Neuropsychology Flashcards
What are the two main divisions of the Nervous System?
- Central: brain + spinal cord
- Peripheral: afferent nerves (sensory or receptor nerves) that carry info from sense organs to CNS and efferent nerves (motor/effector nerves) that carry info from CNS to muscles/glands
3 Divisions of the Brain
- Hind brain
- Mid brain
- Fore brain
What are the 5 groups of the spinal cord?
- Cervical
- Thoracic
- Lumbar
- Sacral
- Coccygeal
What are afferent nerves?
AKA Sensory or Receptor nerves
Carry info from sense organs to the CNS
What are efferent nerves?
AKA Motor or Effector nerves
Carry info from CNS to the muscles and glands
What are the two brances of the Peripheral Nervous System?
- Somatic Nervous System
- Autonomic Nervous System
What is the role of the Somatic Nervous System?
Controls action of skeletal muscles
Voluntary movement
Relays signals from the senses
What is the role of the Autonomic Nervous System?
Contains nerves that are around smooth muscles, glands (e.g. all our organs)
Regulates things that are involuntary (e.g. digestion, respiration, heartrate)
What are the 2 Branches of the Autonomic Nervous System?
- Sympathetic NS: mobilizes resources to prepare for threat
- Parasympathetic NS: deactivates the F-F-F response. Active during states of relaxation
What are the 3 parts of a neuron?
- Cell Body: responsible for protein synthesis, contains the nucleus, mitochondria
- Dendrites: short fibers that come out of cell body. Respond to stimulation from other neuros and carry it to cell body
- Axon: carries info away from cell body
What is Conduction?
Other terms: resting potential, depolarization, action potential
The electrochemical process through which info is received and processed within a nerve cell
Resting Potential: inside of cell negatively charged, outside positively charged
Stimulation from other cells can lead to depolarization which triggers an action potential
What is Synaptic Transmission?
The transmission of info from one neuron to another
NT’s released following an action potential, float across to other neurons receptor site
2 processes of synaptic transmission termination
Reuptake & Enzynmatic Degradation
- Reuptake: terminal buttons suck in the excess NT’s and store for future
- Enzymatic Degradation: enzyms around the synapse break down the NT which is then removed as waste
What are the 2 chemical messengers of the nervous system?
- Neurotransmitters
- Hormones
What is a Neuromodulator?
A NT that increases or decreases the sensitive of neurons to the effects of other NT’s
What are Cholingeric Neurons?
Neurons that produce Acetylcholine
Acetylcholine (ACh): what does it do?
Involved in:
* Voluntary movement
* Learning & memory
* Sexual behaviour
* Sleep
Can be inhibitory or excitatory
Degeneration in the hippocampus associated with aging and Alzheimers
Where is Dopamine released in the brain?
Basal ganglia
Limbic system
Frontal lobes
What does Dopamine do?
Make me happy
Movement
Learning
Mood
Reinforcing effects of stimulants, opiates, nicotine
Abnormal levels linked to: depression, schizophrenia, Tourette’s, ADHD, Huntington’s, Parkinson’s
What does Norepinephrine do?
Mood
Dreaming
Learning
Automatic responses
Abrnomal levels: depression, mania, panic disorder
What does Serotonin do?
Regulates anxiety, mood, aggression
Memory
Pain
Sleep
Appetite
Sexuality
Low Levels: depression, aggression, PTSD, PCD, Bulimia
High Levels: Schizophrenia, Autism, Anorexia
What does Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid (GABA) do?
Main inhibitory NT of the CNS
Motor Control
Anxiety regulation
Abnormal levels: sleep, eating, anxiety, seizure disorders, Parkinson’s, Huntington’s
What does Glutamate do?
Excitatory NT in the CNS
Long Term Potentiation (LTP) which is needed for memory formation
High Levels: seizures, stroke, TBI, Alzheimers, Parkinsons, Huntingtons
Also contribute to anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, mood disorders
What are Endorphins?
The natural morphine, but it doesn’t make me puke
Hormones: Thyroxin
Controls metabolism
Low = hypothyroidism
High = hyperthyroidism
* At extreme: Grave’s Disease
Hormones: Insulin
Stimulates uptake of glucose and amino acids
Low = diabetes
Hyperglycemia: high appetite, weight loss, pee lots, thirsty, prone to infection, apathy, kidney problems
High = hypoglycemia (hunger, weakness, headaches, visual disturbance, palpitations, anxiety, depression, confusion)
Hormones: Cortisol
Regulates blood glucose levels
Low = Addison’s disease (weakness, fatigue, low BP, irritability, darkening of skin pigmentation)
High = Cushing’s disease (obesity, hypertension, impaired concentration & memory, depression/anx, low libido)
Hindbrain: 3 parts
Brain stem
1. Medulla Oblongata
2. Pons
3. Cerebellum
Role of Medulla Oblongata
Hindbrain
Controls:
* Breath
* Heart
* BP
* Digestion
Stimulates:
* Coughing
* Swallowing
* Salivating
Damage often fatal
Role of the Pons
Hindbrain
Connects 2 halves of cerebellum
Relays sensory & motor information
Role in: arousal, sleep, respiration
Role of the Cerebellum
Hindbrain
Role in:
* balance
* coordination
* posture
Damage: may cause ataxia (slurred speech, tremors, loss of balance)
What 2 parts make up the midbrain?
