Social class differences in educational achievement

Question 1

Free school meals (FSM) as a substitute for social class

Answer 1

in educational research, there is often no easily available data on social class of parents or children in school, so eligibility for receipt of free school meals is often used as a way of measuring social class (however, many families eligible for FSM don’t claim them for fear of stigmatisation so as an indicator they may underestimate the extent of disadvantaged pupils)

Question 2

Perry and Francis (2010) point out that

Answer 2

social class is the strongest predictor of educational achievement in the UK, and they key factor influencing whether a child does well or badly

Question 3

the former Conservative Secretary of State for Education, Michael Gove, said in 2010 that

Answer 3

“Rich, thick kids do better than poor, clever children”, even before they start school

Question 4

Waldfogel and Washbrook (2010), using data from the Millennium Cohort Survey (a nationally representative longitudinal study of 12,644 children) found that

Answer 4

many children from disadvantaged backgrounds were already up to a year behind more privileged children educationally by the age of 3

Question 5

Compared to middle-class children of the same ability, lower working class students:

Answer 5

• are more likely to start school unable to read
• do less well in National Curriculum Tests (eg SATs)
• are less likely to attend the best state schools - 8% of students in the top 500 performing state schools received FSM, compared to 17% nationally (Sutton Trust 2013)
• are more likely to be placed in lower streams/sets
• generally get poorer exam results - 3/4 of students from upper-middle-class backgrounds get 5+ GCSEs A*-C, compared to less than 1/3 from lower-working class backgrounds
• are more likely to leave school at 16 (stay in training until 18) - only 1/2 of young people from unskilled manual families stay in post-16 full-time education, compared to 9/10 from managerial/professional families
• are more likely to undertake vocational courses
• are less likely to go to higher education - in 2008 70% of those accepted for university came from middle-class backgrounds (1/2 of general population is middle-class)

Question 6

Factors impacting working-class underachievemt

Answer 6

• lack of social capital
• lack of cultural capital
• parents’ attitudes to education and lower level of parents’ education, which means they can’t help and advise children
• ‘problem’ schools in deprived areas
• use of restricted code of language
• cultural deprivation and culture class between home and school
• teacher evaluations (stereotyping, streaming, labelling and self-fulfilling prophecy)
• working-class subculture
• material factors (poorer housing and diet, sickness, low income, part-time work)

Question 7

External factors impacting social class differences in educational achievement

Answer 7

Material factors (poverty, low wages, diet, health and housing) and cultural factors (values, attitudes and lifestyles)

Question 8

Material factor (external factor) impacting working class underachievement: Poverty and home circumstances

Answer 8

• Cooper and Stewart (2013) found that money makes a difference to educational achievement
• Waldfogel and Washbrook (2010) point out that lower class children are likely to live in crowded, dark, damp, unclean, overcrowded or unsafe housing conditions making study at home difficult and affecting schooling through sickness or tiredness
• pooper parents are less likely to have access to pre-school or nursery which can impact their children’s development
• low income/unemployment may mean that parents can’t afford education resources (computers, books, school trips, sports equipment, calculators etc)
• young people from poorer families are more likely to be in paid work which can conflict with study
• schools in poorer areas are less likely to be able to raise financial support from families for extra resources
• poorer families may be unable to support students in higher education, and potential debts from student loans may discourage working class students from going to university

Question 9

The hidden costs of free state schooling

Answer 9

The Child Poverty Action Group (2023) found that hidden costs of schooling (trips, uniforms, equipment etc) are on average £1756 a year per child in secondary school and £865 a year at primary school

Question 10

Material factor (external factor) impacting working class underachievement: Schools’ catchment areas

Answer 10

• in deprived areas, social problems eg unemployment, crime etc are poor role models for young people
• schools in such areas are more likely to have discipline problems (preventing students from learning) and high staff turnover
• children from the most disadvantaged backgrounds may have the most difficult and under-performing schools, whereas middle-class neighbourhoods will probably have stronger and more conformist role models, with fewer discipline problems and therefore a better learning environment

Question 11

Material deprivation (external factor) impacting academic achievement - Gibson and Asthana (1999) found that

