Semantics Flashcards
Parameters
1) Heads can be final (Japanese), initial (English), or both (German)
2) Verbs can stay in V (English), move to T (French), or move to C (German)
Semantics and Pragmatics
both concerned with linguistics meaning
Semantics
Linguistic meaning that is independent of the context in which the sentence is spoken
Pragmatics
Linguistic meaning that is dependent on context
Truth Conditions
What it would take for the sentence to be true or false, what the world would need to be like in order for the sentence to be true
4 types of semantic knowledge
Sentences can:
1) be synonymous
2) contradict each other
3) entail each other
4) imply each other
Principle of Compositionality
The meaning of a sentence is determined by the meanings of the words it contains and the way they are syntactically combined.
Reference
- You can refer to the same entity using different linguistic expressions
- Usually, you can substitute one expression for the other and the truth conditions of the sentence will stay the same, but not always
Extension
The object than an expression actually refers to
Intension
The recipe for getting from the expression to its extension
T or F: all expressions have extensions
False
Binding Theory
3 principles that govern the reference of pronouns and anaphors
Pronouns
Elements whose extension can only be determined in relation to some other element called the antecedent
Antecedent
The element the pronouns refers back to
Pronominals
she, her, he, it, they, we, etc.
Reflexive Pronouns (Anaphors)
herself, himself, itself, themselves, etc.
Co-reference is indicated with
subscripts
C-commands
A NP c-commands its sister and everything it dominates
Principle A
A reflexive pronoun must have a c-commanding antecedent in the same minimal TP
Principle B
Pronominals must not have a c-commanding antecedent in the same minimal TP
Principle C
Referring expressions must be free everywhere
Referring expressions
Everything that’s not a pronouns
Logical words
Can be given precise definitions
Content words
Meanings are more difficult to pin down - we need to distinguish between linguistics knowledge or real-world knowledge
Encyclopedic knowledge
Knowledge about facts about the world
Linguistic knowledge
Knowledge about semantic relations between content words
Entailment
If S1, then automatically S2
Hyponymy
Something belongs to a set of something else
T or F: Entailment survives negation
false
Mutual Entailment
If A is true, B is necessarily true and vice versa. Sentences are synonymous or equivalent
Contradiction
If A is true, B is false. If B is false, A is true
Presupposition
Background assumptions to be shared between the conversation participants.
T or F: Presupposition survives negation
true
Truth Value Gap
If the presupposed material is false, then the sentence is neither true nor false
Implicature
What the listener can infer based on what the speaker says in a given context
T or F: Cancelling an implicature results in a contradiction
False
Grice’s 4 maxims
Maxim of Quality, Quantity, Relevance, Manner
Maxim of Quality
Try to make your contribution one that is true
Maxim of Quantity
Make your contribution as informative as required. Do not make your contribution more information than is required
Maxim of Relevance
Make your contribution relevant
Maxim of Manner
Be clear and and avoid ambiguity
H. Paul Grice
Came up with the theory of implicature. People use language cooperatively according to conversational norms
Distinguishing whether B is an entailment, presupposition, or implicature of A
1) Does B have to be true regardless of whether A is true or false
- if so, presupposition
2) Does B have to be true if A is true
- if so, entailment
- if not, implicature