- Reticular Activating System
- Substantia Nigra
Role of the Reticular Activating System
Midbrain
Part of reticular formation (bunch of neurons from spinal cord to midbrain)
Regulates:
* Sleep-wake transition
* Screens incoming sensory info, esp. when sleeping
* Wakes us up if sensory info needs to be attended to (e.g. cat chaos)
Role of the Substantia Nigra
Midbrain
Role in:
* controlling movement
* reward-seeking
* addictive behaviour
Degeneration of dopamine neurons here can lead to Parkinson’s
Forebrain (Subcortical): 4 areas
- Hypothalamus
- Thalamus
- Basal ganglia
- Limbic system
Role of Hypothalamus
Forebrain
Controls ANS and Endocrine via teh pituitary
Role:
* Maintain homeostasis: temperature, metabolism
* Motivated behaviours: drinking, feeding, sex, aggression, maternal behaviour
* Expression of strong emotions, esp. rage, fear, excitement
What are the 2 parts of the Hypothalamus?
Forebrain
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus:
* Regulates circadian rhythm through light/dark cues
Mammillary Bodies:
* Important for memory
* Damage can result in Korsakoff’s Syndrome (antero/retrograde amnesia, confabulation). related to thiamine deficiency as a result of alcoholism
Role of the Thalamus
Forebrain
Central Relay Station
* Relay incoming sensory info to cortex (except for olfaction-it is relayed by LIMBIC)
* Process info between different cortical regions and between cortex & subcortical
* Language, memory, activity
3 parts of the Basal Ganglia
Forebrain
- Caudate nucleus
- Globus pallidus
- Putamen
What brain areas make up the Extrapyramidal Motor System?
Substantia nigra
Cerebellum
Basal Ganglia (caudate nucelus, globus pallidus, putamen)
Role of the Basal Ganglia
Forebrain
Process and relay info needed for control of:
* Voltuntary movement
* Motor expression of emotion
* Sensorimotor learning
Abnormalities:
* Tourette’s
* Huntington’s
* Parkinson’s
* Schizophrenia
* Mood disorders
* OCD
* ADHD
4 parts of the Limbic System
Forebrain
- Amygdala
- Septum
- Cingulate cortex
- Hippocampus
Role of the Amygdala
Forebrain
- Integrates and directs emotional reactions
- Attaches emotion to info it gets from the senses
- Mediates aggressive/defensive behaviour
Damage: lack of fear, struggle reading tones/expressions
Kluver-Bucy Syndrome: low fear & aggression, increased docility, altered diet, psychic blindness, hypersexuality
occurred in monkeys w/ bilateral lesions in amygdala and anterior temporal lobe
Role of the Septum
Forebrain
Inhibits emotionality
Lesions may cause Septal Rage Syndrome (shown in rats)
* Hyperemotionality
* Viciousness
Role of the Cingulate Cortex
Forebrain
Regulates emotional responses and pain perception
Role of the Hippocampus
Forebrain
Role:
* Memory and Learning
* Memory consolidation
Damage:
* Anterograde amnesia
* Degeneration linked to memory loss
What is Contralateral Representation?
Forebrain
Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body
Olfactory is the exception.
Lateralization of Function
Each hemisphere dominates for certain behaviours
Left Hemisphere is often responsible for language, logic, positive emotion
Right Hemisphere for spatial relationships, creativity, negative emotion
What happened in studies with split brain patients?
