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EPPP > Learning Theory and Behaviour Therapy > Flashcards

Learning Theory and Behaviour Therapy Flashcards

1
Q

What is Learning?

A

A relatively permanent change in behaviour, or the capacity for behaviour, due to experience

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2
Q

What is Classical Conditioning?

A

Type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the ability to elicit the response that is naturally elicited by another stimulus

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3
Q

What is Operant Conditioning?

A

Type of learning in which responses become controlled by their consequences

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4
Q

Classical Conditioning: Unconditioned Stimulus

A

Naturally produces the target response
It triggers an unconditioned response
E.g. lemon triggers salivating

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5
Q

Classical Conditioning: Conditioned Stimulus

A

Does not naturally produce the target response, and prior to conditioning is neutral
After conditioning, the CS triggers a conditioned response

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6
Q

3 Stages of Classical Conditioning

A
  1. US (food) alone causes UR (salivation). NS (bell) does not cause salivation
  2. CS (bell) and US (food) together cause salivation
  3. VS (bell) produces salivation (now the CR)
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7
Q

Factors that Affect the Effectiveness of Classical Conditioning

A
  1. Number of Conditioning Trials: more trials leads to stronger response. Regardless, the CR is usually weaker than the UR
  2. Order & Timing of Presentation:
    * Delay Conditioning: CS precedes and overlaps w/ US
    * Trace Conditioning: CS presented and stopped prior to US
    * Simultaneous Conditioning: CS and US presented at same time

Delay is most effective, w/ delay of 0.5 seconds

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8
Q

Classical Conditioning: Extinction

A

If CS is presented repeatedly without US, the CR gradually disappears or weakens

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9
Q

Classical Conditioning: Spontaneous Recovery

A

Sometimes after extinction, the CR suddenly returns (though weaker)

CR’s maybe can’t be completed extinguished, but significantly weakened

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10
Q

Classical Conditioning: Stimulus Generalization

A

Following conditioning trials, stimuli similar to the CS also elicit the CR (e.g. a bell w/ different pitch)

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11
Q

Classical Conditioning: Stimulus Discrimination

A

Ability to discriminate between CS and a stimulus that is only similiar to the CS but doesn’t come w/ reward

This can be taught w/ discrimination trials

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12
Q

Classical Conditioning: Experimental Neurosis

A

When required to make difficult discriminations between similar stimuli, animals begin acting strangely (e.g. agitated, sudden aggression)

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13
Q

Classical Conditioning: Higher-Order Conditioning

A

After initial conditioning trials, if a second NS is paired with the CS, it can elicit the CR

The CS acts as an US, which shows that CR’s can be can be established without using an US (e.g. the food)

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14
Q

Classical Conditioning: Blocking (Kamin, 1969)

A

When a CR has been established w/ a CS, the presence of the CS may block a connection btwn a second NS and the US if the CS and NS are presented together

Study: light = shock = fear. light + sound = shock = fear. sound = shock = no fear

Animals may not have paid attention to the new NS when it was paired with the OG NS

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15
Q

Classical Conditioning: Watson and Little Albert

A

Created a phobia of white rats in this poor child
The fear generalized to all white furry objects

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16
Q

3 Types of Therapy Techniques Based on Classical Conditioning

A
  1. Extinction based
  2. Counterconditioning based
  3. Aversive counterconditioning based
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17
Q

Exposure w/ Response Prevention (ERP)

Extinction Based

A

Expose person to the fear-arousing stimuli and prevent them from using their usual avoidance response

Flooding: Start with exposure to the stimuli that triggers max fear

Graduated Exposure: start w/ less intense ones

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18
Q

Are Exposure Protocols Effective?

