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Intro To Psych HP1000 > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What is memory?

A

Memory is any system (human, animal or machine) that encodes, stores and retrieves information

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2
Q

________ refers to the term for any system that encodes, stores and retrieves information

A

Memory

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3
Q

The cognitive perspective says that our ________ can affect our mental health

A

cognitions

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4
Q

Human memory is an _________ system that takes in information, discards certain details and organizes the rest into meaningful patterns

A

Interpretive

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5
Q

Our memories represent our unique __________ of events rather than being accurate or objective representations of the events themselves

A

perceptions

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6
Q

We don’t technically retrieve memories, we _______ them

A

reconstruct

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7
Q

We make the most complete and accurate memory records for: (5 items)

A
  1. information on which we have focused our attention
  2. Information in which we are interested
  3. Information that arouses us emotionally
  4. Information that connects with previous experience
  5. Information that we rehearse
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8
Q

What is the information-processing model?

A

A cognitive understanding of memory, emphasising how information is changed when it is encoded, stored and retrieved

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9
Q

The information-processing model emphasises that memory is _________

A

functional

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10
Q

What are the 3 basic functions of memory?

A
  1. Encoding
  2. Storage
  3. Retrieval
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11
Q

What is encoding?

A

Receiving information from the senses and modifying it to fit the preferred format for the memory system

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12
Q

What are the steps to encoding?

A
  1. Select a stimulus event
  2. Identify the distinctive features of that input
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13
Q

What is elaboration?

A

A process to attempt to connect a new concept with existing information in memory

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14
Q

__________ experiences are even more likely to lodge in memory without any effort to encode them

A

Emotionally charged

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15
Q

What is one way of elaboration?

A

Link new material to personal, concrete examples

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16
Q

What is storage?

A

Process involving organising and storing information, and the retention of encoded material over time

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17
Q

What is retrieval?

A

The process of locating and recovering information from memory

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18
Q

What is eidetic imagery?

A

An especially clear and persistent form of memory that is quite rare

Sometimes known as photographic memory

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19
Q

What are the differences between eidetic image and a photographic image?

A

A photographic image renders everything in minute detail, while an eidetic image portrays the most interesting and meaningful parts of the scene more accurately

Eidetic images are subject to the same kind of distortions found in “normal memories”

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20
Q

What are the differences between eidetic memories and “normal” memories?

A

Eidetic memories are as vivid as the original experience, while “normal” memories are unclear

Eidetic images are visualised as being “outside the head” while “normal” memories are visualised in the “mind’s eye”

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21
Q

An eidetic image can last for several _____ or _____

A

minutes; days

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22
Q

Up to ____ percent of children show some eidetic ability

A

5

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23
Q

Eidetic imagery appears most commonly in _____ and only rarely in _____

A

children; adults

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24
Q

Eidetic memories fade from memories if you _________ it

A

describe

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25
Q

What is the psychological term for “photographic memory”?

A

Eidetic memory

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26
Q

The ________ nature of eidetic memory seems to be interfered with by ________ descriptions

A

visual; verbal

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27
Q

What is a major objection to the “video recorder” model of human memory?

A

Unlike a video recorder, which makes an accurate and detailed record, memory stores an interpretation of experiences

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28
Q

What are the 3 memory stages, in order of processing?

A
  1. Sensory memory
  2. Working memory
  3. Long-term memory
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29
Q

Who developed the three-stage model of memory?

A

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin

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30
Q

What is sensory memory?

A

The stage of memory that preserves brief sensory impressions of stimuli

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31
Q

How long does sensory memory hold sensory information for?

A

A few seconds

Specifically 1/4 second to a few seconds

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32
Q

What is working memory?

A

The stage of memory that preserves recently perceived events or experiences for less than a minute without rehearsal

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33
Q

The working memory selectively takes information from sensory registers and ___________ with items already in long-term storage

A

makes connections

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34
Q

Working memory holds information for up to ____ to ___________

A

20 to 30 seconds

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35
Q

What was the original name of working memory?

A

Short-term memory

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36
Q

What is long-term memory?

A

The stage of memory that receives information from working memory and stores material organised according to meaning

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37
Q

What is the function of sensory memory?

A

Briefly holds information awaiting entry into working memory

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38
Q

What is the capacity of sensory memory, according to Sperling’s study?

A

12 or more items

12-16 specifically

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39
Q

Who did the study to determine the capacity of sensory memory?

