Skill essay plans Flashcards
1
Q
1.2 PCE
A
Expertise
- expertise - development of task-specific knowledge base through practice
- PCE
- experts pick up relevant info
- Williams and Ford (2008) - greater anticipation and decision making with extended engagement
- Mann et al. (2007) - experts better at picking up perceptual cues - diffs in visual search
- Williams et al. (2011)
anticipation
- definition - Abernethy et al. (2012)
occlusion
- temporal - manip advance info
- general info
- Williams and Burwitz (1993) - football - predict ball destination - experts adv early on - no-one very good early on - everyone gets better with time
- event - sources of info
- info
- Abernethy and Russell (1987) - indicate shuttle destination - racquet and arm prediction error increased - irrelevant had no effect - experts know how to pick up and use info
- Jackson and Mogan (2007) - tennis - info from toss and racquet and arm region underpinned anticipation skill
- Muller, Abernethy and Farrow (2006) - cricket - pick up general and specific task-relevant info early - bowling hand and arm
2
Q
2.1 PCE: decision making
A
implications of occlusion
- perceiver - uncertainty, aware of cues
- actor (deceiver) - disguise cues, increase uncertainty
- Causer and Williams (2015) - manip football uniforms, skilled more accurate on normal - skilled more affected by manipulations
- problems with occlusion paradigms - no action, situational probabilities, small screen, loss of audition
behavioural arms race
- anticipation v deception
- Jackson et al. (2006) - rugby players, predict direction change, novices susceptible to deception, said more confident on deception trials
decision making
- are you the next Iniesta?
- data from ECFC - at = youth did better, worse don’t get better with more practice, sport-specific training, cohesion other applications
- Belling et al. (2015) - support for LTWM observed during decision making, specific soccer tests better for predicting skill than general tests
3
Q
2.2 PCE: football penalties
A
penalty kick research
- penalty kick and penalties info
- Savelsbergh et al. (2002) - expert and novice Gks moved joystick in response to PK
- Dicks et al. (2010) - gaze and movement behaviours of footballers in different situations
- search rate
- criticism of occlusion paradigms
phD research and other studies
- previous research - Kuhn (1998)
- Wood and Wilson (2010) - KD approach in football
- Wood and Wilson (2017) - looking where you shoot
anticipation
- van der Kamp (2011) - select target early
anxiety and attention
- Jordet - circle diagrams
- Wilson et al. (2009) - disruption in gaze behaviour = reduction in shooting accuracy
attentional control theory
- Eysenck et al. (2007)
QE
- Wood and Wilson (2010) - a moving GK distracts penalty takers and impairs shooting accuracy
- Wood and Wilson (2011) - QE training for PKs
- Vine et al. (2017) - part of the QE important to performance
- Wood and Wilson (2012) - QE training and control under pressure
4
Q
3.1 I spy with my QE
A
visual perception
- info
- Uiga et al. (2015) - older people focus a couple of steps in front
eye movements
- eye tracking
- eye movements and gaze control
- fixations
- saccades
- eye movement metrics
- no. fixations
- gaze duration/fixation
- scan path
- Mann et al. (2007) - experts using fewer fixations of longer duration, including prolonged QE periods, compared with non-experts - better at picking up perceptual cues
- search rate
- lower for experts - pick out most relevant info - few fixations needed
- search rate
vision
- visuo-motor control
- visually guided actions - task-specific, goal-directed eye movements - top-down instructions
- Mann et al. (2013) - batters track where ball will hit - who are the experts?
QE
- information
- why is it useful? - hands controlled by brain
- specifics? - timing - length, onset, offset, know imp - proficiency, anxiety, training
- why is it important?
