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History: England 1625-1660 > SECTION B: The Short and Long Parliaments > Flashcards

SECTION B: The Short and Long Parliaments Flashcards

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1
Q

Background to the Short Parliament: What key events should you be mindful of? (The Scottish Crisis?)

A
  • 1637: The Prayer Book Revolt
  • 1638: The National Covenant
  • 1639: The first Bishops’ War
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2
Q

The Short Parliament, a very brief overview

A
  • 13th April-5th May 1640. Key figures: John Pym, John Hampden
  • Charles recalls Thomas Wentworth, AKA the Earl of Strafford, to London in September 1639 due to the Scottish Crisis
  • Stratford advises Charles that he should call another Parliament
  • Stratford suggests this because he realises that a war effort would be dependent on Parliamentary concessions. Stratford believed that he could play on their anti-Scottish sentiment to make them act favourably. A letter had been intercepted from Scotland to France asking for aid, which made it more essential that Parliament should be submissive
  • The Parliament were not as submissive as expected. They refused to grant the King taxes and quickly turned to religion
  • King dissolves Parliament 5th May 1640
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3
Q

The second Bishops’ War, a very brief overview

A
  • English army move North against the Scots
  • Difficulty finding commander (Earl of Northumberland is ill and Strafford has gout)
  • Scots are on the offensive. Whilst English march on York, Scottish forces sidestep them at the Battle of Newburn with minimum losses. Newcastle is captured
  • Scots initiate embargo on London’s coal
  • No commander–> Indecisive army –> fraternisation and desertion occur
  • 24th September, Council of Peers meet at York and advise King to call a Parliament
  • 21st October, Treaty of Ripon: Scots won’t march on York if
    (i) They occupy Newcastle
    (ii) Charles calls a Parliament
    (iii) They are paid £850 daily until their demands are met

–> November 1640: Charles issues writs to county Sherifs to hold Parliamentary election = End of Personal Rule

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4
Q

Timeline: Key dates in 1640

A
  • April-May: Short Parliament, New Ecclesiastical canons issued by a convocation of the CofE, Laud is attacked at Lambeth Palace by apprentices as he is seen as the architect of religious grievances and therefore the Scottish Crisis that had by extension caused the Parliament to fail
  • August: Second Anglo-Scottish Bishops’ War, Battle of Newburn, Newcastle captured, Coal Embargo
  • September: Council of Peers
  • October: Treaty of Ripon
  • November: Long Parliament + end of Personal Rule
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5
Q

The Long Parliament as a ‘Climacteric’ (Austin Woolrych)

A
  • Period from Nov 1640- dissolution in 1642 is one of four that Austin Woolrych has identified as a ‘Climacteric’
  • Climacteric: “bursts of change…in which political crisis was particularly intense and decisions particularly momentous”
  • Other periods include 1066, 1485 and 1832
  • In this period:
    1) Long Parliament meeting in November 1640- outbreak of war August 1642
    2) NMA’s defiance of Long Parliament in 1647–> second Civil War–> Regicide in 1649
    3) 1653, Cromwell’s quarrel with Rump and establishment of the Protectorate
    4) Army’s confrontation with Cromwell’s son Richard –> Restoration of Charles II 1660
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6
Q

The early months of the Long Parliament, November 1640

A

November

  • Optimism, hopes that Reformation could be finished
  • Strafford impeached and imprisoned
  • Charles expected Parliament to finance further war with Scots
  • Bastwick, Burton, Prynne, Leighton, Lilburne…all freed
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7
Q

The early months of the Long Parliament, December 1640

A

Dec 1640

  • 1640 Canons voted illegal
  • Laud impeached
  • Judges who upheld Ship Money/Tonnage and Poundage are impeached
  • Some flee to contenant (ie Finch)
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8
Q

The early months of the Long Parliament, January 1641

A

Jan 1641

  • Law for the destruction of images, Charles promises to defend “true” religion of Elizabeth’s days
  • Bishop Williams, Laud’s enemy, appointed Archbishop
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9
Q

The early months of the Long Parliament, Feb 1641

Important month for the dismantling of the Personal Rule

A

Feb 1641

  • Root and Branch Petition proposed abolition of episcopalism
  • -> Good indicator of later side taking
  • February 1641, Triennial Act is passed meaning that a Parliament must be called every three years
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10
Q

