Sem 2 Weeks 1-3 Flashcards
Test 1
1
Q
Automaticity Theory
A
The word interferes with the colour naming when the word and colour do not match because reading is an automatic process and recognising colours is a more controlled process
2
Q
Selective Attention process
A
Reading requires less attention compared to identifying a colour, that’s why it takes us longer to identify the colour of words in incongruent trials
3
Q
Aphasia
A
Language disorder that affects a person’s ability to communicate, often
a result of a stroke or brain injury
4
Q
What tasks might people with aphasia find difficult?
A
Talking , Comprehending spoken or written language, Writing, Using numbers, for example calculating answers to problems.
5
Q
Broca’s Area
A
Involved in speech production.
6
Q
Wernicke’s area
A
Involved in language comprehension
7
Q
how does fMRI work
A
It is a safe and non invasive imaging method which detects changes in blood flow. An increase in blood flow correlates with neuronal activity
8
Q
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
A
Non-invasive technique that disrupts specific brain activity for a fraction of a second. Allows us to investigate the role of certain areas in human functioning
9
Q
Central Nervous System
A
brain and spinal cord
10
Q
Peripheral Nervous system
A
Comprised of the autonomic and somatic systems
11
Q
What is special about neuronal cells
A
Can transmit information by receiving and sending electrical and chemical signals.
12
Q
Function of dendrites
A
Detect signals and receive information from branch points and sends it into the soma
13
Q
What is the cell body (soma)
A
contains nucleus and organelles, life support system
14
Q
Function of the axon
A
transmits signal away from the cell body and down the neuron
15
Q
What are axon terminals
A
terminal end of axon where the neuron synapses
16
Q
What are dendritic spines
A
The extra surface area along dendrites where axon terminals from other neurons can make connections - More surface area for connections to form
17
Q
Axon Hillock
A
point of neuron at the base of the axon where it “fires”
18
Q
What does “all or nothing” mean
A
Once the signal reaches a certain threshold, the neuron will fire
19
Q
What is myelin
A
a fatty, lipid-rich substance that insulates most axons
20
Q
Function of myelin
A
Allows the signal to “hop” along nodes of ranvier and travel faster
21
Q
Unmyelinatied action potential speed vs myelinated speed
A
1 meter per second compared to up to 100 metres per speed
22
Q
3 types of glial cells
A
Oligodendrocytes, Schwan Cells, Astrocytes
23
Q
Function of Astrocytes
A
- Repair and provide support to neurons
- Brings nutrients from the blood stream to the neurons using the blood brain barrier
24
Q
Function of Schwan Cells
A
Form myelin sheaths in the PNS - increases speed of info travelling through the axon
25
Function of Oligodendrocytes
Form myelin sheaths in CNS to increase speed of action potential travelling through the axon
26
How do Oligodendrocytes and Schwan cells work differently
Oligodendrocytes consist of a cell body with multiple arms, and wrap these arms around axons to form a tight sheath. In comparison, Schwan cells wrap their entire cell body around the axon (instead of using extensions)
27
Excitatory Signals
Increase likelihood of the neuron firing
28
Inhibitory Signals
Decrease likelihood of the neuron firing
29
What is summation
The sum of all incoming signals determine whether the neuron fire
30
What is the voltage a neuron must reach to fire
-55mv
31
What voltage is the resting membrane potential
-70mv
32
What is the difference in concentration of ions inside and outside the cell (Na and K)
Inside of the cell has higher conc of K+ ions and is more negatively charged than the outside of the cell, which has higher conc of Na+ ions.
33
What are voltage gated ion channels
Selectively permeable to certain ions and open once certain voltages are reached (usually v = -55mv)
34
Leaky Potassium Channels
All cells in the body contain leaky potassium channels that are only permeable to potassium, allowing potassium to diffuse outside the cell. This makes inside of the cell more negative than extracellular space as positive ions are LEAVING.
35
Passive diffusion -concentration gradient
Ions move from areas of high conc. and toward lower conc. until equilibrium is reached
36
Passive diffusion - eletrical gradient
Charged particles will move across membrane until equilibrium occurs (same charge on both sides)
37
What is an action potential
The change in the voltage inside a cell (relative to outside the cell) taking place at one section of the neuron at a time (not all at once).
38
Where are action potentials generated?
Axon Hillock
39
What happens once the threshold of -55mv is reached
Voltage-gated Na Channels open, causing sodium to flood into the cell (due to concentration & electrical gradient)
40
What is depolarisation?
When a voltage of -55mv is reached and Na+ flows into the cell, the cell becomes more positive (also causes K+ ions to rush outside of cell).
