Motivation and Emotion Flashcards
1
Q
What are motives?
A
Motives are internal dispositions to act in certain ways, although they can be influenced by multiple factors, both internal and external
2
Q
What is motivation?
A
Refers to all the processes involves in initiating, directing and maintaining physical and psychological activities
3
Q
What are the 3 stages of fulfilling a need?
A
- Sensing a need or desire
- Activating and guiding the organism by selecting, directing, and sustaining the mental and physical activity aimed at meeting the need or desire
- Reducing the sensation of need
4
Q
What is extrinsic motivation?
A
The desire to engage in an activity to achieve an external consequence, such as a reward
Eg money, grades, food, drink, praise, awards, sex
5
Q
What is intrinsic motivation?
A
The desire to engage in an activity for its own sake rather than for some external consequence such as a reward
i.e. an intrinsically motivated activity is its own reward
eg feeling intrinsically motivated when you enjoy meting a new challenge on the job
6
Q
What is the need of achievement (n Ach)?
A
In McClelland’s theory, a mental state that produces a psychological motive to excel or to reach some goal
7
Q
What tool did McClelland use to rate the need for achievement (n Ach)?
A
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) developed by Murray
8
Q
What are the 3 motives that propel us to work? (AAP)
A
- Need for achievement (n Ach)
- Need for affiliation
- Need for power (in the positive sense of achieving things)
9
Q
Triandis’s insight on cultures suggest that n Ach has a strong ________ component
A
cultural
10
Q
External reinforcement _______ internal motivation
A
displaces
11
Q
What is overjustification?
A
The process by which extrinsic (external) rewards can sometimes displace internal motivation, as when a child receives money for playing video games
12
Q
As a result of ______, the children’s motivation had changed from intrinsic to extrinsic
A
overjustification
13
Q
When does the overjustification effect happen?
A
When a reward is given without regard for quality of performance
14
Q
What are the 3 major effects of rewards on motivation and the conditions?
A
- Effective in motivating people to do things they would not otherwise want to do
- Add to intrinsic motivation, IF GIVEN for good performance
- Interfere with intrinsic motivation, IF GIVEN without regard for quality of work
15
Q
What is mind flow?
A
In Csikszentmihalyi’s theory, an intense focus on an activity accompanied by increased creativity and near-ecstatic feelings
Flow involves intrinsic motivation
16
Q
Give 4 reasons why psychologists find the concept of motivation useful
A
The concept of motivation
1. connects observable behaviour to internal states
2. accounts for variability in behaviour
3. explains perseverance despite adversity
4. relates biology to behaviour
17
Q
What is instinct theory?
A
The now-outmoded view that certain behaviours are completely determined by innate factors
It was flawed because it overlooked the effects of learning and because it employed instincts merely as labels rather than as explanation for behaviour
18
Q
Instincts involve both a lot of ________ and a little _________
A
nature; nurture
19
Q
Who are ethologists?
A
They study animal behaviour in natural habitats
20
Q
What are fixed-action patterns?
A
Genetically based behaviours, seen across a species, that can be set off by a specific stimulus
aka unlearned behaviour patterns that are triggered by identifiable stimuli eg nestbuilding, suckling responses
Replaces the notion of instinct
21
Q
What is biological drive?
A
A motive, such as thirst, that is based primarily in biology
A drive is a state of tension that motivates an organism to satisfy a biological need
22
Q
What is drive theory?
A
Developed as an alternative to instinct theory, drive theory explains motivation as a process in which a biological need produces a drive that moves an organism to meet the need
For most drives this process return the organism to a balanced condition (homeostasis)
23
Q
What is a need (in drive theory)?
A
A need is a biological imbalance (such as dehydration) that threatens survival if the need is left unmet
Biological needs are believed to produce drives
24
Q
What is homeostasis?
A
The body’s tendency to maintain a biologically balanced condition, especially with regard to nutrients, water and temperature
25
What is drive reduction?
A process where drive level subsides when the need is satisfied
26
What are the limitations of drive theory?