A

Yes-Prolonged Exposure more helpful than brief exposure (can increase anxiety)

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19
Q

Implosive Therapy (Stampfl & Levis, 1967)

Extinction Based

A

Influenced by psychoanalytic and learning theory

Imaginal Exposure

Therapist exaggerates the scenes being imagined by the client, and injects psychodynamic themes that they think are a source of anxiety (e.g. hostility towards parents)

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20
Q

Systematic Desensitization (Wolpe)

Counterconditioning based

A

Techniques Used:
1. Relaxation Training: e.g. progressive muscle relaxation
2. Anxiety Hierarchy: 10-20 stimulus associated with phobic response, beginning w/ the easiest. SUDS is used.
3. Desensitization: work through the hierarchy while pairing relaxation w/ each stimulus.
Start: regulate
Begin: as soon as anxiety noticed, regulate

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21
Q

What Process Underlies Systematic Desensitization?

A

Reciprocal Inhibition: it works by inhibiting anxiety by substituting a reciprocal (incompatible) response (e.g. the relaxation)

Incompatible responses are controlled by the autonomic nervous system, while anxiety is by the sympathetic nervous system

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22
Q

Sex Therapy

Counterconditioning Based

A

Many sexual challenges involve performance anxiety

Pair activities associated w/ performance anxiety w/ activities that promote pleasurable physical sensations and relaxation

Homework: start small, progress from nongenital touching to genital pleasuring and eventually to whatever type of sex the couple strives towards

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23
Q

What are Aversive Counterconditioning approaches used for?

A

Substance abuse
Paraphilias
Self-injury

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24
Q

In Vivo Aversive Counterconditioning

A

Undesirable behaviour or stimuli associated with it is paired with a stimulus that naturally elicits pain, nausea, etc.

E.g. cigarette smoking paired with a shock or disgusting smell

Is it effective: in the short term. often requires ‘booster sessions’

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25
Q

Covert Sensitization

Aversive Counterconditioning based

A

Imaginal exposure in which the client engages in undesirable behaviour and then engages in an alternative behaviour

E.g. Imagine lighting up a cigarette and smoking, but then you get incredibly nauseated and barf all over yourself and your crush. Now imagine throwing the smokes away, and getting a nice cup of tea instead.

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26
Q

What is Operant Conditioning useful for understanding?

A

Understanding how non-reflexive and more complex behaviours are acquired

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27
Q

What was Edward Thorndike’s Contribution to Operant Conditioning?

A

Researched feline learning by observing kitties in a puzzle box

The cats could escape or get food by pressing a lever

Once the lever was discovered, it was pressed sooner and sooner (trial-and-error learning)

Connectionism Theory of Learning: learn based on connection between response and consequence

AKA Instrumental Learning

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28
Q

Thorndike’s Laws of Learning: Law of Effect

A

Responses followed by satisfying consequence are more likely to be repeated in the future

Responses followed by unfavorable consequence are less likely to be repeated

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29
Q

Thorndike’s Laws of Learning: Law of Exercise

Operant Conditioning

A

Repeated practice (exercise) strengthens the connection between a response and its consequence

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30
Q

Thorndike’s Laws of Learning: Law of Readiness

A

An organism must be ready (motivated) to act in order to form a connection between a response and its consequence

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31
Q

What was B.F. Skinner’s Contribution to Operant Conditioning?

Operant Conditioning

A

He popularized Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Coined Operant Behaviour: behaviours that opreate on environment to generate consequences

OB’s are acquired through operant conditioning and are voluntarily emitted/not emitted as a result of consequences

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32
Q

Skinner: Reinforcement

Operant Conditioning

A

When the stimulus that follows a behaviour increases chance of the behaviour repeating

Positive Reinforcement: applied following behaviour

Negative Reinforcement: removed following behaviour

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33
Q

Skinner: Punishment

Operant Conditioning

A

When the stimulus that follows behaviour decreases likelihood of behaviour repeating

The punisher can be positive (applied after the behaviour) or negative (removed after the behaviour)

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34
Q

Skinner: Positive Reinforcement

Operant Conditioning

A

Stimulus is applied following behaviour

Behaviour increases

E.g.: I am studying on Wednesday because Anthony will buy me candy on Friday

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35
Q

Skinner: Negative Reinforcement

Operant Conditioning

Boo

A

Stimulus removed following behaviour

Behaviour increases

E.g. I put on my seatbelt before driving to eliminate the beeping of my car

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36
Q

Skinner: Positive Punishment

Operant Conditioning

A

Stimulus applied following behaviour

Behaviour decreases

E.g. I stop calling Bob a dick because whenever I do, he punches me

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37
Q

Skinner: Negative Punishment

Operant Conditioning

A

Stimulus is removed following behaviour

Behaviour decreases

E.g. I stop calling Bob a dick because when I do, my phone is taken away

38
Q

What is a Skinner Box?