41
What is the Na+/K+ close threshold
30mv
42
What happens once the voltage becomes 30mv (overshoot)
Voltage gated Na channels close, resulting in repolarisation as Na stops flooding in and K+ leaves.
43
Refractory Period
Voltage drops below resting potential (hyperpolarised)
44
How does the cell return to RMP after refractory period
Na+/K+ pump comes in. (3Na+ out, 2K+ in) to return voltage to -70mv
45
Saltatory Conduction
Occurs in myelinated action potentials, resulting in an increased rate of propagation causing the signal to move faster. This is because the action potential occurs only at the nodes of Ranvier, not down the whole axon.
46
What does electrochemical communication mean
Neurons use both eletrical and chemical communication to transmit and recieve signals
47
Electrical communication in neurons
Action potential generation and modulation
48
Chemical communication in neurons
Interneural communication (at synapses, using neurotransmitter)
49
Synapse
Space between one cells dendrite and another cells axon terminal
50
What does the Pre-synaptic neuron do?
Neuron that sends signal
51
Post-synaptic neuron
Neuron that recieves signal
52
Neurotransmitter
chemicals that are released by presynaptic cell into synaptic cleft
53
Vesicles
"vehicles" that enclose and transport neurotransmitters
54
3 types of synapses
- Neuron-Neuron
- Neuron-skeletal muscle (neuromuscular joints)
- Neuron-Gland Cells (neuroglandular synapses)
55
Axodendritic Synapse
synapse directly from the axon terminal to the dendrites
56
Axosomatic synapse
synapse directly onto cell body
57
Axoaxonic synapse
synapse onto axon
58
Role of calcium
Essential for allowing neurotransmitters in presynaptic cell to exit the cell and enter the synaptic cleft
59
Role of chloride
Helps neurons send inhibitory signals
60
What happens when action potential arrives at presynaptic terminal
It depolarises it
61
What does depolarisation of the axon terminal cause?
Allows voltage-gated Ca2+ channels to open, allowing for the influx of Ca2+ in the axon terminal
62
What happens when presynaptic cell has an influx of Ca2+
Allows vesicles to fuse with the membrane and the neurotransmitter to be released into the synaptic cleft through exocytosis.
63
What happens once the neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft
It binds to receptors, causing channels to open (or close)
64
Function of receptors (on post-synaptic neuron)
Once these receptors connect with the right shape/number of neurotransmitter, the receptors release ions into post-synaptic cell. These ions can be excitatory (positive ions) or inhibitory (negative ions)
65
Effect of receptor sending ions into post synaptic cell.
Influx of ions either depolarises or hyperpolarises the cell, making another action potential more or less likely.
66
How are neurotransmitters removed from synaptic cleft
glial uptake (to be reused) or through enzymatic degradation.
67
What are ligand gated ion channels
require certain ligand (neurotransmitter) to release ions into postsynatic cell.
68
What is glutamate
Most common excitatory neurotransmitter
69
What is GABA
Most common inhibitory neurotransmitter
70
EPSP (excitatory postsynaptic potential)
- When glutamate triggers opening of ligand gated channels lets Na+ and Ca2+ ions into postsynaptic cell.
The cell depolarises and becomes more excited, more likely to fire
71
ISPS (inhibitory postsynaptic potential)
- When GABA triggers opening of ligand gated channels, they let Cl- flow into the cell
The cell hyperpolarises, becomes inhibited and is less likely to fire
72
What is reuptake and why is it beneficial
Neurotransmitter is transported back into presynaptic cell. Allows cell to reuse neurotransmitter to conserve energy and lower amount of neurotransmitter that needs to be made
73
How does reuptake occur
The pre-synaptic cell membrane has neurotransmitter-specific "transporter" proteins to recieve and reuptake the chemicals
74
What are neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses from one neuron to another neuron (or to muscle/gland cell)
75
Is dopamine excitatory or inhibitory
Can be both - depending on receptors on post-synaptic cell. Different ligand channels that can release different ions to make this excitatory or inhibitory
76
Role of dopamine
- Motivation
- Thoughts and feelings
- Experiencing pleasure
- Association of certain behaviours with reward
- Attention, mood regulation
- Coordinating Movement
77
What neurotransmitter is deficient in those with Parkinsons
Parkinsons disease = progressive loss of dopamine-producing neurons)
78
What is serotonin involved in
- Regulation of mood, sleep, eating, arousal, pain
79
How do antidepressents work (think what neurotransmitter is reduced with depression_
Antidepressants target neurons that produce serotonin to boost serotonin levels
80
How can sunlight boost serotonin
Sunlight exposure stimulates production of Vit. D in the skin. Vit D is involved in serotonin synthesis.
