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Intro To Psych HP1000 > Cognition > Flashcards

Cognition Flashcards

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1
Q

How are computers used to study how we think? (3)

A
  1. In brain imaging studies
  2. Computer simulations that attempt to model human thought processes
  3. Adopted the computer as a metaphor for the brain, as a processor of information
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2
Q

What is thinking?

A

Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create and manipulate mental representations such as concepts, images, schemas and scripts

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3
Q

The cognitive perspective focuses on _______ as the primary key to human behaviour

A

mental processes

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4
Q

What is cognition?

A

Information processing in the brain

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5
Q

What is deja vu?

A

Strange sense that your present experience matches a previous experience, even though you cannot retrieve the explicit memory

(The odd feeling of recognition you get when you visit a new place)

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6
Q

What does deja vu tell us?

A

The brain has the ability to treat new stimuli as instances of familiar categories, even if the stimuli are slightly different from anything it has encountered before

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7
Q

What is the basic attribute of thinking organisms?

A

The ability to assimilate experiences, objects, or ideas into familiar mental categories

and take the same action toward them or give them the same label

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8
Q

What are concepts?

A

Mental groupings of similar objects, ideas or experiences

Can be objects (‘food’, ‘birds’) properties (‘red’, ‘large’), abstractions (‘truth’, ‘love’), relations (‘smarter than’), procedures or intentions

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9
Q

The 2 types of concepts are

A

Natural and artificial

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10
Q

What are natural concepts?

A

Imprecise mental representations of objects and events drawn from our direct everyday experience in the world

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11
Q

What is a prototype?

A

An ideal or most representative example of a conceptual category

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12
Q

What is another name for natural concepts?

A

Fuzzy concepts

because of their imprecision

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13
Q

What are artificial concepts?

A

Concepts defined by a set of rules or characteristics

Represent precisely defined ideas or abstractions rather than actual objects in the real world

such as word definitions and mathematical formalas

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14
Q

What are concept hierarchies?

A

Levels of concepts, from most general to most specific, in which a more general level includes more specific concepts

Eg concept of “animal” includes “dog”, “giraffe” and “butterfly”

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15
Q

The prototype approach suggests that a concept is classified as a member of the category if

A

it is similar to an ideal or most representative example of the category

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16
Q

What is common sense?

A

Thinking based on experience rather than on logic

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17
Q

What is a cognitive map?

A

A cognitive representation (mental image) of physical space

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18
Q

What are 2 broad conclusions that have come from trying to identify brain regions that become alive during various mental tasks?

A
  1. Thinking is an activity involving widely distributed areas of the brain — not just a single “thinking centre”
  2. Neuroscientists now see the brain as a community of highly specialised modules, each of which deals with different components of thought
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19
Q

Visual imagery drawn from memory activates the ________ and auditory memories engage the _______

A

visual cortex; auditory cortex

(the brain generate many images used in thought with the same circuitry it uses for sensation)

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20
Q

The ________ of the brain play an especially important role in coordinating mental activity as we make decisions and solve problems

A

frontal lobes

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21
Q

To make decisions and solve problems, the ________ performs 3 different tasks:

A

prefrontal cortex (in the frontal lobes, just above the eyes)

  1. keeping track of the episode (the situation in which we find ourselves)
  2. understanding the context (the meaning of the situation)
  3. responding to a specific stimulus in the situation
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22
Q

What is intuition?

A

The ability to make judgments without consciously reasoning

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23
Q

Intuition (emotional component of thinking) involves the __________

A

prefrontal cortex

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24
Q

How do we have intuition?