A

Sperling

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40
Q

We have a separate ________ for each sense

A

sensory register

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41
Q

What is the sensory register for vision?

A

Iconic memory

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42
Q

What is the sensory register for hearing?

A

Echoic memory

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43
Q

What is the sensory register for touch?

A

Tactile sensory memory

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44
Q

What is the sensory register for smell?

A

Olfactory sensory memory

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45
Q

What is the sensory register for taste?

A

Gustatory sensory memory

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46
Q

Images in sensory memory have ____ meaning attached to them

A

no

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47
Q

In sensory memory, memory images take the form of __________ in the _________ and the __________ to the brain

A

neural activity; sense organs; sensory pathways

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48
Q

What are the functions of working memory? (3)

A
  1. Involved in control of attention
  2. Attaches meaning to stimulation
  3. Makes associations among ideas and events
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49
Q

What is the capacity of working memory, as suggested by George Miller?

A

7 chunks of information, plus minus 2

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50
Q

Who suggested the magic number of the capacity of working memory?

A

George Miller

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51
Q

Research finds we only process about ____ percent of incoming sensory information when our working memory is occupied

A

50

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52
Q

Working memory has the ________ capacity of the three memory stages

A

smallest

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53
Q

Which memory stage has the smallest capacity?

A

Working

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54
Q

What is a chunk?

A

Any pattern or meaningful unit of information

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55
Q

What is chunking?

A

Organising pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units (or chunks)

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56
Q

What is the purpose of chunking?

A

To free up space in working memory

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57
Q

What are 2 strategies that are useful in dealing with the limits of working memory?

A
  1. Chunk
  2. Rehearse
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58
Q

What are the 2 major types of rehearsal?

A
  1. Maintenance rehearsal
  2. Elaborative rehearsal
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59
Q

What is maintenance rehearsal?

A

A working-memory process in which information is merely repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory

Involves no active elaboration

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60
Q

What is elaborative rehearsal?

A

A working-memory process in which information is consciously reviewed and actively related to information already in long-term memory

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61
Q

What are the 4 activities that working memory engages in, according to Allen Baddeley?

A
  1. The central executive
  2. The phonological loop
  3. The sketchpad
  4. Episodic buffer
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62
Q

What happens in the central executive?

A

The central executive directs our attention to important input from both sensory and long-term memory and interfaces with the brain’s voluntary response system

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63
Q

What is acoustic encoding?

A

The conversion of information, especially semantic information, to sound patterns in working memory

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64
Q

What happens in the phonological loop?

A

Working memory converts the words we encounter into the sounds they describe and maintains the verbal patterns in an acoustic (sound) form as they are processed

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65
Q

What is a possible memory error created by acoustic encoding?

A

Confusions of letters that have similar sounds

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66
Q

What happens in the sketchpad?

A

The sketchpad encodes visual images and mental representations of objects in space

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67
Q

The sketchpad requires coordination among several brain systems, including the _______ and ________ lobes

A

frontal; occipital

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68
Q

What happens in the episodic buffer?

A

The episodic buffer binds the various pieces of information in working memory into a coherent episode

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69
Q

What is the levels-of-processing theory?

A

It says that information that is more thoroughly connected to meaningful items in long-term memory will be remembered better

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70
Q

Who was the levels-of-processing theory proposed by?

A

Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart

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71
Q

What theory did Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart propose about the working memory?

A

The levels-of-processing theory

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72
Q

Which part of the brain is activated by working memory?

A

Frontal cortex

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73
Q

In long-term memory, words and concepts are encoded by their ________

A

meanings

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74
Q

What is the capacity of long-term memory?

A

Unlimited

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75
Q

What are the 2 components of long-term memory?

A
  1. Procedural
  2. Declarative
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76
Q

What is procedural memory?

A

A division of LTM that stores memories for how things are done

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77
Q

What is declarative memory?

A

A division of LTM that stores explicit information

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78
Q

What is another name for declarative memory?

A

Fact memory

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79
Q

What are 2 major subdivisions of declarative memory?

A
  1. Semantic
  2. Episodic
80
Q

What is episodic memory?

A

A subdivision of declarative memory that stores personal events or “episodes”

81
Q

Episodic memory also stores ________ to identify when the event occurred,

and ________ that indicates where it took place

A

temporal coding; context coding

82
Q

Episodic memory stores temporal coding to identify _____ the event occurred and context coding to indicate _____ it occurred

A

when; where

83
Q

Episodic memory acts as your _________

A

autobiographical memory

84
Q

What is semantic memory?