- Empirical studies
- Vickers (2004) - focus on one dimple of golf ball - 2-3s QE - dwell important
- pressure - Increased anxiety disrupts effective attentional control (QE)… AND … subsequent performance - shown with lots of sports
- QE and choking - Vine et al. (2013) - putted until missed - breakdown QE - dwell imp
- Lebeau et al. (2016) - large effect size for diff between experts and novices, large effect size between QE period to perf
control of attention
- Corbetta and Shulman (2002) - want to use dorsal attention and less of ventral attention
- Wilson et al. (2015)
critique
- Wilson et al. (2016) - still unsure about how it works
- Mann et al. (2016) - need to understand the mechanisms underlying it
5
Q
3.2 I spy with my QE: how to cheat learning with gaze training
A
the QE
- information - key PC variable, underpins - Expertise differences, Proficiency differences, Attentional control under pressure
- what is the QE doing? - VEPFAG
- QE training - acquisition, refinement, coordination
- Lebeau et al. (2016) - diffs in QE between E and N and successful and unsuccessful
training: sport
- Novices - skill acquisition - learn skill faster with QE - understand why people break down under pressure
- Vine and Wilson (2010) - smoother profile, perf maintained, cardiac deceleration, reduced muscle activity
- Smeeton et al. (2012) - vision training for sport shows performance improvements
other domains
- Moore et al. (2014) - QE intervention group had better performance and standards in rifle shooting
- Wilson et al. (2010) - surgery - longer fixations
- Wilson et al. (2011) - surgery and QE
already trained performers
- benefits? - refinement, dealing with pressure
- Vine et al. (2011) - golf perf - better with QE in lab and on course - adv
- Wilson and Richards model - prepare, perform, review
improving children’s motor ability
- The Waterloo foundation - DCD v TD - baseline and retention - better with QE
- Miles et al. (2015) - DCD children - can learn attentional control - changes present in technique but not outcome - not very long to train
- Wood et al. (2017) - DCD - better with QE
6
Q
4.1 implicit learning
A
a model to describe motor learning
- Fitts and Posner (1967)
- cognitive
- associative
- autonomous
types of learning
- declarative
- procedural
WM
- Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
- phonological loop
- visuo-spatial sketchpad
- central executive
types of processes
- explicit
- implicit
- Reber (1992) - consciousness
implicit learning
- definition - Reber (1989)
- is it beneficial?
- Baars (1998) - better unconsciously
- Reber (1992) - phylogenetically older
- Masters (2012) - the zone
- how can we tell learning was implicit?
- number of rules
- movement measures
- RTs - Lam et al. (2010)
- neural measures - Zhu et al. (2011)
IML
- definition - Masters (1992) - speculated can evolve evolutionary old attributes
- why use it? - pressure
- Norman (1982) - thinking about action
- Bliss-Boder hypothesis - over-analysis
- self-focus theories of choking
- Baumeister (1984) - definition - consciousness
- why use it?
- better perf under pressure
- reduce chance reinvestment
- reduce DK
- T3 - verbal-analytical processing
- Kerick et al. (2011)
- Fz - motor planning
- Kaufer and Lewis (1999)
- coherence
- Zhu et al. (2011) - less coherence better - more implicit
reinvestment
- definition - Masters (1992), Masters and Maxwell (2008)
1. perf context- Moore et al. (2013) - evaluations before performance
2. predisposition - MSRS - Masters et al. (2005)
- Moore et al. (2013) - evaluations before performance
- reinvestment and falling
- Wong et al. (2008/9) - increased awareness of limb movements
- Uiga et al. (2016) - reinvestment plays role in walking in older adults - stance and foot placement
- Malhotra et al. (2015) - surgery - problems if consciously monitor already learned movement
- critiques
- Carson and Collins (2016) - don’t focus on those trying to refine skills
- Mullen and Hardy (2010) - holistic and part-process goals
- Oudejans et al. (2010) - distraction theories - direction towards worries
- Toner and Moran (2014/15) - consciousness helps in elite - can choose when to use it
7
Q
4.2 the how and why of IML and a critical look at reinvestment
A
general
- characteristics - knowledge, stress, intuition
- Masters et al. (1994) - PD - robust to dual task
neurological evidence
- Gallicchio et al. (2015) - reduced coherence = more implicit = better perf
why might IML be beneficial?