Answer 11

the greater the level of family disadvantage measure in terms of lack of parents’ qualifications, unemployment, and not owning a car or house, the smaller the percentage of students gaining 5+ GCSEs at grades A*-C

Question 12

Material deprivation (external factor) impacting academic achievement - The National Equality Panel (2010)

Answer 12

pointed out that the highest achievers in schools come from the most advantaged areas, with very few of them coming from deprived areas, and very few of the lowest achievers coming from the most advantaged areas

Question 13

Material deprivation (external factor) impacting academic achievement - ATL teachers’ union (2011) survey found that

Answer 13

85% of teachers said they believed poverty has a negative impact on well-being and achievement, with disadvantaged students coming to school tired, hungry and not wearing proper uniform, with teachers reporting that such students often lack confidence, miss out on extracurricular activities and faced issues like not having a quiet place to study at home and lack of internet access

Question 14

Cultural deprivation definition

Answer 14

the idea that some young people fail in education because of supposed cultural deficiencies in their home and family background, such as inadequate socialisation, failings in pre-school learning, inadequate language skills and inappropriate attitudes and values

Question 15

Cultural factor (external factor) impacting educational achievement: Parental attitudes

Answer 15

Douglas (1964) found that the single most important factor explaining educational success and failure was the degree of parental encouragement, expectation, interest and involvement - Gorard, See and Davies (2012) showed that this remains true today
Middle class parents in general:
- take more interest in their child’s progress (eg through frequent visits to the school to discuss it)
- become more interested as the children grow older (eg with exam options and career choices)
- are more likely to push their children to stay in higher education

Question 16

Cultural factors (external factors) explaining class differences in educational achievement

Answer 16

• parental attitudes and interest
• parental level and knowledge of education and confidence in dealing with schools
• subcultural attitudes and values
• restricted code of language use
• amount of cultural capital

Question 17

Cultural factor (external factor) impacting educational achievement: Parents’ level of education

Answer 17

Middle-class parents tend to
- understand the schooling system better
- be more confident dealing with teachers, exam options and career choices
- be able to give more advice to their children
- know more about complaints procedures
- know what to buy to support their child’s education
- be more able to help their child with schoolwork

Question 18

Cultural factor (external factor) impacting educational achievement: Subcultural explanation - attitudes and values

Answer 18

Sugarman (1970) and Hyman (1967) found that
- middle class subcultures value career progress through individual effort which leads to valuing future orientation (planning for the future) and deferred gratification (putting off today’s pleasures for future growth), with individual effort and intelligence the keys to success, so children recognise the need for effort and hard work in order for later success
- in working class subcultures, educational qualifications are not often important to work, and the lack of career progression opportunities leads to valuing present time orientation (a lack of emphasis on long term goals and future planning) and immediate gratification (getting pleasure now rather than later), leading to fatalism (acceptance of the situation rather than trying to improve it). Also, collectivism (working together) provides more gain than individual effort. So, children prioritise having fun and enjoying themselves now, with collectivism discouraging the individual work that academic success requires.
Perry and Francis (2010) show that similar attitudes and impacts are still found today

Question 19

Cultural factor (external factor) impacting educational achievement: Language use
Bernstein (1971) and the restricted and elaborated codes

Answer 19

Bernstein argued that there are 2 types of language use, and middle-class young people’s familiarity with the elaborated code gives them a better chance of educational success
- the restricted code is informal and simple (eg slang), good for everyday use and is used by both middle-class and working-class people, but Bernstein argues that lower-working-class people are mainly limited to this form of language
- the elaborated code is formal and used in classrooms, job applications, the workplace etc, with a wider vocabulary, mostly used and understood by the working class. Bernstein argues that the language used in schools is the elaborated code and this gives middle class students an inherent advantage in understanding material, writing essays etc

Question 20

Criticisms of Bernstein’s idea of restricted and elaborated codes

Answer 20

• Bernstein tends to suggest all middle-class families have equal use of the elaborated code, but there’s a wide difference between higher and lower sections of the middle class, and a diversity of arrangements in the way language is used in both middle and working class families
• Rosen argues that Bernstein gives few examples to back up his claims of the existence of restricted and elaborated codes, accusing Bernstein of creating a myth of the superiority of middle-class speech
• Labov (1973) , based on his research in Harlem (New York), claims that working class speech is just different, not inferior, and that the working class are more effective in making their points, whilst middle class speakers get bogged down in irrelevant detail