A

The prefrontal cortex unconsciously factors emotional “hunches” into our decisions in the form of information about past rewards and punishment

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25
Q

Individuals with severe damage to the prefrontal cortex may display ________ or have impairments in ________

A

little emotion/response to a particular stimulus; intuition

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26
Q

Sometimes our intuition is not always right because our quick intuitive judgments are merely our ________

A

prejudices and biases

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27
Q

Daniel Kahneman suggests that

A

intuition is an evolutionary invention that helped our ancestors make snap judgments in difficult and dangerous situations

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28
Q

The accuracy of our intuition may depend on the _______ in which we use it

A

context

Usually, higher rate of success in natural concepts eg personality

But lower rate of success in artificial concepts like statistical or numerical judgments

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29
Q

Our intuition may be a better guide than an incomplete attempt at logical analysis in situations involving ________ or ________

A

time pressures; distractions

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30
Q

With regards to expertise vs intuition, researchers theorize that

A

when a person has the expertise necessary to analyze a situation, intuition may impede clear thinking

in the absence of experience, though, intuition trumps a clumsy attempt at analysis

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31
Q

It is important to recognise when we are making intuitive judgments and to consider the ______, the _______ and our ______ in that area

A

context; time available; expertise

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32
Q

What are schemas?

A

Clusters of related concepts that provide general conceptual framework for thinking about objects, events, ideas, emotions

They provide context and expectations about the features likely to be found when you encounter familiar people, situations, images and ideas

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33
Q

What is the function of a schema?

A

They enable us to make inferences about missing information, adding meaning to statements

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34
Q

What is a script?

A

A cluster of knowledge about sequences of interrelated, specific events and actions expected to occur in a certain way in particular settings

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35
Q

What is another name for script?

A

Event schema

(since scripts are schemas that help us decide what to expect or how to behave in specific circumstances)

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36
Q

Give an example of a concept hierarchy

A

Animal, mammal, dog, cocker spaniel

Anything like this works

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37
Q

Give an example of a script

A

Knowing how to check out a book at the library is an example of a script. So is any other procedure, such as knowing how to study for a test or how to boil an egg

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38
Q

What are advantages of departing from logic? (6)

A
  1. Fantasize
  2. Daydream
  3. Act creatively
  4. React unconsciously
  5. Respond emotionally
  6. Generate new ideas
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39
Q

What are attributes that “good thinkers” possess? (4)

A
  1. Capable of careful reasoning
  2. Make use of effective thinking strategies
  3. Avoid ineffective thinking strategies
  4. Avoid misleading thinking strategies
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40
Q

Good thinkers not only have a repertoire of effective strategies, called ___________, they also know how to avoid common impediments to ____________

A

algorithms and heuristics; problem solving and decision making

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41
Q

What are characteristics of effective problem solvers? (4)

A
  1. Possess the requisite knowledge for solving the problems they face
  2. Skilled at identifying the problem
  3. Skilled at selecting a strategy
  4. Applying the most common algorithms and heuristic strategies
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42
Q

In identifying the problem, a good problem solver

A

learns to consider all relevant possibilities without leaping to conclusions prematurely

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43
Q

What are 3 types of problem solving strategies?

A
  1. Trial and error
    - only works for simple problems
  2. Algorithm
    - special problem-solving procedure/formula that guarantees a correct outcome
  3. Heuristic
    - simple “rule of thumb” used as a cognitive shortcut, trying things based on what has worked before for a similar situation
    - does not guarantee a correct solution because it is not tailor-made to the current problem
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44
Q

What are algorithms?

A

Problem-solving procedures or formulas that guarantee a correct outcome, if correctly applied

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45
Q

What are some problems that algorithms cannot solve? (3)

A
  1. Problems involving subjective values
  2. Problems involving too many unknowns
  3. Problems that are just too complex for a formula
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46
Q

What are heuristics?

A

Cognitive strategies or “rules of thumb” used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks.

Unlike algorithms, heuristics do not guarantee a correct solution

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47
Q

What are 3 useful heuristic strategies?

A
  1. Working backward
    - good for problems in which the goal is clearly specified
  2. Searching for analogies
    - if a new problem is similar to one you have faced before
  3. Breaking a big problem into smaller problems (subgoals)
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48
Q

What are 3 obstacles to problem solving?