Operant Conditioning

A

A box that allowed animals to press something/do something that would lead to reinforcement (e.g. food)

Operant Strength: the rate of the animals responding during acquisition trials when they were trying to extinguish the response (e.g. how often did they keep pushing the lever after food stopped coming?)

39
Q

Skinner: Operant Extinction

Operant Conditioning

Response Burst
Spontaneous Recovery
Behavioural Contrast

A

Reinforcement is withheld from previously reinforced behaviour, making it decrease

Response Burst: end of reinforcement may lead to sudden increase in the behaviour before it decreases (e.g. food stops, so I peck the lever rapidly for a while)

Spontaneous Recovery: may stop, but then occassionally peck the lever again when put in the box

Behavioural Contrast: if two behaviours have been reinforced separately and reinforcement is withdrawn from one, there may be a temporary increase in the other behaviour (e.g. red lever stops putting out, so I increase pecking on the green lever)

40
Q

Skinner: Primary Reinforcer

Operant Conditioning

A

They are inherently valuable

E.g. food, water, shelter, contact, sexual pleasure

41
Q

Skinner: Secondary Reinforcer

Operant Conditioning

A

Acquire their value by being linked to a primary reinforcer

E.g. parent comforts child + gives positive verbal message –> message is related to contact comfort

Generalized Secondary Reinforcer: secondary reinforcer that is linked to multiple primary/secondary reinforcers (e.g. money-we can exchange it for a number of other reinforcers)

42
Q

Skinner: 2 Types of Schedules of Reinforcement

Operant Conditioning

A
  1. Continuous: behaviour is reinforced every time it occurs. Rapid acquisition, but satiation may occur (reinforcer loses value) and rapid extinction occur when reinforcer ends
  2. Intermittent: Reinforcing the behaviour only sometimes. Less susceptible to satiation and extinction

What is the best? Start with continuous to get behaviour to desired level, then switch to intermittent (known as thinning the schedule)

43
Q

Skinner: 4 Types of Intermittent Schedules

A
  1. Fixed Ratio: reinforcement given after fixed # of responses
  2. Variable Ratio: reinforcement given an average of every 10 responses, but it varies (may be 6, 14, etc.) E.g. slot machines
  3. Fixed Interval: reinforcement given after fixed time period regardless of responses. E.g. paycheck
  4. Variable Interval: reinforcement given after unpredictable amount of time. May be avg. 20 seconds, but varies. Must do the response w/i that time frame. E.g. unpredictable surprise quizzes
44
Q

Skinner: What Intermittent Reinforcement schedule leads to the quickest and stableist results and which leads to the Scallop Effect?

Operant Conditioning

A

The Variable Ratio: fastest and steadiest rate of responding, and the most difficult to extinguish

The Fixed Interval schedule leads to the Scallop Effect: responding increases towards end of each interval

45
Q

Skinner: Matching Law

Operant Conditioning

A

When 2+ opportunities for reinforcement are available, the rate of responding becomes proportionate to the rate of reinforcement

E.g. Lever 1 on a VI-15 and Lever 2 on a VI-60 = press Lever 1 more often

46
Q

Skinner: Stimulus Control

A

Operant behaviours are often controlled by consequences, but they can also be influenced by preceding stimuli

When someone gives a response in the presence of Stimuli A but not Stimuli B, the response is under Stimulus Control

Discriminative Stimulus: the one that elicits the response

Extinction or S-Delta Stimulus: the one that does not elicit a response

E.g. peck a lever + green light or red light. only green light + lever = reinforcer. Pigeon will only peck during green light.

