Learning Flashcards
1
Q
What is learning?
A
A process through which experience produces a lasting change in behaviour or mental processes
2
Q
Learning provides ______ to ______ to changing situations and ______
A
greater flexibility; adapt quickly; new environments
3
Q
What is habituation?
A
Learning not to respond to the repeated presentation of a stimulus
4
Q
What is the adaptation of habituation?
A
Helps us focus on important stimuli while ignoring stimuli that need no attention
5
Q
What is the mere exposure effect?
A
A learned preference for stimuli to which we have been previously exposed
6
Q
What is behavioural learning?
A
Forms of learning, such as classical conditioning and operant conditioning, that can be described in terms of stimuli and responses
7
Q
What is classical conditioning?
A
A form of behavioural learning in which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the power to elicit the same innate reflex produced by another stimulus
8
Q
What is the adaptation of classical conditioning?
A
Organisms learn about cues that help them anticipate and avoid danger
and cues alerting them to food, sexual opportunity, and other conditions that promote survival
9
Q
What are reflexes?
A
Simple, automatic responses resulting from stimuli that have biological significance
10
Q
What is a neutral stimulus?
A
Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning
eg tone
11
Q
What is an unconditioned stimulus? (UCS)
A
UCS is the stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response
eg food
12
Q
What is an unconditioned response? (UCR)
A
The response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) without prior learning
eg salivating
13
Q
What is acquisition?
A
The initial learning stage in classical conditioning, during which the conditioned response comes to be elicited by the conditioned stimulus
14
Q
What is a conditioned stimulus? (CS)
A
A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the conditioned response
The neutral stimulus is called a conditioned stimulus when it is first paired with an unconditioned stimulus
eg tone
15
Q
What is a conditioned response? (CR)
A
A response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus
eg salivating
(NS: tone has become associated with UCS: food, and become CS: tone, to produce CR: salivating)
16
Q
What is the time interval between the CS and UCS that produces the best conditioning for motor responses (eg eye blinks)?
A
Short interval of 1 second or less
17
Q
What is the time interval between the CS and UCS that produces the best conditioning for visceral responses (eg heart rate. salivation)?
A
Longer intervals of 5 to 15 seconds
18
Q
What is the time interval between the CS and UCS that produces the best conditioning for fear responses?
A
Many seconds or minutes
19
Q
What is the time interval between the CS and UCS that produces conditioning for taste aversions?
A
Even after several hours’ delay
20
Q
What is extinction (in classical conditioning)?
A
The weakening of a conditioned response in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus
21
Q
What is spontaneous recovery (in classical conditioning)?
A
The unexpected reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay
22
Q
When spontaneous recovery happens, the CR nearly always reappears at a ______ intensity
A
lower
23
Q
What is stimulus generalisation (in classical conditioning?
A
The extension of a learned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus CS
24
Q
By means of stimulus generalisation, we learn to give ____ responses in ____ situations
A
old; new
25
What is stimulus discrimination?
Learning to respond to a particular stimulus but not to stimuli that are similar
26
Who was the American behaviourist who applied classical conditioning techniques to human problems?
John Watson
27
The American behaviourist John Watson applied ______________ techniques to human problems
classical conditioning
28
Watson and Rayner conditioned an infant named _______ to react fearfully to a white rat
Little Albert
29
It took ____ trials for Little Albert to react with distress at the sight of the rat
7
30
During World War ___, the Navy used a ___ sounding at the rate of ___ rings a minute as a call to battle stations, which became associated with danger
II, gong, 100
31
To eliminate conditioning, we can combine _____ with ____, a therapy that teaches a relaxation response to the CS
extinction; counterconditioning
32
The tendency to develop taste aversions appears to be ________ as part of our _________ rather than purely learned
"wired in"; biological nature
33
Many common fears and phobias arise from _________, disposing us to learn fears of harmful objects
genetic preparedness
34
Conditioning involves both _____ and _____
nature; nurture
35
What is another word for unconditioned response UCR?