Question 21

Cultural factor (external factor) impacting educational achievement: Bourdieu’s (marxist) theory of Cultural capital

Answer 21

• argues that each class has its own cultural framework or set of ideas - a habitus
• this habitus contains ideas on good taste, books, newspapers, TV programme etc and is picked up through socialisation
• the dominant class has the power to impose its own habitus on the education system
• those from middle or upper class backgrounds have more access to this habitus so have an educational advantage, which Bourdieu calls cultural capital
• Robson (2003) found that possession cultural capital in the form of activities like trips to museums, zoos, the theatre, the opera, extracurricular activities (music/sport lessons etc) gives greater chance of educational success, which can lead to educational capital (qualifications) and economic capital (material advantages like high income)
• Bourdieu also suggested that the upper classes have more social capital - networks of influence and support who can give help and advice

Question 22

Archer et al (2007) suggest that middle-class children are

Answer 22

more likely to experience a smooth transition between home and school life, since schools value the middle class habitus, whereas working class children may feel a clash between home and school, creating a sense of alienation and disaffection due to the culture clash

Question 23

Culture clash definition

Answer 23

a difference and conflict between the cultural values of the home and those of educational institutions

Question 24

Criticisms of cultural explanations for working class underachievement

Answer 24

• Reay (2009) points out that they ‘blame the victim’ by suggesting a cultural deficiency in the working class (eg lack of ambition or language skills)
• they tend to exaggerate the differences and downplay the similarities between the attitudes and beliefs of social classes
• they overlook practical difficulties and issues of self-confidence - eg many working class parents are ambitious for their children but long working hours and lack of education may prevent them from seeing teachers and helping kids with homework - Reay points out that many lower class parents lack confidence and assertiveness in interactions with teachers and schools, leaving them less able to support their children
• they ignore the role played by schools themselves, eg in extra encouragement for middle class children because they understand teachers better and in labelling of working class children as less able
• Keddie suggests that cultural explanations fail to recognise the need for change within schools due to the cultural difference between working class people and the education system. She suggests that the idea of cultural deprivation fails to recognise the cultural strengths of those said to be deprived

Question 25

Compensatory education definition

Answer 25

extra educational help for those coming from disadvantaged groups to help them overcome the inequalities that they face in the education system and in wider society

Question 26

Positive discrimination definition

Answer 26

giving disadvantaged groups more favourable treatment than others to make up for the impact of the inequalities they face

Question 27

Education Action Zones (late 1990s under Blair), rebranded to Excellence in Cities in 2005

Answer 27

• schools in socially disadvantaged areas (with high unemployment, poverty, poor housing etc) were given extra money and teachers to improve the schools and the educational performance of disadvantaged students
• However, Power and Whitty (2008) point out that, although in some schools teachers and individuals benefitted, evidence suggested that overall the reforms didn’t work and failed to make a difference to class based educational differences
• Kerr and West (2010) conclude that, whilst evidence suggests that schooling can lessen the impact of deprivation on children’s progress, its influence is limited by factors beyond the school system

Question 28

Bernstein (1970) - “Education cannot compensate for society”

Answer 28

suggesting that schooling alone will not solve the issue of working-class underachievement

Question 29

Internal factors influencing working-class underachievement

Answer 29

• resources in the school (class size, money, equipment etc)
• attitudes, interest and expectations of teachers, their qualifications, how well prepared they are and the quality of teaching
• pupil identities and subcultures
• teacher evaluations and stereotyping
• self-fulfilling prophecy
• streaming and labelling
• pressure from school league tables to educational triage
• access to classroom knowledge
• the ‘halo effect’
• school ethos and the hidden curriculum

Question 30

26.3% of students who receive free school meals go on to higher education compared to

Answer 30

45.1% of students who don’t receive FSM (UK gov)

Question 31

Pupils from households in the lowest fifth of income (who qualify for FSM) are

Answer 31

twice as likely to fail both maths and english GCSE than average

Question 32

in 2021 60% of GCSE grades given to independent school students were an A or above

Answer 32

compared to 30% of grades awarded to students in state schools