This is a blend of operant and classical conditioning

47
Q

Skinner: Stimulus & Response Generalization

A

Stimulus Generalization: stimuli similar to the discriminative stimulus elicit a response (e.g. all yellow fruit makes me drool)

Response Generalization: a discriminative stimulus elicits similar responses (e.g. we can have different names for the same person)

48
Q

Skinner: Superstitious Behaviour

A

If we are doing a random behaviour and then a reinforcement happens, we may continue that random behaviour even though it is actually unrelated

49
Q

Skinner: Escape and Avoidance Learning

A

Escape Learning: you learn to escape an undesirable stimulus by engaging in a specific behaviour

Avoidance Learning: you learn to avoid undesirable stimulus by doing something in response to a clue that the undesirable stimuli is coming

AKA Two-Factor Learning

50
Q

What factors impact the effectiveness of operant conditioning?

A
  1. Reinforcer is only available after the target behaviour
  2. Short interval between target behaviour and reinforcer
  3. Continuous schedule, switch to intermittent
  4. Pair reinforcement with verbal/gestural/physical prompts and then gradually remove them
51
Q

Operant Conditioning: Shaping

A

AKA Successive Approximation Conditioning

Used when a behaviour doesn’t current exist, so you need to reinforce responses to shape it to what you want

Basically ABA. E.g. training non-verbal Autistics to talk by only rewarding them for eye contact, verbal communication

52
Q

Operant Conditioning: Chaining

A

Establish complex behaviours that consist of a sequence that must be linked

It can be done forwards or backwards

E.g. teaching how to make sandwich. 1) gather ingredients from pantry/fridge. 2) get plate. Etc. Prompts and praise are given throughout

53
Q

Operant Conditioning: Premack Principle

Reinforcement Based

A

A high frequency behaviour is used as reinforcement to increase low-frequency behaviours

E.g. no video games until homework done

54
Q

Operant Conditioning: Differential Reinforcement
Premise + 3 types

A

Premise: take reinforcement away from the undesirable behaviour and reinforce desirable behaviours

Differential Reinforcement for Other Behaviours

Differential Reinforcement for Incompatible Behaviours

Differential Reinforcement for Low-Frequency Behaviours

55
Q

What affects the effectiveness of Punishment techniques?

A
  1. Must be immediate + consistent
  2. Moderate in intensity
  3. Verbal clarification of the relationship between punishment and behaviour
  4. Reinforcement for target behaviour must be consistently withheld
  5. Punishment combined with reinforcement for an alternative behaviours
56
Q

Operant Conditioning: Time Out

Punishment based

A

Time-out from positive reinforcement

Time-out time should be brief
All opportunities for positive reinforcement should be unavailable
Child is reminded of the reason and duration

57
Q

Operant Conditioning: Response Cost

Punishment based

A

Remove a specific reinforcer each time the targetted undesirable behaviour occurs

E.g. take away computer time for swearing

58
Q

Operant Conditioning: Overcorrection

Punishment based

A

Restitution Phase: person corrects consequences of undesirable behaviour
Positive Practice Phase: practices a more desirable behaviour

E.g. if you knock over chairs, in phase 1 you pick them all up. In phase 2, you practice ripping paper instead of knocking over chairs.

59
Q

Operant Conditioning: Contingency Contract

Punishment and Reinforcement based

A

Written agreement between people that identifies the behaviours to be modified and the consequences of not

  • Outline short and long term goals
  • Describe target behaviour in observable & measurable terms
  • Indicate reinforcers for compliance and sanctions for noncompliance
  • Specify how to renegotiate and terminate
  • Signed by all
60
Q

Operant Conditioning: Token Economy

A

Tokens provided for desirable behaviour & removed for undesirable behaviour

Tokens can be exchanged for other reinforcers

  • Specify target behaviour
  • ID what token will be
  • ID back-up reinforcers and their cost
  • System for recording delivery and removal
  • Plan for moving from tokens to more natural reinforcers
61
Q

Operant Conditioning: Function-Based Interventions

Reinforcement and Punishment based

A

Based on results of Functional Behavioural Assessment (FBA)
Determines the function of a behaviour by looking @ trigger and consequences
Behaviour plan targets a more appropriate replacement beahaviour that serves the same function