A
  1. Mental set
  2. Functional fixedness
  3. Self-imposed limitations
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49
Q

What is a mental set?

A

The tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used for a previous problem

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50
Q

What problem-solving strategy did the Wright brothers use to solve the challenge of powered human flight?

A

Breaking the problem into its component parts

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51
Q

What is functional fixedness?

A

The inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose; a form of mental set

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52
Q

What is the common element shared by all 3 heuristic strategies?

A

Approaching the problem from a different perspective

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53
Q

What are self-imposed limitations?

A

Using necessary restrictions, not thinking “outside the box

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54
Q

What are some other obstacles to problem solving? (6)

A
  1. Lack of specific knowledge required by the problem
  2. Lack of interest
  3. Low self-esteem
  4. Fatigue
  5. Drugs (even legal ones)
  6. Arousal and its accompanying stress
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55
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A

When our behaviours (eg problem-solving efforts) draw on past experience to make predictions about future rewards or punishments

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56
Q

Many of the “flaws” in our reasoning abilities caused by our use of heuristics are the by-product of __________

A

an adaptive strategy

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57
Q

What are biases in judging and making decisions? (6)

A
  1. Confirmation bias
  2. Hindsight bias
  3. Anchoring bias
  4. Representative bias
  5. Availability bias
  6. Tyranny of choice
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58
Q

What is confirmation bias?

A

A way of thinking that ignores or overlooks information that disagrees with people’s beliefs, only paying attention to events that confirm their beliefs

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59
Q

What is the hindsight bias?

A

The tendency, after learning about a event, to “second guess” or belief that one could have predicted the event in advance

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60
Q

What is another name for the hindsight bias?

A

I-knew-it-all-along effect

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61
Q

What is the problem of hindsight bias?

A

It impedes our ability to learn from our mistakes

We ignore an opportunity to improve our judgment next time by recognising our errors this time

It increases our chances of repeating the same mistake

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62
Q

What is anchoring bias?

A

A faulty heuristic caused by basing (anchoring) an estimate on a completely irrelevant quantity

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63
Q

What is representative bias?

A

A faulty heuristics strategy based on the presumption that, once people or events are categorised, they share all the features of other members in that category

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64
Q

Why do people have representative bias?

A

It simplifies the task of social judgment

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65
Q

What is the base rate information?

A

The probability of a characteristic occurring in the general population

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66
Q

What is availability bias?

A

A faulty heuristic strategy that estimates probabilities based on the availability of vivid mental images of the event

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67
Q

What is the tyranny of choice?

A

The impairment of effective decision making when confronted with an overwhelming number of choices

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68
Q

What is the antidote to the tyranny of choice?

A

Satisficing (taking the “good enough”) instead of maximising

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69
Q

What is analysis paralysis?

A

The inability to make a decision due to overthinking a problem

70
Q

What is creativity?

A

A mental process that produces novel responses that contribute to the solutions of problems

71
Q

What is a genius?

A

Someone whose insight and creativity are greater than those of ordinary people

72
Q

What is Robert Weisberg’s definition of a genius?

A

Good problem solver who also possess certain helpful but entirely human characteristics

73
Q

What is an expert?

A

Individuals who possess well-organised funds of knowledge, including the effective problem-solving strategies, in a field

74
Q

What are factors that can suppress creative flow? (2)

A
  1. Time pressures
  2. Overly critical authority figure
75
Q

What are aptitudes?

A

Innate potentialities (as contrasted with abilities acquired by learning)

76
Q

What are common personality traits that creative people usually possess? (5)

A
  1. Independence
  2. Intense interest in a problem
  3. Willingness to restructure the problem
  4. Preference for complexity
  5. A need for stimulating interaction
77
Q

What are the 2 things needed to become a creative genius?

A
  1. Well- developed knowledge (often growing out of aptitude) in the field in which the creative contribution will be made
  2. Certain personal characteristics
78
Q

What are savants?

A

People who have a highly developed skill despite their mental handicaps

79
Q

What is intelligence?

