Social Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
What is social psychology?
A
The branch of psychology that studies the effects of social variables and cognitions on individual behaviour and social interactions
2
Q
What is the social context?
A
The combination of
1. real, imagined, or symbolic presence of people
2. the activities and interactions among people
3. the setting in which behaviour occurs
4. the expectations and social norms governing behaviour in that setting
3
Q
The obedience research carried out by Milgram underscores the ______
A
power of social situations to control human behaviour
4
Q
Who conducted the obedience research?
A
Milgram
5
Q
We do not respond to the objective reality, but to the _______
A
personal construction of a subjective social reality
6
Q
In unfamiliar situations, we will take ___ of what is _______ and what to do from those around us
A
cues; appropriate and acceptable behaviour
7
Q
The power of situations to dominate our personalities and override our history of learning, values and beliefs is ________ when we are in ________
A
greatest; new settings
8
Q
We usually _____ our behaviour to the _____ of the social situation, and in new or ambiguous situations, we _____________ in that setting
A
adapt; demands; take our cues from the behaviour of others
9
Q
What is situationism?
A
The view that environmental conditions may influence people’s behaviour as much as or more than their personal dispositions do under some circumstances
10
Q
What is dispositionism?
A
A psychological orientation that focuses primarily on the inner characteristics of individuals, such as personality dispositions, values, character, and genetic makeup
11
Q
Usually, our behaviour is due to an ________ dispositional tendencies and situational forces
A
interaction
12
Q
The responses most people make in social settings depend heavily on 2 factors:
A
- The social roles they play
- Social norms of the group
13
Q
What is a social role?
A
A socially defined pattern of behaviour that is expected of persons in a given setting or group
14
Q
What are social norms?
A
A group’s expectations regarding what is appropriate and acceptable for its members’ attitudes and behaviours
15
Q
Adjustment to a group typically involves discovering its _________
A
social norms
16
Q
Individuals experience adjustment to a group in 2 ways:
A
- First noticing the uniformities and regularities in certain behaviours
- Observing the negative consequences when someone violates a social norm
17
Q
What is a script?
A
Knowledge about the sequence of events and actions that is expected in a particular setting
18
Q
What is the chameleon effect?
A
The tendency to mimic other people, named after the animal that changes its skin colour to fit into its varied environments
19
Q
What is the Asch effect?
A
A form of conformity in which a group majority influences individual judgments of unambiguous stimuli, as with line judgments
20
Q
What is conformity?
A
The tendency for people to adopt the behaviours, attitudes, and opinions of other members of a group
21
Q
What are the conditions that researchers have found to affect conformity? (8 conditions)
A
- Unanimity of the majority
- Size of the group (at least 3 people in the group)
- Making a public commitment rather than a private one (i.e. can be heard)
- Ambiguity/difficult task (more prone to self-doubt)
- Makeup of the majority (higher status/competence of others leads to higher conformity)
- Self-esteem
- Power of an ally
- Independents (able to resist and maintain independence)
22
Q
In the Asch effect, people conform because of __________, wanting to be accepted, approved, liked, and not rejected by others
A
normative influences
23
Q
Another reason why people conform is due to ________, wanting to be correct and to understand the correct way to act in any given situation
A
informational influences
24
Q
What is anticonformity?
A
A deliberate rejection of group norms
25
What did the experiment by Sherif demonstrate?
How social influence can lead to internalisation of a new norm
26
What is the autokinetic effect?
The perceived motion of a stationary dot of light in a totally dark room
Used by Muzafir Sherif to study the formation of group norms
27
Once norms are established in a group, they tend to ______ themselves
perpetuate
28
When you yield into erroneous judgment, your conformity is seen as changes in the _______ dedicated to ____ and _________
brain's cortex; vision; spatial awareness
29
If you made independent judgements that went against the group, your brain lit up in areas associated with ___________, the _______ and related regions
This means that resistance creates an ___________ for those who maintain their independence
emotional salience; right amygdala
Emotional burden
30
What is the illusion of personal invulnerability?
A "not me" syndrome
Assuming that others may be susceptible to situational forces but they can and will resist such forces
31
What is social neuroscience?
An area of research that uses methodologies from brain sciences to investigate various types of social behaviour, such as stereotyping in prejudice, attitudes, self-control and emotional regulation
32
What is groupthink?
The term for the poor judgments and bad decisions made by members of groups that are overly influenced by perceived group consensus or the leader's point of view
33
What are the 5 conditions likely to promote groupthink?