- Abernethy et al. (2012) - novice Ps - implicit group perf better under stress
- Kal et al. (2018) - weak results for other studies
a means to IML
- mechanisms of creating IL env
dual-task learning
- Masters (1992) - random letter generation and putt - 5 conditions
- Masters et al. (2000) - ways of creating IML - not useful if takes too long
- Goh et al. (2012) -
errorless learning
- Maxwell et al. (2001) - golf putt perf unaffected by secondary task
- Capio et al. (2011) - greater gains in movement accuracy and perf efficiency
- Chauvel et al. (2012) - errorless showed similar traits to those learned implicitly
- Zhu et al. (2011)
- Schmitz et al. (2014) - alzheimers - errorless learning helps faster automation of procedure
analogy learning
- Masters and Liao (2001) - table tennis shot - better perf with analogy - chars of IML
- Kleynen et al. (2014) - stroke - increased perf after analogy
- Goodwin et al. (2015) - PD - follow footprints in sand
- Capio et al. (2019) - softball batting - only novices showed improvements
- Schucker (2013) - golf putting - didn’t find analogy imp perf any more than normal learning
- Lam et al. (2009) - no diffs in retention - maintained performance in transfer - fewer rules - implicit learning
- Komar et al. (2014) - breaststroke - benefitted inter-limb swimming coordination
other mechanisms
- reduced feedback
- Maxwell et al. (2003) - withhold feedback –> inhibits the use of WM –> prevents formation of declarative knowledge without affecting procedural
- QE
- Brain stim
- Zhu et al. (2015) - Cathodal tDCS over the left DLPFC may foster implicit motor learning and performance
is it always bad to reinvest?
- picking up skills quicker
- Maxwell et al. (2016) - partially against - high motor better with errorful
- Malhotra et al. (2015) - against - components of MSRS aided perf rather than hindered
- experts continuous improvement
- Toner and Moran (2015) - conscious helps in elite
- relearning skills
- Toner and Moran (2014) - use conscious processing when re-learning
- Carson and Collins (2016) - 5 A model
other tensions
- cue words - against IML
- holistic goals
- Mullen and Hardy (2010) - those that use holistic goals outperform those that use part-process goals - part-process goals don’t impair test performance compared to baseline - holistic goals provide a more focused, efficient performance
choking
- Englert andOudejans (2014) -
- Oudejans et al. (2011) - under pressure attention of expert athletes was often focused on worries and hardly ever on movement execution - furthermore, the athletes reported that they focused attention on external factors and that they reverted to pos monitoring in an attempt to maintain perf
- Wilson et al. (2007) - stronger support for predictions of processing efficiency theory
critique
8
Q
8.1
A
limits on modifiability of performance
- Galton (1869) - “So long as he is a novice, he perhaps flatters himself there is hardly an assignable limit to the education of muscles; but the daily gain is soon discovered to diminish, and at last it vanishes altogether. … There is a definite limit to the muscular powers of every man, which he cannot by any education or exertion overpass”.
do experiences help?
Ericsson
- the myth of talent
- key points
- Ericsson et al. (1993) - professionals and best experts accumulated 10,000 hours - all groups - repeated amount of practice increases monotonically from when they start to the age of 20
- start young and practice lots
- 10 year - 10000 hours
- Ericsson (2009) - It describes different types of deliberate practice activities that develop and refine mental representations, which in turn permit attained performance to exceed performance resulting from extensive experience only - expert performance and outstanding achievements will be primarily constrained by individuals’ engagement in deliberate practice and the quality of the available training resources.
deliberate practice
- definitions
- 5 elements
- activities that make it up
- Baker and Young (2014) - Three types of constraint: motivation, resources, effort,
- Macnamara et al. (2014 and 16)
- conclude that deliberate practice is important, but not as important as has been argued
- Overall, deliberate practice accounted for 18% of the variance in sports performance. However, the contribution differed depending on skill level - deliberate practice accounted for only 1% of the variance in performance among elite-level performers - athletes who reached a high level of skill did not begin their sport earlier in childhood than lower skill athletes.