A

A subdivision of declarative memory that stores general knowledge, including the meanings of words and concepts

85
Q

What is childhood amnesia?

A

The inability to remember events during the first two or three years of life

86
Q

Babies have a _______ and _______ memory, but limited ________ memory ability

A

semantic; procedural; episodic

87
Q

What are some causes of childhood amnesia? (3)

A
  1. Rudimentary language skills (for verbal encoding of memories)
  2. Lack of a sense of self (necessary for a reference point but doesn’t develop until about age 2)
  3. Lack of complex schemas older children and adults use to help them remember
88
Q

What is the engram?

A

The physical/biological changes in the brain associated with a memory

89
Q

What is another name for the engram?

A

Memory trace

90
Q

What is anterograde amnesia?

A

The inability to form new memories

91
Q

What is retrograde amnesia?

A

The inability to remember information previously stored in memory

92
Q

The _____ and ______ are crucial to laying down new declarative memories

A

hippocampus; amygdala

93
Q

The hippocampus is implicated in ________ disease, which involves loss of ability to make new declarative memories

A

Alzheimer’s

94
Q

The _____ processes memories that have strong emotional associations

A

amygdala

95
Q

What role does the amygdala play in memory?

A

It processes memories that have strong emotional associations

96
Q

Why are emotional associations important in memory?

A

They aid us in quick access and retrieval

97
Q

Declarative memories are stored throughout the _______

A

cerebral cortex

98
Q

The cerebral cortex stores _________ memories

A

declarative

99
Q

Procedural memories are stored in the ________ and the _________

A

cerebellum; motor cortex

100
Q

The cerebellum and the motor cortex store __________ memories

A

procedural

101
Q

What is memory consolidation?

A

The process by which short-term memories become long-term memories over a period of time

102
Q

Memory consolidation occurs with the help of the _________

A

hippocampus

103
Q

What role does the hippocampus play in memory?

A

Memory consolidation

It binds relevant pieces of a memory together into a coherent memory

104
Q

When positive emotions are involved, you tend to look at situations _______ and remember the __________

A

broadly; big picture

105
Q

When negative emotions are involved, your focus of memories are ______

A

restricted

106
Q

Emotion-related chemicals like ________ also enhance memory for emotion-laden experiences

A

epinephrine (adrenalin)

107
Q

What is a flashbulb memory?

A

A clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event

108
Q

A ____________ is a good analogy for LTM

A

mental scaffold

The more associations you make in memory, the more information you can store there

109
Q

The physical trace that is the biological basis of memory is known as an __________

A

engram/memory trace

110
Q

People are more _______ about the accuracy of flashbulb memories than everyday memories

A

confident

111
Q

What is the difference between flashbulb memories and personal emotional memories?

A

Flashbulb memories are publicly known, widely shared events. They are hence likely to be discussed widely and retold frequently and details are likely to become distorted

112
Q

As information passes from one stage of the memory to the next, the information becomes more

A

meaningful and associated with other information in LTM

113
Q

Successful retrieval depends on how they were _______ and how they are _______

A

encoded; cued

114
Q

What is implicit memory?

A

A memory that was not deliberately learned or of which you have no conscious awareness

115
Q

What is explicit memory?

A

A memory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled

116
Q

Who coined implicit and explicit memory?

A

Daniel Schacter

117
Q

H. M.’s problem was primarily one of ______ memory

A

explicit

Skotko found that he could learn new semantic material through implicit channels

118
Q

What is a retrieval cue?

A

Stimulus used to bring a memory to consciousness or to cue a behaviour by directing you to relevant information stored in LTM

119
Q

The more ______ your web of associations, the ______ the chance of retrieving the information

A

extensive; greater

120
Q

What is priming?

A

A technique for cuing implicit memories by providing cues that stimulate a memory without awareness of the connection between the cue and the retrieved memory

121
Q

We are always aware of _________ whereas ________ may be incidentally learned

A

explicit; implicit

122
Q

What does gist mean?

A

The sense or meaning, as contrasted with the exact details

123
Q

What are ways to retrieve explicit memories? (2)

A
  1. Meaningful organisation
    - getting the gist of an event
  2. Recall and Recognition
124
Q

What is recall?

A

A retrieval method in which one must reproduce previously presented information with minimal retrieval cues

125
Q

What is recognition?