A

The mental capacity to acquire knowledge, reason, and solve problems effectively

80
Q

What is a hypothetical construct?

A

A characteristic that is not directly observable or quantifiably measured, but must be inferred from behaviour

81
Q

The idea of measuring intelligence by testing came from ______

A

France

82
Q

The founders of intelligence testing are ________ and ________

A

Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon

83
Q

People began measuring intelligence through tests in _______

A

1904

84
Q

The purpose of the Binet-Simon approach was to

A

determine which children needed remedial help

85
Q

Four important features of the Binet-Simon approach were

A
  1. They interpret scores as an estimate of current performance and not as a measure of innate intelligence
  2. They wanted test scores used to identify children who needed special help, not merely to categorize or label them as bright or dull
  3. They emphasised that training and opportunity could affect intelligence and wanted to pinpoint areas of performance in which special education could help certain children identified by their test
  4. They constructed the test empirically - based on how children were observed to perform - rather than tying the test to a particular theory of intelligence
86
Q

What is mental age (MA)?

A

The average age at which normal (average) individuals achieve a particular score

87
Q

What is chronological age (CA)?

A

The number of years since the individual’s birth

88
Q

Who adapted the Binet-Simon test into the Stanford-Binet intelligence scale?

A

Lewis Terman

89
Q

__________ led to mass intelligence testing in the U.S.

A

World War I

90
Q

Because it had to be administered ___________, the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale was not as ___________ as other intelligence tests

A

individually; economical

91
Q

How was the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale better than other intelligence tests? (2)

A
  1. Better suited for spotting learning problems
  2. Was designed for both children and adults
92
Q

What is the intelligence quotient (IQ)?

A

A numerical score on an intelligence test, originally computed by dividing the person’s mental age by chronological age and multiplying by 1000

MA/CA * 100

93
Q

Terman believed that intelligence is largely _______ and _______

A

innate; measurable

94
Q

The message was that an IQ score reflected something ________ and ________ about people

A

fundamental; unchanging

95
Q

Problem with the IQ formula: gains in mental age scores usually _______ as people develop mentally in _______

A

level off; different directions

96
Q

Most standardised tests of intelligence have a distribution of scores that __________

A

follows the normal curve/is normally distributed

97
Q

What is the normal distribution?

A

A bell-shaped curve describing the spread of a characteristic throughout a population

98
Q

What is the normal range of IQ scores?

A

90-110

Includes about 50% of the population

99
Q

Mental retardation is defined (at least partially) as having an IQ _________, while giftedness is defined as having an IQ _________

A

below 70; above 130

100
Q

What is the Flynn effect?

A

The average IQ score is gradually increasing (at about 3 points per decade), ever since the tests were invented

This means a person in the average range in olden times might be considered to have mental retardation today

101
Q

What are 4 reasons for the Flynn effect?

A
  1. Better test-taking skills
  2. Greater complexity and mental stimulation in society (eg movies/games/computers/phones)
  3. More schooling
  4. Better nutrition
102
Q

The Flynn effect may be slowing down in _________ but is still prominent in ________

A

developed countries; lesser-developed countries

103
Q

The Flynn effect (average rise in IQ score) is generally a result of significant increases in the ___________, but little or no increase in the ___________ of scores

A

lower-end scores; upper range

104
Q

The Flynn effect may be a mark of better ______ in access to education, nutrition and cognitive stimulation

A

equality

105
Q

The WAIS, WISC and WPPSI are tests of ________ that were created by ________

A

intelligence; David Wechsler

106
Q

_________ is developing tests that place less emphasis on a single IQ number and more on classifying people in ways that suggest helping strategies

A

Jack Naglieri

107
Q

According to IQ standards, mental retardation and giftedness occupy _____ of the population _____

A

2%, each

108
Q

According to the American Association of Mental Retardation, mental retardation involves

A

significantly subaverage intellectual functioning that becomes apparent before age 18