80
Why does alcohol lead to sedation and anxiolytic effects.
Acts as an agonist for GABA. It binds to a part of GABA receptors to make them even more inhibitory, making neurons that release GABA stronger at inhibiting the firing of the next neuron. The impact of this is drowsiness and anxiety reducing effects.
80
Agonist
Drugs that occupy receptors and activate them
81
Antagonists
Drugs that occupy receptors but block receptor activation
81
What are SSRIS
Reuptake inhibitors that don’t effect post synaptic receptor but instead target reuptake
82
How do SSRI's work
Block reuptake = more neurotransmitter left in synapse for longer = more is taken up by ion channels = stronger effect of neurotransmitter
83
Function of Glia
help support the work of neurons
84
The basic assumption of all modern neuroscience and psychology
Mental functions are the product of activity in the nervous system
85
Functions of the nervous system (4)
- Receives sensory information from the environment
- Integrates and processes information
- Regulates internal functions
- Produces motor actions
86
What can autonomic nervous system be broken down into:
Sympathetic (arousing) and Parasympathetic (calming)
87
Autonomic Nervous system function
Involuntary, automatic activity. Controls and regulates blood vessels, organs (including the heart) and glands
88
Somatic nervous system function
Skeletal muscles - conscious movement/activity
89
What is a nerve
bundle of axons (like an electrical cable).
90
Structure of nerve
Within the nerve, axons are bundled into sub bundles and this is held together by connective tissues. Nerves contain blood vessels to provide axons with nutrients.
91
Somatic nerves
form synapses onto skeletal muscles
92
Sympathetic Nervous system
-Increases arousal
- Prepares the body for survival-related action
- (4F's) Fight, flight, flee, Mate (fuck) - increase HR, BP, slowed digestion, dilation of pupils
93
Parasympathetic nervous system
Performs opposite actions to sympathetic. Reduces arousal, Redirects blood to other locations (digestive tract), Returns the body to resting state
94
Neuraxis
Central axis of the nervous system
95
Most creatures vs humans neuraxis
Most creatures (quadrapedal mammals) have spinal cord and brain along a single line. Since we stand on two legs and look forward, our neuraxis is like an upside down L and changes.
96
Rostral/Anterior end of nervous system
- Forehead or front of face
- Towards the top end of our spine (towards skull)
97
Caudal or Posterior
- Back of head
- Towards the feet
98
Dorsal
Above the neuroaxis (top of brain, back of spinal cord)
99
Ventral
Below the neuroaxis (bottom of brain, front of spinal cord)
100
Lateral
- Towards the side, outside surface
101
Median
In or towards the middle
102
What is structure and function of the spinal column?
It is the structure of bone and cartilage within which the spinal cord lives (protects spinal cord.) It consists of many vertebrae connected with rings of flexible cartilage (allow us to move flexibly)
103
Top part of spinal column (C1-C6)
Cervical vertebrae
104
2nd part of spinal column (under cervical vertebrae) C7 - C12
Thoracic vertebrae
105
Spinal column under the thoracic vertebrae (L1 - L5)
Lumbar vertebrae
106
Botton part of spinal column (S1 - S5)
Sacral
107
What is grey matter comprised of
Mostly Cell Body
108
What is white matter comprised of
Mostly myelinated axons
109
where is the spinal Nerve located?
Located on either side of spinal cord (on each side it comes out in two parts that come together to form a single nerve)
110
Where does information come into spinal cord through
Dorsal horn
111
Dorsal Root Ganglion
Dorsal nerve soma collected together here outside of the spinal cord
112
Where does information leave the spinal cord through
Ventral Root/ventral horn
113
Difference between root and horn
Root (within spinal cord)
Horn (outside the spinal cord)
114
Ganglion
A collection of cell bodies outside of the spinal cord
115
Is the cell body of motor neurons located within or outside the spinal cord
Cell body of motor neurons are inside the spinal cord, info flows out from cell body outside to spinal nerve
116
General orientation of grey and white matter in the brain.
Grey matter lines the outside of the brain (opposite to spinal cord)
Most of the white matter is concentrated inside the deep portion of the brain
117
Horizontal/axis/transverse section of brain
Parallel to the floor
118
Sagittal section of brain
Parallel to profile
119
Coronal section of brain
Parallel to face
120
What section of the brain is phylogenetically ancient and evolutionarily preserved among basically all animal species
Hindbrain
121
Main function of hindbrain
Coordinates information flow to/flow from the spinal cord
122
Medulla
- Part of hindbrain
- Extension of the spinal cord
- Controls basic physiological functions (heart rate, circulation, respiration)
123
What 4 parts are within the hindbrain?