1. Directive leadership, a dominant leader
2. High group cohesiveness with absence of dissenting views
3. Lack of norms requiring methodical procedures for evidence collection/evaluation
4. Homogeneity of members' social background and ideology
5. High stress from external threats with low hope of a better solution that that of the group leader
34
What is cohesiveness?
Solidarity, loyalty, and a sense of group membership
35
Milgram's Obedience to Authority studies' results is among the most _______ is all the social sciences
generalizable
36
What are heroes?
People whose actions help others in emergencies or challenge unjust or corrupt systems, doing so without concern for reward or likely negative consequences for them by acting in deviant ways
37
What is heroism?
A voluntary act on behalf of others in need, or in defense of a moral cause, with potential personal risk or cost, and without expectation of tangible award
38
The top 4 conditions that people tend to be obedient under are:
1. Peer modelling obedience
2. Remote victim, promoting sense of anonymity
3. Teacher was under direct surveillance of the authority figure so that he was aware of the authority's presence
4. When the authority figure had higher status relative to the Teacher
39
The obedience effect results from _________ variables and not _________ variables
situational; personality
40
What is the bystander intervention problem?
Laboratory and field study analogues of the difficulties faced by bystanders in real emergency situations
41
The best predictor of bystander intervention was the situational variable of ___________
group size
42
What is diffusion of responsibility?
Dilution or weakening of each group member's obligation to act when responsibility is perceived to be shared with all group members or accepted by the leader
43
Hudson found that helpers more often had some ______ training in dealing with emergency situations
medical/police/first-aid/CPR
44
What will increase your chances of getting help? (3 things)
1. Ask for help
2. Reduce the ambiguity of the situation
- clearly explain the problem and what should be done
3. Identify specific individuals
- so they do not diffuse responsibility with others present
45
What is the in-group?
The group with which an individual identifies
46
What is the out-group?
Those outside the group with which an individual identifies
47
In the Asch studies, what produced a decrease in conformity?
The majority was not unanimous in its judgment
48
In Milgram's original study, about what proportion of the "teacher-subjects" gave the maximum shock?
2/3rds
49
T or F: although conformity is a social phenomenon, brain regions that are activated when someone conforms are different from those brain regions activated by resisting and being independent
True
50
What is the main difference between altruistic actions and heroic actions?
Higher costs/risks in heroism
51
What consequences does attempting to understand human behaviour in terms of situational causes have for the personal responsibility of the actors involved?
It does not change personal responsibility and guilt, only severity of sentence
52
What is social reality?
An individual's subjective interpretation of other people and of one's relationships with them
53
The judgments we make about others depend not only on their ______ but also on our _______ of their actions within a ________
behaviour; interpretation; social context
54
Most good relationships can be seen as an exchange of _____
benefits
55
What is the reward theory of attraction?
A social learning view that predicts we like best those who give us maximum rewards at minimum cost
56
What are the 4 especially powerful sources of reward that predict interpersonal attraction?
1. Proximity
2. Similarity
3. Self-disclosure
4. Physical attraction
P2S2 (PS2?)
57
______ sightings best predict our ______ relationships
Frequent; closest
58
What is the principle of proximity?
The notion that people at work will make more friends among those who are nearby -- with whom they have the most contact
59
What does proximity mean?
Nearness
60
Increased ______ often increases people's liking for each other
contact
61
In sharing common interests, 2 people effectively exchange _______ that _____ each other for their tastes and attitudes
compliments; reward
62
What is the similarity principle?
The notion that people are attracted to those who are most similar to themselves on significant dimensions
63
Most people find marriage partners of the same _____
age, race, social status, attitudes, values
64
What is attitude realignment?
When someone gradually shifts views on various issues to be more closely aligned with those of someone else
65
What is self-disclosure?
The sharing of personal information and feelings with another person as part of the process of developing trust
66
Attractive children are judged as ______ and more ______ than their peers
happier; competent
67
Babies gaze longer at pictures of _______ faces than _______ faces
normal; distorted
68
Many studies show that __________ is the characteristic that overwhelms everything else as the best predictor of how well a person would be liked after a first meeting
physical attractiveness
69
The principle of attractiveness applies _______ to same-sex and opposite-sex relationships
equally
70
_____ seem to be more influenced by looks than are _____
men; women
71
People actually consider a composite of ______ features to be the most attractive
average
72
Extreme attraction can also be a liability because they are perceived as more ____ and ____
vain; materialistic
73
What is the matching hypothesis?
The prediction that most people will find friends and mates that are perceived to be of about their same level of attractiveness
74
What is expectancy-value theory?