1. Faltered when cognitive, social and cultural forces at involved
2. Cannot explain why, in the absence of any deprivation or needs, organisms sometimes act to increase stimulation
3. Cannot explain behaviour motivated by goals (aka psychological motives)
27
_____ trumps hunger and thirst
Curiosity
28
In contrast to biological drives, psychological motives serve __________ but are strongly rooted in __________
no immediate biological need; learning, incentives, threats or social and cultural pressures
29
The new evolutionary theory of motivation think that everything we do is underlined by the _________ needs for ________ and ________
Darwinian; survival; reproduction
30
What are the 5 theories of motivation? (DEFIM)
1. Drive Theory
2. Evolutionary Theory
3. Freud's Theory
4. Instinct Theory
5. Maslow's Theory
31
What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
In Maslow's theory, the notion that needs occur in priority order, with the biological needs as the most basic
32
Unlike the other theories of motivation, Maslow's perspective attempts to span the whole spectrum of human motivation from ________ to _______ to _______
biological drives; social motives; creativity
33
What are the 6 classes of needs in Maslow's hierarchy of needs, in priority order?
1. Biological
2. Safety
3. Love, attachment, affiliation
4. Esteem
5. Self-actualization
6. Self-transcendence
34
What distinguishes self-transcendence from self-actualization?
Shift from personal pleasure or other egocentric beliefs to some cause beyond the self
35
What are the limitations of Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
1. Cannot explain why people sometimes neglect basic biological needs in favour of higher ones
2. Cannot explain the behaviour of people who deliberately take their own lives
3. Ignores the powerful sex drive
4. Cross-cultural psychologists criticise that the emphasis on self-actualization applies primarily to individualistic cultures
36
What is the functional level of analysis?
Concerns the adaptive function of a motive in terms of the organism's survival and reproduction
Typically survival needs -> reproductive needs & social needs
37
What is the proximal level of analysis?
Concerns stimuli in the organism's immediate environment, which can temporarily change motivational priorities
(proximal can also refer to thinks humans are thinking about)
38
What is the developmental level of analysis?
Concerns changes in the organism's developmental process that might change motivational priorities, as when hormones heighten sexual interest in adolescence
39
What are the 3 influences that can change motivational priorities? (PDF)
1. Proximal
2. Developmental
3. Functional
40
Adler taught that problem behaviour often grows out of feelings of ________ and perceived ________
personal inadequacy; social threats
41
What is social interest?
A goal or need for cooperation and the desire for acceptance by others
42
Modern social psychologists combine the notions of ________ with _________ incentives and threats in what they call the "power of the situation"
social motivation; extrinsic
43
Why has the term instinct dropped out of favour with psychologists?
Instinct has become an imprecise term that merely labels behaviour rather than explaining it
44
What is the role of homeostasis in drive theory?
Homeostasis refers to the equilibrium condition to which an organism tends to return after reducing a biological drive
45
Explain why self-actualization is characterised as the "highest" need but with the lowest priority
Self-actualisation is at the top of the pyramid of Maslow's hierarchy of needs -- and in this sense is the "highest" of the needs.
However, the needs lower in the hierarchy are more basic and so have higher priority than self-actualization
46
The evolution-based modification of Maslow's hierarchy of needs suggests that our motivational priorities can change, depending primarily on
our developmental and proximal stimuli
47
Although dissimilar in many respects, ____ and ____ both have evolutionary origins, and each has an essential place in the motivational hierarchy
hunger; sex
48
What are the 5 biological factors affecting hunger and eating? (HERBS)
1. Set point (Homeostasis) mechanisms
2. Exercise
3. Reward system preferences
4. Brain mechanisms controlling hunger
5. Sensors in the stomach
49
What is the set point?
Tendency of the body to maintain a certain level of body fat and body weight
50
What is the brain mechanism controlling hunger?
Hypothalamus
51
The hormone ____ signals hunger while ____ signals when the set point has been reached
ghrelin; leptin
52
We are adapted to prefer _______ foods, which is why we prefer _____ and _____ foods
calorie-dense; sweet; high-fat
53
Extreme exercise _______ hunger, but studies show that moderate exercise ________ appetite
provokes; suppresses
54
What are some psychological factors affecting hunger and eating? (CPL)
1. Culture
2. Proximal factors (eg threats, stress, depression)
3. Learning (association)
55
What is anorexia nervosa?
An eating disorder involving persistent loss of appetite that endangers an individual's health and stemming from emotional or psychological reasons rather than from organic causes (physical disorders)
Literally means "nervous anorexia"
anorexia: persistent lack of appetite
56
Anorexia nervosa poses the ________ of any recognised psychological condition
highest mortality rate
57
What qualifies as anorexia?