E.g. acting out when wanting connection. Punishment for bad behaviour but reinforce the good behaviour

62
Q

Kohler’s Insight Learning

Cognitive Learning Theories

A

Didn’t agree with Trial and Error learning
Rather, we can experience sudden insight into problems

Study: on Chimps and problem solving

  1. Learner perceives situation as a whole
  2. Learner perceives and tries to understand the elements of a situation
  3. Learner is suddenly able to grasp the solution
63
Q

Tolman’s Latent Learning

Cognitive Learning Theories

A

Learning and performance are distinct and learning can occur without reinforcement

Rat Maze Study:
Group 1 rewarded each day they reached the goal box; gradually improved speed in reaching box
Group 2 never rewarded. behaviour never changes
Group 3 not rewarded until 11th day. No change in those 11 days, but after reward they reached the goal box significantly faster.

Suggests that the rats did learn the maze even without reward, they just weren’t as motivated to get there quickly

64
Q

Bandura’s Observational Learning: 4 Steps (ARMM)

Cognitive Learning Theories

A

AKA Social Learning Theory
Bobo Doll experiment

Attention: observer pays attn to and perceives models behaviour + consequences
Retention: observer creates mental representation of model’s behaviour
Motor Reproduction: observer transforms mental representation into overt behaviour
Motivation: observer motivated to perform behaviour.

Reinforcement not necessary to learn, but it impacts motivation to perform.

Motivation also impacted by self-efficacy beliefs

65
Q

Bandura’s Observational Learning: when are observers more likely to imitate a model?

A

Similarity w/ model
Model perceived as respected and competent
Model reinforced for engaging in behaviour

66
Q

Observational Learning for Phobias: Participant and Coping Models

Cognitive Learning Theories

A

Participant Modeling: individual observers model doing the behaviour, and then performs on own with assistance

Coping Model: starts w/ some fear but it is overcome. More effective than mastery model where the model exhibits no fear from the start.

67
Q

Multi-Store Model of Memory: 3 Memory Stores

A

Incoming info passes through three memory stores
1. Sensory Memory: large amount of sensory info for 3 seconds. Visual = iconic memory Auditory = echoic memory
2. Short-Term Memory: if sensory memory is focused on, it gets moved to ST. 30 seconds w/o rehearsal. Primary Memory & Working Memory
3. Long-Term Memory: after sufficient rehearsal, moves to LT. Thought to be unlimited and permanent

68
Q

Multi-Store Model of Memory: Primary & Working Memory

A

Primary: the capacity of ST memory
Working: processing part of ST memory. Ability to mentally manipulate information in ST memory

Capacity of ST Memory: 7 + 2; can be increased with chunking

69
Q

Multi-Store Model of Memory: Serial Position Effect

A

When recalling a list of words, people remember words at the beginning & the end more
Primacy Effect: time for those words to be rehearsed and transferred to LT
Recency Effect: those words are still in ST memory

70
Q

Levels of Processing Model of Memory

A
  1. Structural Processing: encode physical properties of stimulus (e.g. length, capitalized letters)
  2. Phonemic Processing: encoding sound properties of stimulus (e.g. what is rhymes with)
  3. Semantic Processing: endoding info in terms of its meaning. Greatest retention and recall of meaning.
71
Q

Multicomponent Model of Working Memory: 4 Components

A

WM is a system of temporary storage and manipulation of info needed for other cognitive tasks

Central Executive:
* Control centre of WM
* Directs attn to relevant aspects of task and supervises 3 other systems

Phonological Loop:
* Processes and temp storage of verbal info

Visuospatial Sketchpad:
* processes and temp storage of visual info

Episodic Buffer:
* Integrates verbal and visual info and helps transfer it to LTM

72
Q

Long-Term Memory: Procedural Memory

A

Remembering HOW to do something

E.g. riding a bike

73
Q

Long-Term Memory: Declarative Memory

Semantic & Episodic

A

Remember WHAT or THAT

Semantic Memory: factual knowledge
Episodic Memory: personal experience

74
Q

Long-Term Memory: Implicit Memory

A

Recalled outside of conscious awareness

75
Q

Long-Term Memory: Explicit Memory

A

Require deliberate and conscious effort to be recalled

76
Q

Encoding Specificity: Context & State Specific

Factors that Affect Memory

A

Encoding Specificity: the more similarity between learning and recall conditions = easier to retrieve info

