based on physical characteristics). It then enters ST memory
Study: dichotic listening task. different stimuli presented to each ear simultaneously. people remembered it based on which ear it came in