Hans-Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome
- 3 stage response to stress
what should we do?
- intrinsic motivation
- Eddie Jones
quality training
- Qs to ask
how is sport different to music and chess?
- enjoyment
- Starkes et al. (1996) - wrestlers and figure skaters enjoyed engaging in the activities that they considered to be highly relevant to performance in their specific domains. - genetic component
- Tucker and Ericsson
- Tucker and Collins (2012) - 1. Individual performance thresholds determined by genetic make-up - Training = process by which genetic potential is realised
- 10000 hours
- Duffy et al. (2004) - only small variance in sport determined by practice - slightly more in chess
- Gobet and Campitelli (2007) - chess - some reached master by 5000 and some not by 25000
- Helsen et al. (1996/8) - some sports = less than 10 years
- Baker et al. (2003) - some sports = less than 10 years
- Oldenziel et al. (2003/4) - some sports = less than 10 years
issues in applying DP to sport
- training fun
- all training might be DP
- what is the content of DP?
- burnout
- less play
- too structured
- focus on elite
cost-benefits
- skill development
- Clark and Metcalf (2002) - Fundamental motor skills base for future participation - Successful with more athletic skills
- Berry et al. (2008) - Repertoire of skills transferred from one activity to another
- Baker et al. (2003) - Practice content versus practice quantity
- Brylinksy (2010) - Practice content versus practice quantity
- social development
9
Q
8.2 developmental model of sports participation - sampling/deliberate play
A
DMSP (Cote et al. (2007)
- 3 stage trajectory
- Cote et al. (2012) - “The underpinning principle of sport programs for children is to provide space, opportunities for playing and training, and equipment for a large number of children across various sports, so that the best athletes among a large pool of motivated adolescents can be selected.”
- elite opportunity
7 postulates about youth sport activities
testable tenets
- DP
- DMSP
early specialisation
sampling
- can you make it if you sample?
- Baker and Cote (2003) - team ball sports - Experts had: 1. More practice (after 12 yoa) - 2. More additional activities
- Gibbons et al. (2002) - Olympians and commitment to pursue excellence - Few specialised at primary school - Specialisation not until college or later - Not necessary better to specialise early
- will you hang around longer if you sample?
- Law et al. (2007) - Olympic gymnasts rated their health as lower than international gymnasts and reported experiencing less fun
- more positive youth development through sampling
- Wright and Cote (2003) - University students - Diversified sporting experiences related to more positive peer relationships and leadership skills - Develop important life skills
- Fraser-Thomas and Cote (2009) - adolescent developmental experiences
- Fraser-Thomas et al. (2008) - dropouts were: - Engaged in fewer extra-curricular activities - Completed less unstructured swimming play - Had less 1-1 coaching
- Fransen et al. (2012) - Boys aged 10-12, who spent many hours in various sports, performed better on standing broad jump (p < 0.05) and gross motor coordination (p < 0.05). - Spending many hours in more than one sport might be beneficial in helping develop strength and motor coordination.
early specialisation/diversification
- (table)
No clear solutions have been drawn in:
- psychology (see Gould, 2010)
- physiology (see Kaleth & Mikesky, 2010)
- biomechanics (see Mattson & Richards, 2010)
- at 13 children should have choice
- Horn and Hams (2002) - important period for development of identity and competence - Can fully understand the effects of effort, practice and ability on their competence
- specialise from 16
deliberate play
- chars of informal games
- Coakley and Pike (2009) - chars of informal games - 1. Action, especially action leading to scoring
2. Personal involvement in the action
3. A close score (that is, a challenging or exciting contest)
4. Opportunities to reaffirm friendships during the game.
- Coakley and Pike (2009) - chars of informal games - 1. Action, especially action leading to scoring
10
Q
9.2 Early engagement. Early specialisation in football but play is important
A
soccer research
- Pulnik (2017)
- Pearce (2017)
is football a special case?