Context-Specific: retrive info more easily when recall occurs in similar context it was learned in

State-Specific: retrieve info more easily when recall occurs in similar state that it was learned in

77
Q

Arousal: Yerkes-Dodson Law

Factors that Affect Memory

A

There is an optimal level of arousal for performance on memory tasks

Optimal levels depends on complexity of the task
* Difficult tasks: optimal level is lower
* Easier tasks: optimal level is higher
* Moderate levels are always better

78
Q

Amnesia: Anterograde & Retrograde

Factors that Affect Memory

A

Memory loss following brain trauma
Anterograde: recall info prior to trauma, none retained after

Retrograde: can’t recall info prior to trauma, but retain after.
* Affects recent past memories more than distant past

Brain trauma often causes both types

79
Q

Misinformation Effect

Factors that Affect Memory

A

Distortions in memory due to inaccurate info being added

Explains inaccuracy of eye witness testimonies (e.g. Car accident-hit VS smash)

80
Q

Rehearsal: Maintenance & Elaborative

Factors that Affect Memory

A

Maintenance: repeating info. Most useful for ST retainment

Elaborative: making info meaningful by forming association between new info and info already in LT memory, organizing info into categories, or creating a summary in your own words

81
Q

Mneumonic Devices: Verbal & Visual

Factors that Affect Memory

A

Techniques for enhancing memory

Verbal: acronyms (OCEAN), acrostics (each word begins with first letter of item to be remembered)

Visual:
* Method of Loci: imagine walking through a familiar place and visually associate each item with a thing. Lists.
* Key Word Method: form visual image that links multiple items. (a load of bread in pain hehehe)

82
Q

Ebbinghaus’s Theory of Forgetting

A

Has a predictable ‘forgetting curve’

Steep loss of retention in hours following, then it levels off

83
Q

Decay Theory

Theory of Forgetting

A

Memory involves physiological change in brain, which decays over time if memory not accessed

Not well supported.

Study: two groups memorize list, then some sleep and some stay awake. Based on decay theory, they should remember the same amount. But, those who slept remember more

84
Q

Interference Theory: Proactive & Retroactive

Theory of Forgetting

A

Recall impacted by interference of info learned before or after

Proactive Interference: previously known similar info interferes with recall for more recently learned info

Retroactive Interference: Newly learned info interferes with recall of previously known info.
FUCKING FRENCH REPLACING SPANISH.

Studied by making people memorize either 1 or 2 lists and then recall them

85
Q

Cue-Dependent Forgetting

Theory of Forgetting

A

Lack of retrival cues leads to inability to access information stored in LT memory

86
Q

What is Attention?

A

A cognitive process that allows us to selectively attend to environmental and internal stimuli

87
Q

What is Sustained Attention?

A

The ability to direct and focus cognitive activity on a specific stimulus over a period of time

88
Q

What is Divided Attention?

A

The ability to focus attention on more than one stimulus simultaneously

89
Q

What is Selective Attention?

A

Focus on one stimulus and filter out irrelevant stimulus

E.g. Cocktail party phenomenon. Wtf I can’t do that?

90
Q

Feature Integration Theory of Visual Attention

Treisman’s (1998)

A

2 stages of visual processing:
1. Detection of Features (pre-attention): automatic, parallel processing. take in basic features of stimuli
2. Integration of Features (attention): features are processed one by one and more slowly. results in perception of stimulus as an integrated whole

91
Q

Filter Theory of Selective Attention

Broadbents (1958)

A

Bottleneck Theory: only a small portion of info presented to us actually makes it through

Sensory stimuli get put in ‘sensory buffer’ and then one of them is allowed past the filter (based on physical characteristics). It then enters ST memory

Study: dichotic listening task. different stimuli presented to each ear simultaneously. people remembered it based on which ear it came in

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