Long Parliament, March 1641

A

March 1641

- Trial of Earl of Strafford begins (separate cards for this)

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11
Q

Long Parliament, April 1641

A

April 1641

  • Prosecution of Strafford fails to prove case (separate cards for this)
  • Army Plot: Pym reveals that some army officers had planned coup d’état with King’s support. Army would move from York to London, free Strafford and forcibly dissolve Parliament. May 3rd, army cannot breach Tower of London
  • -> Bill of Attainder passed
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12
Q

Long Parliament, May 1641

A

May 1641

  • Bishop’s exclusion bill: to prevent Bishops sitting in the House of Lords
  • Strafford executed (separate cards for this)
  • Riots in London
  • Parliament can no longer be dissolved without its own consent
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13
Q

Long Parliament, June 1641

A

June 1641

  • Tonnage and Poundage Act: Tonnage and Poundage abolished
  • House of Lords rejects the Bishop’s exclusion bill (the Lords had several Bishops sitting on it
  • Charles REJECTS 10 Propositions: Evil ministers excluded and Parliament to consent to all future appointments. Catholics around queen and children to be replaced with Protestants
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14
Q

Long Parliament, July 1641

*Important month for dismantling PR *

A

July 1641

- Act abolishing Star Chamber and the Court of High Commission

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15
Q

Long Parliament, August 1641

*Significant month for the dismantling of the Personal Rule

A

August 1641

  • Act abolishing Ship Money
  • Limitation of Forests Act
  • Act abolishing the Distraint of Knighthood
  • Charles visits Scotland
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16
Q

Long Parliament, October 1641

A
  • Irish Rebellion, reports of violence by Catholics against Scotland. Rumours that Charles and Henrietta orchestrated it to advance popery, of a Catholic invasion, and that Charles will again try to use Irish troops in England
  • The Incident: Attempted kidnapping of Marquiss of Argyll is foiled, Charles denies all involvement but is later forced to consent to abolition of episcopacy in Scotland
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17
Q

Long Parliament, November 1641

A
  • Violent moods in light of Irish rebellion, mobs demonstrate across country
  • John Pym presents the Grand Remonstrance to Parliament, an attack on the King’s rule. Proposes it be printed, claiming it is the Catholics in the court that have corrupted him
  • Key moment: Parliament is threatening to overrule the King*
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18
Q

Long Parliament, December 1641

A
  • Mobs frequent in London, terms ‘roundhead’ and ‘cavalier’ used
  • Militia bill proposed by Oliver St John. Militia to be raised by Lord-General. Parliament to choose commanders. Bill passes but opposed by King (further encroachment on royal prerogative)
  • Rumours that Henrietta Maria is to be impeached
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19
Q

Long Parliament, January 1642

A
  • 4th: Charles attempts to arrest Pym and four others. Takes soldiers into Parliament. They had been tipped off and slipped away
  • Mob denounce King and uphold the privileges of Parliament. Rumours of conspiracy against Parliament now believe them!
  • Charles heads North, abandoning capital in a hurry. Conrad Russell stresses that this physical distance made Civil War a real possibility
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20
Q

Long Parliament, February 1642

Clue: February–> (F) stands for…

A
  • Bishops’ Exclusion Bill is finally passed. Bishops, and many Royalists, leave Lords
  • Henrietta Maria (F)lees to Holland
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21
Q

Long Parliament, March 1642

Clue: March–> (M) stands for…

A
  • (M)ilitia Ordinance is issued without Charles’ consent. Allowed Parliament to control Militia and Navy by means of a Lord-General and Lord-Admiral
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22
Q

Long Parliament, April 1642

A
  • Confrontation at Hull. Sir John Hotham refuses to surrender the royal arsenal to the King
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23
Q

Attempt on the 5 Members, 4th January 1642…name the 5? Acronym: “Slim John…”

A
  • John Pym
  • John Hampden
  • Denzil Holles
  • Sir Arthur Haselrig
  • William Strode
  • Edward Montagu

Slim John Doesn’t Wanna Eat Jam

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24
Q

Long Parliament, May 1642

A
  • 37 of England’s 40 counties send petitions to Parliament requesting reconciliation and moderate religious reform
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25
Q