A social psychology theory that states how people decide whether to pursue a relationship by weighing the potential value of the relationship against their expectation of success in establishing the relationship
75
We tend to seek a match that is _____ with our ______
harmonious; self-definition
76
What are the 2 factors that need to be taken into account for establishing social relationship?
1. Self-worth (what people think of themselves)
2. Social desirability (popularity)
77
In general, participants tend to initiate contact with those having __________ and __________
similar self-worth; social desirability
78
People with _________ of themselves tend to establish relationships with people who share their views but devalue them
low self-worth
79
What is the cognitive dissonance theory?
Cognitive dissonance is a highly motivating state in which people have conflicting cognitions, especially when their voluntary actions conflict with their attitudes or values, that produce psychological discomfort
80
What theory did Leon Festinger make?
Cognitive dissonance theory
81
Cognitive dissonance theory was made by ________
Leon Festinger
82
Reward theory of attraction was made by _______
Elliot Aronson
83
What theory did Elliot Aronson make?
Reward theory of attraction
84
According to cognitive dissonance theory, people are _________ to avoid the uncomfortable state of dissonance
motivated
85
What are the 2 ways to reduce dissonance?
1. Change one's behaviour
2. Change one's cognition (eg by rationalizing the experience and developing a stronger loyalty to the organisation)
86
Why does cognitive dissonance theory come about?
People don't like to see themselves as being foolish or inconsistent
So to explain their own behaviour to themselves (and others), people are motivated to change their attitudes, which are private, rather than their overt (openly) behaviour, which is public
Changing their overt behaviour threatens their self-esteem
87
In Japan, people have a _______ to maintain high self-esteem than do North Americans
So cognitive dissonance was found to have _________ among Japanese
lesser need; less power to change attitudes
(perhaps because collectivist cultures socialise people to value the needs of the group before the desires of the individual so self-worth isn't that impt?)
88
People become more _______ to the cause as time goes on to __________
committed; justify their efforts
89
Cognitive dissonance theory predicts that people are ________ to those for whom they believe they have suffered _________
attracted; voluntarily
90
People initiate social relationships because they expect a ______ or to _______
reward; avoid a feared consequence
91
What is romantic love?
A temporary and highly emotional condition based on infatuation and sexual desire
92
What is the triangular theory of love?
Developed by Robert Sternberg, a theory that describes various kinds of love in terms of three components:
1. Passion (erotic attraction)
2. Intimacy (sharing feelings and confidences)
3. Commitment (dedication to putting this relationship first in one's life)
93
Romantic love is high on _______ and ______ but low on _______
passion; intimacy; commitment
94
Liking and friendship are characterised by ______ but not by _____ and _____
intimacy; passion; commitment
95
Infatuation has a high level of _______, but it has not developed into ______ or a _________ relationship
passion; intimacy; committed
96
Complete love (consummate love) involves ________
all three: passion, intimacy, commitment
97
Companionate love follows the ________ kind with a dimming of the _______ but often with greater ______ and _______
consummate; passion; intimacy; commitment
98
For a relationship to stay healthy and to thrive, both partners must see it as _______ and ______
rewarding; equitable
99
When viewing facial images of their intensely loved, long-term partner, brain areas activated were in parts of the brain associated with the ____________, ___________ (similar to activation in new love) and there was added ___________ (associated with maternal attachment and pair bonding)
dopamine-rich reward; basal ganglia system; cerebral arousal
100
The FAE is best thought of as a ____ rather than a mistake since it could be correct
bias
101
What is attributional charity?
Always trying first to find a situational explanation for strange or unusual behaviour of others before blaming them with dispositional explanations
102
What is the self-serving bias?
An attributional pattern in which one takes credit for success (attribute to internal factors) but denies responsibility for failure (attribute to external factors)
103
Self-serving biases are rooted in the need for ____, as preference for interpretations that _____ and cast our actions in the ______
self-esteem; save face; best possible light
104
What are the 2 universal dimensions of human social cognition?
1. Liking (assessed as warmth and trustworthiness)
2. Respecting (assessed as competence and efficiency)
105
The warmth dimension is captured in traits that are related to perceived _______, including friendliness, helpfulness, sincerity, trustworthiness and morality
By contrast the competence dimension reflects those traits that are related to perceived _________, intelligence, skill, creativity, efficacy
intent; ability
106
What is genocide?
The systematic extermination of a group of people because of their racial or ethnic origins
107
What is prejudice?
A negative attitude toward an individual based solely on his or her membership in a particular group or category, often without any direct evidence
108
While prejudice is an ______, discrimination is a _______
attitude; behaviour
109
What is discrimination?