Innate reflex
36
Classical conditioning can be used to teach _______, _______ reflexes but not ______ responses
passive; involuntary; voluntary
37
"Voluntary" behaviours are controlled by _____ and _____
rewards; punishments
38
What is operant conditioning?
A form of behavioural learning in which the probability of a response is changed by its consequences, that is by the stimuli that follow the reponse
39
Why is operant conditioning important? (2 reasons)
1. It accounts for a much wider spectrum of behaviour than does classical conditioning
2. It explains new and voluntary behaviours, not just reflexive behaviours
40
Who founded the theory of operant conditioning?
B. F. Skinner
41
What learning theory did B. F. Skinner make?
Operant conditioning
42
Skinner borrowed the notion of behaviour being controlled by rewards and punishments from another American psychologist, ________
Edward Thorndike
43
What is the law of effect?
The idea that responses that produced desirable results would be learned or "stamped" into the organism, and influence them to try those behaviours again
By Thorndike
44
What is a reinforcer?
A condition (involving either the presentation or removal of a stimulus) that occurs after a response and strengthens that response
45
What is positive reinforcement?
A stimulus presented after a response and increasing the probability of the response happening again
46
What is negative reinforcement?
The removal of an unpleasant or aversive stimulus, depending on a particular response, and increasing the probability of that response happening again
47
What is the operant chamber?
A boxlike apparatus that can be programmed to deliver reinforcers and punishers depending on an animal's behaviour
aka "Skinner box"
48
The _____ and _____ of reinforcement determines its effect on behaviour
timing; frequency
49
What are reinforcement contingencies?
Relationships between a response and the changes in stimulation that follow the response
50
What is continuous reinforcement?
A type of reinforcement schedule by which all correct responses are reinforced
51
Continuous reinforcement is useful ____ in the learning process
early
52
What is shaping?
An operant learning technique in which a new behaviour is produced by reinforcing responses that are similar to the desired response
53
Continuous reinforcement is useful for ____ complex new behaviours
shaping
54
What are some drawbacks of continuous reinforcement?
1. Failure to reward a correct response on one trial could be misinterpreted as a signal that the response was not correct --> consistency is key
2. Once the learner becomes satiated, the reinforcer loses it power to motivate
55
What is intermittent reinforcement?
A type of reinforcement schedule by which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced
56
What is another name for intermittent reinforcement?
Partial reinforcement
57
Intermittent reinforcement serves as an incentive while helping to avoid _____
satiation
58
________ is the most efficient way to maintain behaviours that have already been learned
Intermittent reinforcement
59
A big advantage of intermittent reinforcement is its resistance to _____
extinction
60
What is extinction (in operant conditioning)?
A process by which a response that has been learned is weakened by the absence or removal of reinforcement
61
What are schedules of reinforcement?
A program specifying the frequency and timing of reinforcements
62
What are the 2 main forms of schedules of reinforcement?
1. Ratio schedule
2. Interval schedule
63
How do ratio schedules work?
Rewards depend on the number of correct responses, i.e. you get a reward after a certain number of responses
64
What are 2 subtypes of ratio schedules?
1. Fixed ratio schedule
2. Variable ratio schedule
65
What is a fixed ratio (FR) schedule?
A program by which reinforcement is dependent on a certain, unvarying number of responses
66
FR schedules cause rate of responding to be usually ______
high
67
What is a variable ratio (VR) schedule?
A reinforcement program by which the number of responses required for a reinforcement varies from trial to trial
68
The schedule that usually produces the most responding is the ____ schedule
variable ratio (VR)
69
How does an interval schedule work?
It reinforces you after a certain time interval
70
What is a fixed interval (FI) schedule?
A program by which reinforcement is dependent upon a certain, fixed time period
71
_________ reinforcement usually results in a comparatively low response rate
Fixed interval
72
What is a variable interval (VI) schedule?
A program by which the time period between reinforcements varies from trial to trial
73
What is a primary reinforcer?
A reinforcer, such as food or sex, that has an innate basis because of its biological value to an organism
74
What is a secondary reinforcer?