Info in left visual field, people couldn’t verbally ID object or pick it out with right hand, but could with left hand
4 Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex
Forebrain
- Frontal Lobe
- Parietal Lobe
- Occipital Lobe
- Temporal Lobe
Role of the Frontal Lobe
- Motor behaviour
- Expressive language
- Higher-level cognitive functions
4 Areas of the Frontal Lobe
Forebrain
- Primary motor cortex
- Premotor cortex
- Broca’s area
- Prefrontal cortex
Role of the Primary Motor Cortex
Part of the Pyramidal Motor System (pathway of neurons from motor cortex to brain stem and spinal cord. Mediates intricate movement, and speed/strength of movement)
Role in the control of voluntary movement
Lesions may produce weakness, paralysis, apraxia
Role of Premotor Cortex
Forebrain
Location: anterior to primary motor cortex
Active during motor actions, or when observing people do motor actions
Role of Broca’s Area
Forebrain
A primary language area, within the left frontal lobe
Broca’s Aphasia: deficits in production of written and spoken language
* slow, simple speech
* difficulty repeating phrases
* anomia
Role of the Prefrontal Cortex
Forebrain
High order cog functions:
* planning
* judgement
* problem solving
* memory (WM & prospective memory)
* regulate emotion & motor responses
Damage:
* Dorsolateral Prefrontal Area: ‘Dysexecutive syndrome’ (impaired problem solving, planning, abstract thinking, highly distracticle, apathetic)
* Medial Frontal:” pseudodepression
* Pseudopsychopathy
Temporal Lobe: 2 main roles
- Auditory input
- Long-term memory
2 areas of the Temporal Lobe
- Auditory Cortex
- Wernicke’s area
Role of Auditory Cortex
Temporal Lobe
Mediation of auditory input
Damage:
* auditory agnosia (can’t distinguish sound)
* auditory hallucinations
Role of Wernicke’s Area
Temporal Lobe
Location: left temporal lobe
Role: language comprehension
Damage:
* Wernicke’s Aphasia: trouble understanding language. they produce fluent speech but it is nonsensical. Anomia, difficulty w/ repetition
What is Conduction Aphasia? What causes it?
Temporal Lobe
What? comprehends language and speaks fluently, but has anomia and difficulties repeating what has been heard
Cause: lesions in the arcuate fasciculus (connects Broca and Wernickes)
What may cause deja vu?
Temporal lobe
Electrical stimulation of certain parts of the right temporal lobe
Medial Temporal Lobe and Memory
H.M. example
Tumors here may affect verbal or nonverbal memory
H.M had a bilateral medial temporal lobectomy to treat epilepsy
ST memory and pre-surgery memory were intact
Couldn’t acquire new information, or recall info retained shortly before the surgery
Parietal Lobe & the Somatosensory Cortex Role
-
Role:
* process somatosensory input and integrates it w/ other info
Parietal Lobe Damage: 3 types of Somatosensory Agnosia
Somatosensory Agnosia:
* tactile agnosia: can’t ID objects by touch
* asomatognosia: can’t recognize own body parts
* anosognosia: can’t recognize own symptoms
Parietal Lobe Damage: Contralateral Neglect
Loss of knowledge of or interest in one side of the body or things in the environment
Location: right parietal lobe
Parietal Lobe Damage: 3 types of Apraxia
Apraxia
* can’t do purposeful movement.
* Ideomotor Apraxia: can’t carry out request to do an action, but can do it spontaneously
* Constructional Apraxia: can’t draw or copy simple figures or arrange blocks in pattern
Parietal Lobe Damage: Gerstmann’s Syndrome
Cause: lesions in left hemisphere
Impact:
* Agraphia: difficulties w/ writing
* Acalculia: difficulties w/ math
* Finger agnosia: can’t recognize our fingers
* Left-right disorientation
Occiptal Lobe & the Visual Cortex
Role: process visual info
Damage:
* Total damage = complete blindness
* Less extensive = blind spots, after-images, loss of depth perception, alexia (can’t recognize printed words), visual agnosia (can’t recognize familiar objects)
What is Prosopagnosia and what causes it?
Occipital Lobe
What? inability to recognize familiar faces
Cause: damage that affects junction of occipital/temporal/parietal lobes
What are the 3 Components of Emotions?
Physiological Foundations of Behaviour
- Autonomic arousal
- Feelings
- Behaviour
Ekman’s 6 Primary Emotions
Physiological Foundations
- Happiness
- Sadness
- Fear
- Anger
- Disgust
- Surprise
Papez’s role in the study of emotions
Physiological foundations
One of the first to research brain mechanisms underlying emotions
Neural circuit that mediates experience and expression of emotions
Circuit = hippocampus, mammillary bodies, anterior thalamic nuclei of thalamus, cingulate gyrus
Ended up being more involved w/ memory than emotion
3 Brain areas involved in emotion
Physiological foundations
- Hypothalamus: physical expression of emotion through ANS and pituitary
- Amygdala: attach emotional content to memory, esp. fear & anxiety, mediate aggression, recognize fear in others
- Cerebral Cortex: left linked to positive emotions; damage = depression, anxiety. Right linked to negative emotions; damage = indifference
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
Physiological Foundations
Emotions happen when an autonomic response occurs to stimuli, which is then interpreted as an emotion
e.g. I’m trembling, so I must be scared.
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
Physiological Foundations
Stimulus triggers thalamus to engage SNS and cerebral cortex
Arousal and emotional experience occur together
Thinks all emotions have same physiological response