Long Parliament, June 1642

A
  • 19 Propositions: Parliament to control government and offices of state, to appoint officials, control Church and militia
  • -> King disagrees on grounds that this would upset balance and encroach on his prerogative
  • King issues Commissions of Array: Instructions for county militia to assemble under the command of his officers
  • -> Militia receiving orders from two different sets of officers, causing scattered fighting
26
Q

Long Parliament, July 1642

A
  • Parliament creates a Committee of Safety to oversee military operations
  • 12th: Parliament votes to raise army, placed under Earl of Essex
27
Q

Long Parliament, August 1642

A
  • 22nd: Charles raises his standard (flag) at Nottingham, requesting his supporters to rally at his side
  • -> WAR BEGINS
28
Q

Expectations of the King before the Long Parliament commenced

A
  • Unrealistic…
  • Hoped Parliament would give funds to renew war with Scots unless they abandoned their opposition to episcopalism and the Prayer Book
29
Q

Expectations of the Privy Council before the Long Parliament

A
  • Charles should leave the conflict with the Scots with as little loss of face as possible
  • They accepted that Charles would have to make some concessions in order to improve relations with the people. For example, giving up Ship Money
30
Q

Expectations of the Privy Council before the Long Parliament

A
  • Optimism
  • No prolonged conflict
  • No drastic change
  • Wanted return to ideal norm: Elizabethan, pre-Arminian CofE
31
Q

Expectations of the Scots before the Long Parliament

A
  • Dependent on the goodwill of that Parliament, which ratified the terms of the Treaty of Ripon
  • Parliament should find the money to pay the occupying army’s costs
  • Scottish commissioners had friends in the Parliament and were greeted by cheers - boded well?
32
Q

Long Parliament context: the elections of August 1640

A

Electorate:

  • Greater political involvement lower down the scale lead to greater disputes
  • Debates between candidates moved from local issues to national issues for the first time
  • Opponents of the Kings policies appealed, and those who were associated with the Court were rejected
  • Puritanism was important as a reaction against Charles and Court. Has been claimed that this Parliament was “more Puritan than the country itself”
33
Q

Long Parliament context: Petitions

A
  • Petitions inceased the public’s awareness of contentious issues
  • committee for scandalous ministers (to investigate Laudian clergy) received 900 petitions
  • Hitherto, most had been against popish religion, but now many were in favour of the prayer book (why?)
  • Root and Branch petition demanded abolition of episcopacy
  • 20 counties sent anti-episcopal petitions in 1641
  • 1641-2, 26 petitions from 20 counties sent in defence of the church–> Evidence of divisiveness of religion
34
Q

Long Parliament context: Print

A
  • In the political confusion of 1640, press censorship was not easily enforced
  • Publications ranged from serious to satirical
  • Petitions were printed, encouraging others to do the same
  • Analytical sophistication and heightened political awareness/participation
35
Q

Long Parliament context: The Junto

A
  • A clear group in each house became apparent, nicknamed the ‘Junto’
  • Junto filled the power vacuum left by Charles’ loss of authority
  • In the Lords, Earl of Warwick and Earl of Bedford were key oppositional figure
  • In the Commons, John Pym, John Hampden and Oliver St John were key players
  • Difficulty leading such large houses, as all MPs valued their independence and right to be heard
  • Aim of forcing Charles into giving them/Parliamentary figures administrative positions with the promise of revenue and then reforming government
  • Had to be careful, as constinencies backing MPs endorsed attacks on Charles, but were wary of any money making initiative. Similarly, alliance with Scots was useful (allowed them to hold King to ransom with payments at Treaty of Ripon, but some suspected them of prolonging treaty for that purpose
36
Q

Long Parliament context: Iconoclasm

A
  • St Pauls and many parishes, altar rails were pulled down and images
  • Some claimed to be doing so on the wishes of Parliament after it had condemned them ( C.f. Jan 1641, Law for the destruction of images), whilst others were self proclaimed anarchists
  • Services disrupted, Laudian clergy abused
  • Vestments defiled (damaged, appearance ruined)
37
Q

Long Parliament context: Soldiers

A

-King’s army remained after Newburn, was not disbanded until 1641…King continued to hope he could use it against the Scots
- Heavy burden on Yorkshire, where it demanded food and beds from the people and vandalised property
- Became bored and disaffected (dissatisfied with authority)
- Inadequate pay, many in arrears (owed money)
BUT…
- Kept together in large numbers for long periods, which presented the chance for training?