A

A retrieval method in which one must identify present stimuli as having been previously presented

126
Q

Recognition generally produces more memories than recall but is also more likely to produce ________

A

false positives/false memories

127
Q

What is the encoding specificity principle?

A

The idea that memory is encoded and stored with specific cues related to the context in which it was formed

The more closely the retrieval cues match the form in which the information was encoded, the better it will be remembered

128
Q

What is mood-congruent memory?

A

A memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match one’s mood

129
Q

What is prospective memory?

A

The aspect of memory that enables one to remember to take some action in the future

(eg remembering an appointment)

130
Q

What is continuous monitoring?

A

Trying to keep the intended action in mind

but can be easily derailed by distraction or habit

131
Q

When people have to remember to deviate from their usual routine, they typically rely on ____________

A

continuous monitoring

132
Q

How do we prevent being derailed during continuous monitoring?

A
  1. Use a reliable prompt
  2. Think of a specific cue you expect to encounter just before the required task
133
Q

What is the tip-of-tongue (TOT) phenomenon?

A

The inability to recall a word, while knowing that it is in memory

134
Q

What are some possible causes of the TOT phenomenon? (2)

A
  1. Inadequate context cues
    - not enough context to activate the schema associated with the word
  2. Interference
    - when another memory blocks access or retrieval

(weak match between retrieval cues and encoding of the word in LTM)

135
Q

Give an example of a mood-congruent memory

A

Good examples involves situations in which people who are feeling a strong emotion or mood selectively remember experiences associated with the mood. Thus, during a physical exam, a depressed person might report more unpleasant physical symptoms than would a happy person

136
Q

Give an example of a situation that would require prospective memory

A

Prospective memory involves having to remember to perform some action at a time in the future

Such as taking medicine tonight, stopping at the grocery store on the way home, or calling one’s parents next Friday evening

137
Q

What is another name for encoding specificity?

A

State-dependent retrieval

138
Q

What are Daniel Schacter’s 7 sins of memory?

A
  1. Transience
  2. Absent-mindedness
  3. Blocking
  4. Misattribution
  5. Suggestibility
  6. Bias
  7. Unwanted persistence
139
Q

Who termed the 7 sins of memory?

A

Daniel Schacter

140
Q

The 7 sins of memory are ___________ and are consequences of some very useful features of human memory

A

naturally adaptive

141
Q

What is transience?

A

The impermanence of a long-term memory

Transience is based on the idea that long-term memories gradually fade in strength over time

142
Q

Who did the study on the forgetting curve?

A

Hermann Ebbinghaus

143
Q

Ebbinghaus used the _________ method to trace memory over long periods of time

A

savings

144
Q

Ebbinghaus discovered that for relatively meaningless material, we have a ____________ of memory followed by a ____________

A

rapid initial loss; declining rate of loss

145
Q

What is the forgetting curve?

A

A graph plotting the amount of retention and forgetting over time for a certain batch of material, such as a list of nonsense syllables

The typical forgetting curve is steep at first, becoming flatter as time goes on

146
Q

The forgetting curve captures the pattern of _________ by which we forget much of the verbal material we learn

A

transience

147
Q

Current research uses brain scanning techniques like ______ and ______ to visualise diminishing brain activity that characterises forgetting

A

fMRI; PET

148
Q

What is one common cause of transience?

A

Interference

When one item prevents us from forming a robust memory for another item

Occurs when you attempt to learn 2 conflicting things in succession

149
Q

What 3 factors cause interference?

A
  1. The more similar the two sets of material to be learned, the greater the likelihood of interference
  2. Meaningless material is more vulnerable to interference than meaningful material
  3. Emotional material can be an especially powerful cause of interference
150
Q

What are the 2 main categories of interference?

A
  1. Proactive interference
  2. Retroactive interference
151
Q

What is proactive interference?

A

A cause of forgetting by which previously stored information prevents learning and remembering new information

past -> now
“pro”: forward
old memories act forward in time to block new learning

p for previous

152
Q

What is retroactive interference?

A

A cause of forgetting by which newly learned information prevents retrieval of previously stored material

past <- now
“retro”: backward
new material reaches backward to push old material out

r for (having trouble) recalling

153
Q

What is the serial position effect?

A

A form of interference related to the sequence in which information is presented

Generally, items in the middle of the sequence are less well remembered than items presented first or last

154
Q

What is the primacy effect?

A

The relative ease of remembering the first items in a series

155
Q

What is the recency effect?

A

The strength of memory for the most recent items

156
Q

Serial position effect: the middle is exposed to a double dose of _______

A

interference

157
Q

What is absent-mindedness (a sin of memory)?