When a person weighs less than 85% of her desirable weight and still worries about being fat
58
What is bulimia nervosa?
An eating disorder characterised by eating binges followed by "purges", induced by vomiting or laxatives; typically initiated as a weight-control measure
59
What are the dangers of anorexia? (MOBS)
1. Cessation of menstruation
2. Osteoporosis
3. Bone fractures
4. Shrinkage of brain tissue
60
What are the dangers of bulimic vomiting?
Damage to esophagus, throat and teeth caused by stomach acid
61
Guisinger suggests that _______ under conditions of starvation may have been an advantage that motivated the ancestors of modern-day individuals with _______ to leave famine-impoverished environments
hyperactivity; anorexia
62
What are the dangers of obesity?
Heart disease, stroke, diabetes
63
Experts believe that the causes of obesity include:
1. Poor diet
- super-size portions
- high-fat and high-sugar foods
2. Genetics
3. Activity level
4. Lack of sleep
- body mistakes sleepiness for hunger
5. Stone-Age strategy
- eat more when food is abundant to prepare for times of famine
- not good because we don't use the energy (hunting/digging)
64
Why do psychologists object to the term "will power"?
1. Like "instinct", it is used merely as a label instead of an explanation
2. It is often used as a moral judgment, suggesting that the person has a deficiency in character if he has a "weak will"
65
Damage to parts of the ____ system is known to make control of eating more difficult
limbic
66
Self-control is a cognitive resource that can be _______
temporarily depleted
67
Those who needed to exercise self-control had ______ levels than those who did not
lower blood-sugar
Because sugar (glucose) is an energy source for the body,
the researchers speculate that exerting will power used up some of that energy, making people less efficient on the second task
68
Self-control is based, at least in part, on the body's ______
ready energy reserves
69
The sex drive is not _______
homeostatic
i.e. having sex does not return the body to an equilibrium condition
70
The underlying factor in sexuality and tendency to get in trouble with the law may be _________
risk-taking tendency
71
What is the sexual response cycle?
The four-stage sequence of arousal, plateau, orgasm and resolution, occurring in both men and women
72
What are the 4 stages of the sexual response cycle? (EPOR)
1. Excitement
2. Plateau
3. Orgasm
4. Resolution
73
Men and women have remarkably _______ patterns of biological response with regards to sex
similar
74
Although the phases of the sexual response cycle are similar in both men and women, women tend to respond _______ but often remain __________
more slowly; aroused longer
This makes sense from a biological standpoint because the male is likely to ejaculate before the female loses interest
75
Many women can have _________ in a short time period while men rarely do
multiple orgasms
76
Size of genitals or other physical sex characteristics is ___________ to any aspect of sexual performance
generally unrelated
77
Chivers discovered that heterosexual women are aroused by a __________ than are heterosexual men
broader range of erotic stimuli
78
Gay men and lesbian women are ___________ in their erotic tastes than heterosexual counterparts
more particular
79
Peplau pointed out 4 especially important differences between men and women which are:
1. Men show more interest in sex than do women
- think abt it more often
- more likely to attend to visual sexual stimuli
- prefer to have it more frequently
2. Women are more likely than men to view sex in the context of a committed relationship
- romanticise sexual desire as a longing for emotional intimacy
- men see it as physical pleasure
3. Sex is more likely to be linked with aggression for males than for females
4. Women's sexuality has greater "plasticity"
- behaviours and beliefs are more readily shaped by socio-cultural factors
- higher education is correlated with more liberal sexual attitudes
80
During orgasm, many regions associated with _________ in a woman's brain (unlike a man's) seem to fall silent
emotional control
response involves the dampening of anxiety responses that could otherwise inhibit orgasm
81
______ generally have priority over ______
Biological drives; psychological motives
82
_____ and _____ are both biological drives and psychological motives
hunger; sex
83
What is sexual orientation?
One's erotic attraction toward members of the same sex (homosexual orientation), the opposite sex (heterosexual orientation) or both sexes (bisexual orientation)
84
What is transsexualism?
People who view themselves as persons of the sex opposite to their biological sex
85
What is transvestism?