38
Q

What evidence is there of the divisiveness of religion in this period (1640-42)?

A
  • “The one consistently divisive issue was religion.” - Miller
  • –> Debated in Long Parliament in some form from Nov 1640-April 1642
  • Petitions: Petitions from more than 20 counties against Lauidianism, asking for root and branch reform. BUT also petitions from 20 counties in defence of the Church?
  • Debate over root and branch petition in Feb 1641 was very divisive, as many were concerned about the implications of abolishing episcopacy (episcopacy part of the ancient constitution, and no episcopacy might lead to no monarch. James I: “No Bishop, No King.”
  • Parliament issued order for destruction of images in January 1641, and allowed ‘Godly’ parishes to invite ‘Godly’ preachers. Some allowed this, some didn’t…some destroyed icons, some didn’t
  • Some radicals began to reject established churches, and formed independent congregations to preach to
  • Much violence was against those identified by Parliament as enemies of Parliament and Protestantism (Ie Catholics, Laudians)… such as mobs attacking churches and refusing to allow bishops entrance to the Lords
39
Q

Straffords Trial: The premise for trying Strafford

A

-Strafford had advised to dissolve the Short Parliament, believing the Scots could be countered by a combination of English and Irish forces. The English were ill prepared and the Irish never got there, so the Scots won…

The Charges:

1) (On the testimony of Sir Henry Vane) Strafford had “you have an army in Ireland, which you can use here to reduce this Kingdom” (or some words to that effect)
2) That Strafford had benefited from his customs in Ireland by
(i) Extending area of English settlement
(i) Reclaiming Church and Crown lands
(i) Imposing heavy burdens on new English

40
Q

Strafford’s Trial: The impeachment and a promise from Charles I

A
  • Impeachment trial commences on 22nd March 1641

- Charles promises Strafford shall come to no harm in “life, honour or fortune”

41
Q

Strafford’s Trial: Strafford’s defence

A
  • Strafford had been charged with “Constructive Treason”, a collection of acts which cumulatively count as High Treason
  • Strafford criticised a deaf witness’ testimony
  • Strafford claimed that the balance between the Royal Prerogative and the subjects’ liberty is essential. That people have rights, but they have rights under a monarch.
  • Testimony used from the privacy of Charles’ quarters used against a man in a treason trial “takes away the comfort of all human society:
  • Strafford was hated by his persecutors and they could not be relied on for an impartial execution of the law
42
Q

What was the result of Strafford’s excellent defence at trial?

A
  • Tension between hardliners and Lords, keen to follow due process.
  • 10th April, Pym and Commons introduce a Bill of Attainder, simply declaring Strafford guilty. It is now up to the Lords
43
Q

What event acted as a catalyst for the Lords confirming the Bill of Attainder?

A
  • House of Lords were initially reluctant to condemn one of their own
  • Details of the Army Plot emerge. Disaffection with Parliament as they had used some of the army’s pay to fulfil terms of the Treaty of Ripon. Petition to reclaim pay, and plans to move army South to take Tower of London. headed by Sir John Suckling to capture the Tower of London
  • -> This event was capitalised on by hard liners, who claimed that the plot had originated from the King and Queen with the aim of freeing Strafford
  • 8th May 1641, Lords pass Bill of Attainder
44
Q

Why did Charles sign Strafford’s death Warrant?

A
  • Public opinion: April, petition agaisnt Strafford had 20 000 signatures, and angry crowds had gathered
  • Commons and Lords had found Strafford guilty
  • If Charles refused, he would be defying Parliament’s, and the public’s wills. This could lead to Civil War
  • There were threats being made against his family (crowds at Whitehall expressed hostility towards Catholic Queen
  • Bishops wanted him to sign it
  • Parliament wouldn’t pay Scots if he didn’t
45
Q

Charles signs Strafford’s death warrant –> Execution

A
  • 9th May, Privy Council advise Charles to sign the death warrant
  • 10th May, Charles signs
  • 12th May 1641, Strafford executed on Tower Hill in front of 200 000
46
Q

May 1641 - a turning point. What signs were there of improvement?