Discrimination can be defined as a negative action taken against an individual as a result of his or her group or categorical membership
It is the behaviour that prejudice generates
110
What are 5 causes of prejudice? (CDESM)
1. Conformity to social norms
2. Dissimilarity and social norms
3. Economic competition
4. Scapegoating
5. Media stereotyping
111
What is social distance?
The perceived difference or similarity between oneself and another person
112
Social distance makes it less like for us to view individuals as _________, and the inequality can translate into _________, making it easier for us to treat members of an out-group with _________
social equals; inferiority; contempt
113
What is scapegoating?
Blaming an innocent person or group for one's own troubles and then discriminating against or abusing them
114
What is the "hostile imagination" mentality?
When propaganda creates an enemy that is hated by the general populace, and then feared enough to want to destroy them
115
Scapegoating works most readily when the object of scorn is __________
readily identifiable
116
Behavioural discrimination itself can _______ or ______ prejudiced attitudes
cause; reinforce
117
Humans are __________ creatures as much as __________ ones, so we endlessly justify our decisions and behaviours to make them appear reasonable
rationalising; rational
118
The most powerful psychological process underlying prejudice, discrimination and intergroup violence is __________
dehumanisation
119
What is dehumanisation?
The psychological process of thinking about certain other people or groups as less than human, like feared or hated animals
120
Thinking about others as less than human means that one can suspend ___________, and other processes that constrain hate and violence
moral reasoning, empathy, compassion
121
Why are informational approaches so ineffective for combating prejudice?
Selective exposure
We avoid information that conflicts with our view of the world
122
What are 3 ways to attack the prejudices of people who do not want to listen to another viewpoint?
1. Use of new role models (to prevent prejudice than to cure it)
2. Equal status contact
3. New legislation
- Jigsaw Classroom
- rules requiring equal status contact
123
What is stereotype threat?
The negative effect on performance (both intellectual and athletic tasks) that arises when an individual becomes aware that members of his or her group are expected to perform poorly in that domain
124
What is stereotype lift?
The enhanced performance of a reverse stereotype, that makes you believe you are superior to another group on any dimension
eg Whites take a test that they know Blacks have a negative stereotype in, they get a psychological edge from being on the upside of the negative stereotype and perform better
125
What is stereotype susceptibility?
When people feel positively labelled with a stereotype and so, perform better
126
Reward theory, expectancy-value theory, cognitive dissonance theory, and attribution theory all tell us that we respond not just to situations but to
our cognitive interpretations
127
What is system power?
Influences on behaviour that come from top-down sources in the form of creating and maintaining various situations that in turn have an impact on actions of individuals in those behavioural contexts
128
Systems shape ______, which in turn affect ______
situations; behaviour
129
What is the Stanford Prison Experiment?
A classic study of institutional power in directing normal, healthy college student volunteers playing randomly assigned roles of prisoners and guards to behave contrary to their dispositional tendencies, as cruel guards or pathological prisoners
130
What is the Abu Ghraib Prison?
A prison in Iraq made famous by revelation of photos taken by Army Reserve MP guards in the acts of humiliating and torturing prisoners
131
Situations are created by _______
systems
132
Systems provide the ________ that allow situations to operate as they do
institutional support, authority, and resources
133
What is ideology?
Ideology is a slogan or proposition that usually legitimizes whatever means are necessary to attain an ultimate goal
134
What is the public health model?
It recognises individual affliction and illness as the consequence of a vector of disease in society
135
What is the Schlesinger Report?
A report issued by one of the official investigations of the Abu Ghraib Prison abuses, headed by James Schlesinger, former Secretary of Defense
It highlighted the social psychological factors that contributed to creating an abusive environment
136
What is bullying?
The act of systemically and chronically inflicting physical hurt and/or psychological distress others, in school classrooms or work settings, by one or more others, for personal, sadistic pleasure
It qualifies as a form of ordinary or everyday evil
137
What are the most frequently experienced types of bullying?
1. Physical (including stealing, breaking belongings, extorting money)
2. Verbal (includes hostile gestures like making faces and spitting)
3. Relational (exclusion, gossiping, spreading rumours, ostracizing, scapegoating, silent treatment)
4. Cyberbullying
5. Harassment
138
Those with ______ status have no need to bully anyone and those with _____ status don't have the social power to pull off being aggressive
highest; lowest
139
What are 3 subtle forms of influence that can lead to persuasion? (SAP(PA))
1. Social validation
2. Authority
3. The Poison Parasite Argument