A stimulus, such as money or tokens, that acquires its reinforcing power by a learned association with primary reinforcers
75
Another name for secondary reinforcer is __________
conditioned reinforcer
76
Operant conditioning is a mixture of _____ and _____
nature; nurture
77
What is instinctive drift?
The tendency of an organism's innate (instinctive) responses to interfere with learned behaviour
78
What is a token economy?
A therapeutic method, based on operant conditioning, by which individuals are rewarded with tokens, which act as secondary reinforcers. The tokens can be redeemed for a variety of rewards and privileges
79
What is the Premack principle?
The concept that a more-preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity
80
What is it called when a more-preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity?
The Premack principle, by David Premack
81
_____ shapes preferences in reinforcement
Culture
82
_________ is a set of behaviours originally learned by operant conditioning and shared by a group of people
Culture
aka reinforcement also shapes culture
83
What is punishment?
An aversive consequence which, occurring after a response, diminishes the strength of that response
84
What is positive punishment?
The application of an aversive stimulus after a response to decrease the probability of that response happening again
85
What is negative punishment?
The removal of an attractive stimulus after a response to decrease the probability of that response happening again
86
Punishment usually doesn't work as well in the ______
long run
87
Why is punishment so difficult to use effectively? (5 reasons)
1. Punishment must be administered consistently
- it is almost impossible to administer punishment consistently
- not punishing an occurrence of unwanted behaviour can have the effect of rewarding it
2. The lure of rewards may make the possibility of punishment seem worth the price
- eg drug dealing earns so much money that people risk the prison time
- short-term rewards must also be controlled, if not they are hard to resist against long-term consequences
3. Punishment triggers escape or aggression
- survival instinct prompts it to flee to avoid further punishment
- if escape is blocked, aggression can result
- punishment-aggression link
4. Punishment makes the learner fearful or apprehensive, which inhibits learning new and more desirable responses
- learned helplessness
- punishment fails to teach learners what to do differently, because it focuses attention on what not to do
5. Punishment is often applied unequally
88
What is a logical consequence?
A consequence closely related to the undesirable behaviour
89
Punishment is more likely to be successful if it involves a _____________ ___________
logical consequence
90
What are conditions that make punishment effective? (7 conditions)
1. Swift
- immediate
2. Consistent
- administered every time the unwanted response occurs
3. Limited in duration and intensity
- meaningful enough to stop the behaviour but not beyond that
4. Clearly target the behaviour and be a logical consequence of the behaviour
- instead of attacking the character of the person or inflicting physical pain
5. Limited to the situation in which the response occurred
6. Should not give mixed messages
- eg others can do what they are being punished for
7. Negative punishment instead of positive punishment is more effective
91
Classically conditioned behaviour is largely a response to _____ stimulation
past
92
Operant behaviour aims to attain ______ reinforcement or avoid a punishment
future
93
Operant conditioning encourages ____ behaviours, while classical conditioning emphasises eliciting ____ responses to new stimuli
new; old
94
According to cognitive psychology, some forms of learning must be explained as changes in _______ ___________ rather than as changes in behaviour alone
mental processes
95
What is insight learning?
A form of cognitive learning, originally described by the Gestalt psychologists, in which problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of perceptions
96
Who came up with insight learning?
A Gestalt psychologist, Wolfgang Kohler
97
What is a cognitive map?
In Tolman's work, a cognitive map was a mental representation of a maze or other physical space
Psychologists often use the term cognitive map more broadly to include an understanding of connections among concepts
Cognitive map can represent either a physical or a mental "space"
98
What is latent learning?
Learning that could not be seen in their behaviour at the time, but could be observed in their behaviour later on
99
The _______ in the brain is involved in "drawing" the cognitive map in the brain
hippocampus
100
What would be the adaptation of making cognitive maps?