A
  • Strafford’s death 12 May 1641 appeased the public, as he had come to epitomise the fear of Catholic massacre
  • Grievances of the Personal Rule were beginning to be addressed
    (i) - February 1641, Triennial Act is passed meaning that a Parliament must be called every three years
    (ii) - June 1641, 10 Propositions carried before Lords. Not ‘Act’ but aims that could be met through separate bills. Increased Parliament’s power over the King and tackled poper
    (iii) - August 1641
  • Act abolishing Ship Money
  • Limitation of Forests Act
  • Act abolishing the Distraint of Knighthood
47
Q

May 1641 - a turning point. Despite progress, what signs of danger remained?

A
  • Charles was angry at the wrongful death of Strafford and wished to punish his enemies (Warwick, Pym, Essex). English and Irish armies still assembled. If Charles reconciled with the Scots then he would have three armies at his disposal
  • High level internal conflicts between Junto and King, both unwilling to negotiate with the other
  • Junto were not interested in reforming government structure, but personnel. Impeachment was inadequate tool to remove Charles’ ministers, so it was better if the Junto secured the positions and ensured that they never got there in the first place
48
Q

The political ‘temperature’ in Parliament on the eve of the Irish rebellion

A
  • Jason Peacey: The Irish rebellion offers perhaps the best example of a ‘billiard ball’…Until the outbreak of the rebellion, the campaign for reform in England was running out of stream…The Irish rebellion threw everything into confusion again.”
  • Anglo-Scottish rapproachment was explicitly anti-Catholic in nature. The rebellion may therefore be seen as a natural result of events in Charles’ other two kingdoms.
49
Q

Events of the Irish Rebellion

A
  • 1 November 1641, Privy Council report to the Commons that Protestants were being massacred in Ireland
  • Reports of heinous crimes against English and Scottish protestants, explained in print - the reliability of some accounts is questionable, they include roasting babies on fires…
    ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
  • The King had NOT authorised the rebellion. A commission suggesting this was a forgery
  • Strafford’s policies were the chief cause of the rebellion. It was his downfall that made it possible. Irish exiles began planning as soon as he left for England in Spring 1640
  • Violence NOT one sided. Lisnegarvy, Protestants act with ‘indiscriminate and sadistic violence’
  • HOWEVER, Londoners had a far more one-sided account of the violence
50
Q

What was the significance of the Irish rebellion of November 1641?

A
  • Subatantiated the rumours of a popish plot that had been circling for so long, in Junto and normal English people. Exposed pre-existing prejudices (Spanish Armarda and Gunpowder Plot all in last half century
  • Accusations (though certainly false) that Charles had sent a commission authorising it were believable
  • Army required to fight them, but since the rebels claimed to be fighting for Charles, many felt he couldn’t be trusted.
  • –> Issue of Charles’ military authority was what caused the Civil War…
  • Explosion of print, declaring Irish atrocities, polarized opinion. The onset of side taking
  • Created union between central government’s reform agenda and the anti-Catholicism of the localities
  • Grand Remonstance (see separate card)
51
Q

The Grand Remonstrance

A

Background:

  • Money for Irish expeditionary army would only be granted if Charles made concessions
  • Pym wanted to weaken growing Royal support in Parliament, as people were beginning to believe he was reasonable and could be trusted

The document:

  • Review of Charles’ reign, which suggested conspiracy was behind it
  • Included demands for Parliament to control King’s ministers, Bishops’ exclusion from Lords, Root and Branch church reform

The outcome:

  • Passed by narrow margin of 11 votes
  • Document accepted by whole or not at all, so many attacked royal prerogative in choosing to vote for it
  • 200 absent on day - controversial document?
  • Would NOT be passed through Lords, so Commons simply published it
52
Q

The Explosion of Print 1640-42

A
  • Quality and quantity of print increased exponentially
  • More items printed in 1641 than in any year in England’s history thereto
  • Number of printing shops doubled
  • Suggests increased demand as well as abundance of supply
  • Way of expressing values and of building reputation
53
Q

Social tensions 1640-42

A
  • Parish disturbances with Puritan sympathisers acting on Parliament’s orders to destroy Catholic imagery
  • Mob disturbances in and around Westminster
  • Cressy: “The system had not disintegrated, but it was certainly fraying at the edges”
  • Challenges to positions of authority: Clergy, magistrates, constables
  • Local courts inundated with charges of resistance to authority, from rent avoidance to defying constables
54
Q