It also involves limitations in at least 2 of the following areas:
- communication
- self-care
- home living
- social skills
- community use
- self-direction
- health and safety
- functional academics
- leisure and work

109
Q

Down syndrome is _______

A

genetic

110
Q

3 environmental causes of mental retardation are

A

Fetal alcohol syndrome
- maternal abuse of alcohol during pregnancy
- causes brain damage before birth

Postnatal accidents
- damage cognitive regions of the brain

Conditions of deprivation or neglect
- that fail to give the developing child experiences needed for intellectual growth

111
Q

Some preventive strategies for mental retardation are (4)

A
  1. Genetic counselling
  2. Pregnancy care services
  3. Education of new parents
  4. Special diets (in some cases)
112
Q

In ______, _______ began an extensive project to study ______ individuals

A

1921; Lewis Terman; gifted

113
Q

What are findings of Lewis Terman’s study of gifted kids?

A

They were
1. socially well-adjusted
2. more resistant to mental illness
3. above average in weight, height and physical attractiveness
4. more likely to be skilled leaders

114
Q

What is savant syndrome?

A

A syndrome found in individuals having a remarkable talent even though they are mentally slow in other domains

115
Q

What are psychometrics?

A

An area of psychology that specialises in mental testing to measure intelligence

116
Q

The concept of general intelligence (denoted by the symbol “g”) was proposed by _________

A

Charles Spearman

117
Q

Charles Spearman was best known for his work suggesting that intelligence is _________

A

a general ability/single factor

118
Q

What is the g factor?

A

A general ability as the main factor underlying all intelligent mental activity

119
Q

The concept that general intelligence can be broken down into crystallized and fluid intelligence was proposed by _________

A

Raymond Cattell

120
Q

Raymond Cattel determined that general intelligence can be broken down into _______ and _______ intelligence

A

crystallized; fluid

121
Q

What is crystallized knowledge?

A

The knowledge that a person has acquired, plus the ability to access that knowledge

Measured by tests of vocabulary, arithmetic and general information

122
Q

What is fluid intelligence?

A

The ability to see complex relationships and solve problems

Measured by tests of block design and spatial visualisation (aka don’t need crystallized background info to solve a problem)

123
Q

What 2 theories are psychometric (using tests) theories of intelligence?

A

Spearman’s g factor and Cattel’s fluid and crystallized intelligence

124
Q

What 2 theories are from the viewpoint of cognitive psychologists?

A

Sternberg’s triarchic theory and Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory

125
Q

What are the 3 types of intelligence Sternberg outlines in the Sternberg Triarchic Theory?

A
  1. Practical
  2. Analytical
  3. Creative
126
Q

What is practical intelligence?

A

The ability to cope with
and adapt to people and events in the environment

Aka “street smarts”

126
Q

The Triarchic Theory to determine how people are smart is proposed by ________

A

Sternberg

127
Q

What intelligence theory is proposed by Sternberg?

A

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

128
Q

___________ is an important component of practical intelligence

A

Self-awareness

129
Q

What is analytical intelligence?

A

The ability measured by most IQ tests; includes the ability to analyse problems and find correct answers

130
Q

What is creative intelligence?

A

The form of intelligence that helps people see new relationships among concepts

Involves insight and creativity

131
Q

What is the Triarchic Theory?

A

Sternberg’s theory of intelligence

So called because it combines three main forms of intelligence

132
Q

In the triarchic theory, each type of intelligence is _________ of the others

A

relatively independent

133
Q

In 2003, Sternberg put forth an additional element of intelligence called ________

A

wisdom

134
Q

What is wisdom?

A

Using one’s intelligence toward a common good rather than a selfish pursuit

135
Q

________ argues that we have multiple intelligences, at least 8 separate mental abilities

A

Gardner

136
Q

Gardner claims that people may have as many as ____ separate mental abilities, which he calls ________

A

8; multiple intelligences

137
Q

What is the multiple intelligences theory?