People who cross-dress for sexual reasons
86
Describe the multiple systems approach to understanding hunger
Because hunger has not only biological components but also cognitive, social, and cultural aspects, it must be understood as involving a complex interaction of factors
The multiple systems approach recognises such factors as blood sugar and fat level monitored by the hypothalamus, homeostatic feedback from fat cells, pressure and nutrient detections in the stomach, reward system in the brain, physical activity, emotional state, food-related stimulus, and social-cultural pressures
87
Explain, from an evolutionary perspective, why obesity is becoming more prevalent in industrialized nations
From an evolutionary standpoint, the human body evolved in an environment that required much more physical exercise than is required of most people in industrialised countries
This decrease in activity, along with an abundance of calorie-dense foods, has led to obesity
88
From a biological standpoint, in what respect is sex different from other biological drives, such as hunger and thirst?
Sex is not a homeostatic drive, nor is it essential for the survival of the individual
89
Why do psychologists avoid the term will power? What terms do they prefer instead?
The term will power suggests that it is a separate faculty of the mind, yet there is no evidence of a "will" that cannot be explained in more conventional terms that do not carry the baggage of a defect in character
Psychologists prefer to speak of "self-control" or "impulse control"
90
The damage to the circuitry of Elliot's ________ disrupted his ability to use his ________ to establish priorities among the objects, events, and people in his life
frontal lobes; emotions
91
What is an emotion? What is its function?
A four-part process that involves physiological arousal, subjective feelings, cognitive interpretation and behaviour expression
Emotions help organisms deal with important external events
92
What does the physiological arousal component of emotion involve?
The autonomic nervous system and endocrine system are triggered, causing an extensive visceral response
93
What does the cognitive interpretation component of emotion involve?
A conscious recognition and interpretation of the situation
94
Where does the subjective feeling component of emotion come from? (3 sources)
1. Brain sensing the body's current state of arousal
2. Memories of the body's state in similar situations in the past (somatic marker)
3. Mirror neurons (you feel the somatic marker of an emotion when you see someone else's state)
95
The brain stores a sort of emotional "body-image" that Antonio Damasio calls a __________
somatic marker
96
What do emotions do for us? RADS
1. Serve as Arousal states that signal important events
2. Help the organism Recognise such situations quickly when they recur
3. Increase Survival or reproductive success
4. Help us make Decisions because they attach values to the alternative
97
Emotions are either ________ or _________, which leads to a tendency for _______ or _______
positive; negative; approach; avoidance
98
Approach emotions involve the __________, whereas avoidance emotions usually involve the __________
dopamine reward system; amygdala
99
What are the 6 emotions that Izard argues for?
1. Interest
2. Joy/happiness
3. Sadness
4. Anger
5. Disgust
6. Fear
100
What are the 7 emotions that Ekman argues for? What are they based on?
1. Happiness
2. Sadness
3. Anger
4. Disgust
5. Fear
6. Contempt
7. Surprise
Based on the universally recognised facial expressions he studied
101
How many emotions does Plutchik argue for and what is it based on?
8+pride
Mathematical analysis of people's ratings of a large number of emotional terms
102
We have a limited number of basic emotions with a larger number of _________ that involves blends of the more basic emotions
secondary emotions
103
What are display rules?
The permissible ways of displaying emotions in a particular society
104
Give an example that illustrates how display rules can modify the universal facial expressions of emotion
Smiles may indicate happiness in some countries and embarrassment in others
105
What differences in emotional expression of men and women seem to be heavily influenced by culture?
Cultures often encourage men to show emotions related to anger, aggression and dominance, while they encourage women to show emotions related to compliance and submission
106
What are the brain's 2 distinct emotion processing systems?
1. Fast response system
2. Conscious emotional processing
107
How does the fast response emotion-processing system work?
It operates mainly at an unconscious level, where it quickly screens incoming stimuli and helps us respond quickly to potentially dangerous events, even before they reach consciousness
108
The fast response system is linked to ________, whereas the conscious emotional processing is linked to _______
implicit memory; explicit memory
109
The fast response system is a _______ system, making it hard to remove fears that could blossom into more serious problems known as _______
slow-to-forget; phobias
110
Unconscious emotion circuits have a built-in sensitivity to certain stimuli that posed ____ throughout human history
threats
111
The conscious emotional processing's responses are comparatively ______ and _____
slow; considered
112
What is lateralisation of emotion?
The two brain hemispheres process different various emotions
The left hemisphere apparently focuses on positive emotions while the right hemisphere deals primarily with negative emotions
113