Conflict over the Church 1640-42

A
  • Bill for abolition of episcopacy
  • reallocation of Dean and Chapter property to Crown
  • People taking law into their own hands, destroying altar rails, vestments, icons and images
  • Concern that liberty of worship>Laudianism could lead to ‘open blows’. People therefore retained an attachment to episcopacy and the prayer book as they were seen to be synonymous with hereditary monarch and constitutional government
55
Q

Conflict over the Church 1640-42: Conservative (Laudians and Mainstream Conformists who were previously critics of the Laudian reforms) responses

A
  • Praise of Bishops and their work in ministry for centuries
  • Episcopacy essential to government, social order and property
  • Many members of commons became more and more uneasy about bill for destruction of images, branding it irresponsible
  • Concern about Pym’s leniency towards street preachers and illegal religious gatherings
56
Q

Why was there a Civil War in 1642?

A
  • Parliament had slowly but surely challenged the Royal Prerogative. It would not not rest until Charles I was a submissive, ceremonial figurehead
  • Strafford’s execution was a watershed. Showed that the King would submit and was vunerable. Gave way to concessions and dismantling of the Personal Rule
  • Events in the three Kingdoms: Scottish Rebellion and National Covenant evoked sympathies in England
  • Events in the three Kingdoms:England executes Strafford –> Irish Rebellion in November 1641 provoked fears of popish conspiracy, implicated the King and raised the issue over the control of the Militia. Allowed for National Covenant
  • Individuals and the Junto opposing the King in Parliament
  • Charles’ intransigence and failings: Would not compromise on the 19/10 propositions, attempt on the five member. Left London in Jan 1642 creating physical separation
  • Conflict over the control of the Militia: Milita ordinance vs Commissions of Array
57
Q

How far was Charles I responsible for the Civil War of 1642?

A
  • The two Army Plots
  • The Incident
  • Disastrous attempt on the 5 MPs
  • Intransigence at 19/10 propositions. Only made concessions when forced to
  • Physical separation between him and Parliament
  • Would ‘rather [wage war and] die than yield’
58
Q

How far were other factors, aside from Charles I,

A
  • Parliament had slowly but surely challenged the Royal Prerogative. It would not not rest until Charles I was a submissive, ceremonial figurehead
  • Strafford’s execution was a watershed. Showed that the King would submit and was vunerable. Gave way to concessions and dismantling of the Personal Rule
  • Events in the three Kingdoms: Scottish Rebellion and National Covenant evoked sympathies in England
  • Events in the three Kingdoms:England executes Strafford –> Irish Rebellion in November 1641 provoked fears of popish conspiracy, implicated the King and raised the issue over the control of the Militia. Allowed for National Covenant
  • Individuals and the Junto opposing the King in Parliament
  • Conflict over the control of the Militia: Milita ordinance vs Commissions of Array
  • Failure of the Bridge Appointments
59
Q

The Junto: Who rose to the top and in what ways?

A
  • Oliver St John became Solicitor-General
  • Earl of Warwick became Lord High Admiral
  • Earl of Essex became Lord Chamberlain
  • Lord Saye and Sele became Master of the Court of Wards
60
Q

Signs of Royalist party emerging by October 1641?

A
  • Debates on Episcopacy and Prayer Book: Some opposed Root and Branch reform
  • Alarm at iconoclasts
  • Ordinance passed for destruction of images done so without Lords’/Royal assent (agreement. Consent=permission…there’s a difference here and it’s important)
61
Q

The Bridge Appointments

A
  • Bedford put forward settlement plans to try to bridge the gulf between MPs and the King.
  • 19 February 1641 – Bedford, Saye and Sele, Mandeville and Essex were appointed to the Privy Council as advisers to Charles
  • Bedford and Pym wanted a return to an Elizabethan-based Protestant church. They proposed a government where Bedford was appointed as Lord Treasurer and Pym as the Chancellor.
  • Conrad Russell has argued that Bedford’s settlement plans “were not an opposition programme, but an attempt, with backing from inside the heart of government, to drag the king kicking and screaming into the real world, and thereby to reunite the country”.
  • The settlement made some progress, but the death of Bedford in May 1641 (of smallpox) made further progress difficult.

History: England 1625-1660 (7 decks)

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