- early specialisation
- diversification
- engagement
- haugasen and Jordet (2012)
main activities
- practice
- comp
- play
Helsen et al. (1998)
developing expertise
- Williams and Ford (2012)
international differences
- Ford et al. (2012)
what activities are being coached?
- Ford et al. (2010)
- Low et al. (2013)
what leads to better PCEs?
- Roca et al. (2012)
early engagement pathway
- childhood
- adolescence
11
Q
10.1 talent, can you spot it?
A
why is this important?
- Beijing (2008)
- London (2012)
- Rio (2016)
missing talent
- Roland (1998)
- Tucker and Collins (2012)
genetic component
- Heritage study (Bouchard)
- COL5A1 gene
- VDR
- ACE - Puthucheary et al. (2011)
- Tucker
- Epstein
- issues to consider
talent id
- talent selection
- which error is most tolerable? - talent detection
- British Rowing WCS
- other skill based sports? - talent transfer
- do we need to specialise early?
- Durandt et al. (2011)
- Vaeyens et al. (2009)- implications
- recycling
- AIS Gulbin
- adv
- Abbott and Collins (2002)
- Phillips et al. (2010)
- Vaeyens et al. (2008)
LT success
- Gulbin et al. (2013)
- Gullich and Emrich (2019)
- Gullich et al. (2019)
- Johnson et al. (2008)
12
Q
10.2 Talent ID: which characteristics are associated with sporting success?
A
the performer
- birthdate
- Lupo et al. (2019) - RAE over a range of sports - born close to the beginning of the year = 1-2x more likely to reach higher levels - RAE present in at least one sport in each phase
- Genetics
- Pickering et al. (2019) - genetic testing is being increasingly used - utilised as a tool to predict future elite athlete status - can guide nutrition and training recommendations and assist in the prevention of injury - should still be combined with other tools
- Anthropometric and physiological factors
- Podrigalo et al. (2018) - kickboxing - technique is a simple, informative and objective tool for monitoring and predicting the status of athletes
- Psychological skills and motivational orientations
- Rogaleva et al. (2019) - The study proved that coping strategies and mental reliability are closely related to the level of sportsmanship - more active coping strategies and have a higher level of competitive emotional stability.
- Personality traits
- Steca et al. (2018) - athletes who had experienced the most success in their sport scored higher than non-athletes in each personality dimension of the Big Five, with the exception of openness
the Wonderlic test
- general info
- higher scoring
- lower scoring
- average scores
- Pitts and Evans (2018) - performance on the Wonderlic test is positively correlated with NFL performance - but not with draft position
the environment
- birthplace
- Budziszewski (2018) - Based on prior research, the expected results should reveal an over-representation for both male and female basketball players in areas that have between 250,000- 500,000 inhabitants - study ongoing
- family support
- Brown et al. (2018) - Appraising supporters as caring and understanding enabled support to be effective. - Family and peers (other retired athletes) were the most effective supporters. - as imp as giving support
- athlete support programmes
- Gullich et al. (2019) - neg life experience, good coaches, diversification,
the GBMP
- Rees et al. (2016)
- differences between groups
- study results
13
Q
11.1
A
talent development
- Vaeyens et al. (2008) - talent development criticisms
- Abbott and Collins (2004) - talent development programmes need to be multidimensional and highlight the role of psychology
realistic pathways
- Gulbin and Weissensteiner (2012)
talent development models
- Gagne
- Vaeyens et al. (2008)
- Tucker and Collins (2012) - giftedness v talent
- Collins et al. - The importance of psychological characteristics in transforming giftedness to talent
- Abbott and Collins (2004)
mindsets
- Dweck
grit
resilience
14
Q
11.2 talent
A
sampling and deliberate play
DMSP - no competition?
RFU: shaping the game
other articles
15
Q
11.2 deliberate preparation
A
is deliberate preparation key?
biobanding
American Development Model
DMSP