Medulla, Reticular formation, Cerebellum, Pons
124
Reticular formation
- Part of hindbrain
- Regulates sleep/wake and arousal
125
Cerebellum
- Part of hindbrain
- Controls fine motor activity
- Doesn’t initiate movements, but refines and smooths them
- Requires computational power = big structure (mini brain)
126
Pons
- Part of hindbrain
- Collection of cells and white matter
Relays info between cerebellum and rest of the brain
127
How do we know that the cerebellum functions as it does
Cerebellar ataxia (damage to the cerebellum)
- Cause tremor and lack of coordinate muscle movements. This shows the importance of the cerebellum in refining and adding precision to our movements
128
What are the two main subdivisions of the midbrain
Tegmentum and Tectum
129
Main function of midbrain
- Coordinates basic functions in relation to perception and action
130
Tectum
- Dorsal area of the midbrain
- Spatial orienting to the environment (eg. turning your head to look over at something you heard)
- Consists of 4 bubble-like structures (colliculi)
131
What are superior colliculi?
Part of tectum (midbrain) involved in vision
132
What are Inferior colliculi
Part of tectum (midbrain) involved in audition
133
Tegmentum
- Ventral part of mid-brain
- Movement (allows us catch a ball without thinking about it)
- Arousal
- Pleasure seeking
134
Where is the Substantia Nigra
A part of the tegmentum
135
Substantia Nigra and Parkinsons
High level of dopamine gives this area a dark colour (Dopamine = involved in movement & pleasure seeking). In patients with Parkinson's (deficiency in dopamine) this portion of the brain is pale
136
Forebrain
Evolutionary the newest, involved in higher brain functioning with portions unique to humans
137
Basal Ganglia
- Part of forebrain
- Movement and reward
- Plan initiation of intentional movements
- Decide which muscles need to move to reach out intentionally
138
Thalamus
- Part of forebrain
- Sensory gateway
- Egg-shaped structures
- Relays & filters information from the senses to the cortex
- Most sensory information goes first to the thalamus before being sent to relevant processing areas in the cortex
139
4 parts of the limbic system
Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland, Hippocampus, Amygdala
140
Function of limbic system overall
Related to arousal and emotional processing
141
Hypothalamus
- Part of limbic system (forebrain)
- Regulates internal bodily functions
- Body temp, hunger, fight, flight, flee, mate
142
One way we can know the function of the hypothalamus
- Experimental lesion to the hypothalamus in rats - eats insatiably and gets fat as it does not receive cues that its "full"
143
Pituitary Gland
- Part of limbic system (forebrain)
- Releases and regulates hormones into the bloodstream
144
Hippocampus
- Part of limbic system (forebrain)
- Important in spatial navigation
- Creates and integrates new memories (but not long term storage)
145
Amygdala
- Part of limbic system (forebrain)
- Almond shapes
- Responds to emotional processing
- Particularly related to threats and fear
- Evolutionarily, the brain has evolved to scan and register threats (spiders and snakes) faster than other, non-dangerous things
146
Sulcus
Folds into brain
147
Gyrus
Visible part of fold on surface of brain
148
4 lobes that are in each hemisphere of the brain
Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal
149
What is the corpus callosum
Wide band of white matter that connects the two hemispheres of the brain
150
What is the "pool of liquid" that the brain floats in
Cerebro-spinal Fluid (CSF)
151
Function of Cerebro-spinal Fluid (CSF)
Liquid that provides shock absorption when the brain moves against the skull
152
4 layers of external membrane of the brain
- Dura Mater (closest to skull)
- Arachnoid (legs that give it spongy texture) - where CSF flows
- Pia mater (closest to cortex)
153
Ventricles inside the brain
4 ventricles ("empty spaces" containing CSF?
154
Choroid Plexus
Collection of blood vessels between ventricles that are designed to secrete CSF
155
Primary somatosensory Cortex
- Sense of touch
- Processes touch on skin anywhere in the body
156
Primary Motor Cortex
Allows muscles to move
157
1950 Penfield brain stimulation
During neurosurgery, he stimulated the exposed cortical surface with an electrode. He found these causes (sensation, movement, memories)
This can be used to map functions, help knowledge of the brain, and allow surgeons to know what areas to cut out of the brain
158
Occipital Lobes
- Located at rear of brain
- Vision
- Posterior location of occipital lobe is primary visual cortex
159
Temporal lobe
Semantic knowledge (meaning of words, identifying objects)
- Audition
160
Parietal Lobe
- Spatial attention
- Sensory integration
- Object location (where objects are in space)
- Numerical cognition, quantities
161
Frontal lobe
- Planning
- High level executive function
- Self control
- Abstract thinking