Allowing animals to forage for food
101
________ proposed that rewards and punishments can be effective even if we merely see someone else get them i.e. the consequences are not on the particular individual
Bandura
102
Bandura's work suggests that consequences of behaviour can operate indirectly through ________
observation
103
Bandura's BoBo doll study shows that learning by observation can affect our behaviour in ____ situations
new
104
What is observational learning?
A form of cognitive learning in which new responses are acquired after watching others' behaviour and the consequences of their behaviour
105
What is another term for observational learning?
Social learning
106
______ is when viewers of media violence show less emotional arousal and distress when they subsequently observe violent acts
psychic numbing
107
What is long-term potentiation?
A biological process involving physical changes that strengthen the synapses in groups of nerve cells that is believed to be the neural basis of learning
108
In operant conditioning, the brain's reward circuitry comes into play, especially in parts of the __________ and the ________ system, rich in _________ receptors
frontal cortex; limbic; dopamine
109
The _______ system also helps us remember strong emotions often associated with classical conditioning
limbic
110
Neuroscientists have found that extinction occurs when certain neurotransmitters, including ________ and ________, block memories
glutamate; norepinephrine
111
________ neurons suggests a neurological basis for observational learning
Mirror
112
Mirror neurons help us _______ __________
imitate behaviour
113
Fears commonly arise through ______ experience involving ___________
Alternatively, fears can be learned through __________
Once the fear has been learned, _________ can maintain it
direct; classical conditioning
observational learning
operant conditioning
114
What is desensitization?
A form of extinction where you are gradually exposed to your fear
115
Why was insight rather than trial and error the best explanation for Sultan's solution to the problem of reaching the food reward?
Sultan had apparently given up on active trial-and-error attempts to solve the problem. Yet, after a period of inactivity, he abruptly found the solution, which involved piling the boxes so he could climb on them and reach the fruit. Kohler argued that Sultan had achieved the solution mentally, through insight
116
What evidence did Tolman have that his rats had developed cognitive maps of a maze?
When their usual path was blocked, Tolman's rats would usually take the shortest alternative path to the goal
117
Mirror neurons seem to explain how observational learning works. So, what would the observers' mirror neurons be responding to?
The mirror neurons in the observers would be responding to the behaviour of the children who are responding constructively to aggressive acts.
118
Pick one experiment described in this section of the chapter, and discuss why it is difficult to explain in purely behavioural terms
All of the following are difficult to explain behaviourally because each challenges a basic principle of operant or classical conditioning: Kohler's experiment on instinct learning (Sultan used a response that he had never seen or used before, he was not conditioned to do it)
Tolman's "cognitive map" experiment (evidence that animals learn concepts rather than specific behaviours)
Bandura's studies of observational learning (children learn behaviours for which other people are rewarded)
119
Intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective for maintaining behaviour because such reinforcement ____
produces resistance to extinction
120
What is aversive conditioning?
Aversive conditioning pairs an unpleasant outcome with a given stimulus, and this can lead to unintentional food aversions in chemotherapy patients
121
What are operants?
Observable behaviours that have an effect on the environment
122
What are the 2 brain circuits for learning?
1. For simple stimulus-response learning
2. For more complex tasks
123
Skinner was a radical behaviourist who refused to ______
speculate about what happens inside an organism
124
A reinforcer is any condition that _______ a response while a punisher is any condition that ________ a response
follows and strengthens; follows and weakens
125
The Skinner box was designed so that ______
animals could press a lever to receive food
126
The best strategy to teach an organism a new response quickly is to use _________
continuous reinforcement
127
The key difference between the two main forms of schedules of reinforcement is whether _______
reinforcement is determined by time or by number of responses
128
The extinction of an operant response requires that ________
all possible reinforcers must be withheld
129
The _______ schedule of reinforcement tends to get the highest response rate
variable ratio
130
During summer camp, campers get a sticker each time they demonstrate good sportsmanship. When they have earned 10 stickers, they may select a candy bar. This represents an example of _______
a token economy
131
The most effective form of punishment usually involves _______
penalties, such as loss of privileges
132
The cognitive view would argue that learning does not always change ______, but it always produces a change in _______
behaviour; mental activity