A

Forgetting caused by lapses in attention

158
Q

Retrieval failure caused by shifting your attention elsewhere can occur on the _________ end or during the original ________

A

retrieval; encoding

159
Q

What is blocking? (a sin of memory)

A

Forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be accessed or retrieved

Is caused by interference

160
Q

One form of blocking is the ______ phenomenon

A

TOT

161
Q

TOT phenomenon is a form of _______

A

blocking

162
Q

What are other factors that could produce blocking?

A
  1. Stress
    - failure to sustain focus of attention
  2. Distraction
  3. Age
163
Q

What is misattribution? (a sin of memory)

A

A memory fault that occurs when memories are retrieved but are associated with the wrong time, place or person

164
Q

Misattribution stems from the _________ nature of LTM

A

reconstructive

165
Q

What is suggestibility? (a sin of memory)

A

The process of memory distortion as the result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion

166
Q

Who did the studies on memory distortion and fabricated memories?

A

Loftus and Palmer

167
Q

What is the misinformation effect?

A

The distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation

168
Q

Who was the psychologist with a fabricated memory?

A

Jean Piaget

169
Q

Suggestion can occur with the following factors: (5)

A
  1. Leading questions
  2. The passage of substantial amounts of time
  3. Repeated retrieval
  4. The age of the witness
  5. Unwarranted confidence
170
Q

What is bias? (a sin of memoey)

A

The influence of personal beliefs, attitudes, and experiences on memory

171
Q

What are 2 forms of bias?

A
  1. Expectancy bias
  2. Self-consistency bias
172
Q

What is expectancy bias?

A

The unconscious tendency to remember events as being congruent with our expectations

173
Q

What is self-consistency bias?

A

The commonly held idea that we are more consistent in our attitudes, opinions, and beliefs than we actually are

174
Q

What is persistence? (a sin of memory)

A

A memory problem in which unwanted memories cannot be put out of mind

175
Q

What is the adaptation of transience?

A

It prevents the memory system from being overwhelmed by information it no longer needs?

176
Q

What is the adaptation of blocking?

A

It allows only the most relevant information, that is most strongly associated with present cues, to come to mind

177
Q

What is the adaptation of absent-mindedness?

A

It allows us to shift our attention

178
Q

What is the adaptation of misattributions, biases and suggestibility?

A

Allows our memory system to focus on meaning and discard details

179
Q

What is the adaptation of persistence?

A

It allows our memory system to be responsive to emotional experiences, particularly those involving dangerous situations

180
Q

What is a mnemonic strategy?

A

A technique for improving memory by making connections between new material and information already present in LTM

181
Q

What is the meaning of “mnemonics”?

A

Remember (Greek)

182
Q

What are 2 mnemonic strategies?

A
  1. The method of loci
  2. Natural language mediators
183
Q

What is the method of loci?

A

A mnemonic technique that involves associated items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

Devised by the Greeks

184
Q

What is another name for the method of loci?

A

Roman room

185
Q

What does “loci” mean?

A

place

(Greek)

186
Q

_______ or ________ image combinations are usually easier to remember

A

bizarre; unconventional

187
Q

________ is one of the most effective forms of encoding

A

Visual imagery

188
Q

What is a natural language mediator?

A

A word associated with new information to be remembered

Eg rhymes in slogans, rhythmic musical jingles, acronyms

189
Q

What is an acronym?

A

A word made up of initials

190
Q

Use of mnemonics teaches us that memory is _____

A

flexible, personal and creative

191
Q

Memory ultimately works by making ______

A

meaningful associations

192
Q

What is the whole method?

A

The mnemonic strategy of first approaching the material to be learned “as a whole”, forming an impression of the overall meaning of the material

The details are later associated with this overall impression

193
Q

What is distributed learning?

A

A technique whereby the learner spaces learning sessions over time rather than trying to learn the material all in one study period

194
Q

What is massed learning?

A

Learning all at once

195
Q

What are the advantages of distributed learning compared to mass learning? (5)

A
  1. avoids fatigue
  2. higher efficiency
  3. strengthens memories in the process of consolidation
  4. increases understanding
  5. longer retention of material
196
Q

Interference is most likely under what conditions? (3)

A
  1. When previously stored information prevents the learning of new material
  2. When new material is similar to old knowledge
  3. When information is low in meaning

Intro To Psych HP1000 (12 decks)

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