A

Gardner’s theory, which proposes that there are 8 or more forms of intelligence

138
Q

According to Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences, what are the 8 forms of intelligence?

A
  1. Linguistic
  2. Logical-mathematical
  3. Spatial
  4. Musical
  5. Bodily-kinesthetic
  6. Naturalistic
  7. Interpersonal
  8. Intrapersonal
139
Q

Gardner claims that each intelligence arises from a ________ module in the brain

A

separate

140
Q

Interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence are similar to a capacity called ___________

A

emotional intelligence

141
Q

What is emotional intelligence?

A

The ability to understand and use emotions effectively

142
Q

John Berry found that the explanation of intelligence by members of the Cree culture focuses on ______

A

respect

143
Q

What is theory of mind?

A

An awareness that other people’s behaviour may be influenced by beliefs, desires and emotions that differ from one’s own

144
Q

What is the self-fulfilling prophecy?

A

Observations or behaviours that result primarily from expectations

145
Q

Who coined the effect of self-fulfilling prophecy?

A

Rosenthal and Jacobson

146
Q

What effect did Rosenthal and Jacobson discover?

A

The self-fulfilling prophecy

147
Q

Why does a self-fulfilling prophecy come true?

A

Expectations

We frequently observe what we expect to see, even when our expectations are erroneous. So if we expect someone to be smart (or any other trait), the chances are good that this “prophecy” will fulfill itself

148
Q

While each individual’s intelligence is determined, in part, by heredity, this fact does not mean that IQ differences among groups have some ________ basis. Instead, many argue that these differences are ________

A

biological; environmental

149
Q

_______ believed that intelligence is hereditary and supported the English-based use of intelligence tests to screen immigrants to the US

A

Henry Goddard

150
Q

The closer the _________ relationship, the ________ the relationship of IQ scores

A

genetic; closer

151
Q

A stimulating environment was strongly associated with ___________

A

language ability

152
Q

A nurturing environment was associated with ________

A

memory

(by reducing stress)

153
Q

What is heritability?

A

The amount of trait variation within a group that can be attributed to genetic differences

154
Q

We can speak of heritable differences only within a group of individuals who have shared essentially the ___________

A

same environment

155
Q

___________ argued that racial differences in IQ scores have a genetic basis

A

Arthur Jensen

156
Q

Heritability refers to ___________ differences, not ___________ differences

A

within-group, between-group

157
Q

What are factors that Jensen minimized or ignored in his research? (5)

A
  1. Effects of racism
  2. Lower teacher expectations
  3. Lack of opportunity
  4. Low self-esteem
  5. White, middle-class bias built into IQ tests
158
Q

Scarr and Weinberg did a study on

A

How adoption at birth affects IQ scores

159
Q

Affluence is associated with _________ IQ scores

A

higher

160
Q

What is a problem with the Head Start enrichment programme?

A

It may not start early enough

161
Q

A source of bias that may explain racial IQ differences is the fact that most IQ tests rely heavily on _________

A

vocabulary level

162
Q

Culture-fair tests attempt to measure

A

the intelligence of people coming from outside the culture in which the test was devised

through nonverbal intelligence tests to overcome test bias

163
Q

Many items on a culture-fair test require the use of _________ abilities such as rotating object and ________ or ________ the use of _________

A

non-verbal

minimise; eliminate; language

164
Q

What is a stereotype threat?

A

An expectation of being judged by the standard of a negative stereotype

165
Q

What is cognition?

A

Cognition refers to the mental processes involved in thinking and intelligence

166
Q

What is the position taken by most modern psychologists with regard to intelligence and the heredity-environment issue?

A

Intelligence involves an interaction of hereditary and environmental factors

167
Q

Although everyone agrees that heredity produces differences in intelligence among individuals, there is no evidence that it accounts for differences among __________

A

racial or ethnic groups

168
Q

Which brain-scan methods are used to study thought processing with specific brain areas?

A

PET, MRI and fMRI scans

169
Q
A

Intro To Psych HP1000 (12 decks)

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