Section 3 Flashcards
What book did Lenin write in 1917? What did he explain in it?
State and Revolution
Ideology
What was Lenin concerned about the transition of when the Bolsheviks achieved power?
Socialism
What determined early Bolshevik rule over Lenin’s ideology? What State did this develop?
Circumstances
Soviet state
What Marxist view did Lenin follow? What did Lenin hope for?
Government should be in the hands of “the people”
Democracy
What did most Russians, along with Lenin, believe a revolution was all about?
Ending all social privileges
What did the peasants do to nobles’ land?
Distributed it out
What did workers take control of in the cities? What call of Lenin’s did they respond well to?
Factories
“The looting of the looters”
What did workers confiscate from the bourgeoisie? What happened to it?
Property
It was shared
What were the wealthy forced to do under the workers?
Manual labour
What did Lenin and Trotsky believe would create a socialist society? What event did they hope this would emerge from?
World revolution
Great War
During WW1, what 2 groups did socialists take on in a civil war? Why was this important?
Employers and government
It strengthened Marxism
What Marxist idea was based on societies such as those in Germany and Britain?
“Dictatorship of the Proletariat”
What would “dictatorship of the proletariat” mean for urban workers? How much of the Russian population were peasants during WW1?
They were a “majority”, not one
80%
What military advance continued during WW1?
German military advance
What did the Bolsheviks promise to Russians? What were they forced to sign?
Peace An armistice (cease-fire)
Who played for time in German treaty negotiations? What was he hoping for in the West?
Trotsky
Revolution
What did Lenin insist that Russia accepts? What did some not like about it?
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
It was humiliating for Russia
What did Lenin believe was more important than an international revolution? What foundation did this create for Stalin?
Russian revolution
“Socialism in One Country”
Who did Lenin believe should exercise the “dictatorship of the proletariat” movement?
Bolsheviks
Who did Lenin have no interest in sharing power with? What did he close to show this?
Other socialists
He closed the Constituent Assembly
What Soviet did Lenin increasingly bypass to show no enthusiasm in socialists?
Petrograd Soviet
How was Sovnarkom run after March 1918? Who left Sovnarkom at this time?
Bolshevik-only Sovnarkom
Remaining SRs
What party did the Bolsheviks become in March 1918?
Communist Party
What War had a huge impact on the development of the Communist Party? What became more centralised as a result?
Civil War
Government
What did the Communist Party resort to in order to enforce laws?
Terror
What could a highly centralised government be portrayed as in the Communist Party?
Fulfilling socialist goals
What policy did “War Communism” allow? What did this policy allow?
New Economic Policy (NEP)
More capitalist practices
What ban did Lenin inflict on the Party for tight unity? Who later used this to defeat their rivals?
“Ban on factions”
Stalin
What location was persecuted under Lenin?
Church
Whose powers were extended under Lenin?
Secret police
What trials were used to condemn SRs?
“Show trials”
What 2 organisations shaped policy under Lenin?
Central Committee
Politburo
How many members were in the Politburo? Which 3 key figures did this include?
7
Stalin, Lenin and Trotsky
What new post was created in order to co-ordinate Party work? Who filled this post?
General Secretary
Stalin
What does Historian D. Volkogonov argue the Bolshevik system embodied?
“The Bolshevik system embodied Lenin’s own personality”
Ideology and change: what was sidelined in the excitement that accompanied October revolution
Issues of ideology
Ideology and change: what took priority over whether the manner of taking power conformed to the Marxist ideal
The pressing need to retain and consolidate control
Ideology and change: Lenin and bolsheviks acted first and … later
Justified later
Ideology and change: how did soviet historiography try to explain and justify all that Lenin did in later years
In name of Marxism and pre determined logic of history
Ideology and end to war: what did Lenin and Trotsky assume that bolshevik seizure of power would spark
Similar revolutions elsewhere in Europe
Ideology and end to war: why did Trotsky and Lenin expect revolution particularly in Germany
Seemed ripe for revolution by all economic, social and pol criteria put forward by Marx
Ideology and end to war: what were bolsheviks simultaneously committed to as well as rousing German workers and soldiers against imperial gov
Pursuing peace with that gov
Ideology and end to war: what was Bol persuing of peace with German gov despite
Knowing that peace would strengthen imperial gov they wished to destroy
Ideology and end to war: what did Trotsky 1917 that made contradiction acute
Trotsky began peace negotiations in Dec after armistice in Nov
Ideology and end to war: what did German gov demand as part of peace negotiations and what effect did this have on bolsheviks
Large swathes of Russian territory, split bol
Ideology and end to war: what group did Bukharin lead when Bol split
Revolutionary war group
When did Lenin decide to dictate his testament
December 1922
In what form did Lenin decide to dictate his testament in Dec 1922
A letter to be read to the party Congress ok bus death
What did Lenin give in his testament
He did not nominate a future leader, but gave his critical opinion of members of politburo
Who did Lenin particularly criticise in his testament
Stalin
Why did Lenin particularly criticise Stalin
Party because of Georgian affair and partly because Stalin insulted Lenin’s wife
When did Stalin become the party’s general secretary
April 1922
What did Lenin’s refer to (Stalin’s personality) in his testament
Personal rudeness, uneccesary roughness and lack of finesse
What did Lenin suggest to comrades in his testament
That they should think of a way of removing Stalin from his post
Why was Lenin’s testament never read in public as intended
Since central committee decided among themselves to surpress it- played into Stalin’s hands
What had the communists been split over since 1921
Economic policy
How had Lenin’s NEP of 1921 been controversial
It conflicted with strict Marxist teaching
What was at the heart of ideological debates of the 1920s
Whether Lenin had intended the NEP to be a temporary measure
Who favoured abandoning the NEP and who weee they represented by
Left
Represented by Trotsky, zinoviev and kamenev
Who supported the NEPs continuance and who were they represented by
The right
Represented by Bulgarian, rykov and tomsky
What was Stalin’s position in the support of the NEP
Stalin fluctuate from a left leaning position up to 1925, to temporary support for the right and the continuance of NEP 1925-28 and back again
What can Stalin’s fluctuations be accounted for by
Bread shortages and high food prices of 1928, rather than a lack of ideological principles
What did Trotsky still hold to the line despite the Soviet Union being the only communist state in the 1920s
That Russians should be working to stir up revolution elsewhere and that there should be a continuous revolution until a truly socialist society was created
What pragmatic view had Stalin adopted by 1924
That there should be ‘socialism in one country’ and that efforts should be concentrated on building a workers paradise in Soviet Union
What did Stalin’s less orthodox attitude of socialism in one country appeal to
Those who favoured stability and feared the continuous revolutionary turmoil that Trotsky appeared to be advocating
What did some elements within the party favour in terms of leadership
Collective control, through a committee of equals- a view which had ideological justification
Who was the idea of collective control over oarty most advanced by
Those who feared the dominance of Trotsky- worked to Stalin’s advantage
What principles laid down in the time of Lenin did Stalin benefit from
Change from elections to appointments within party hierarchy
Ban on factions
Growth of central control during civil war
what did 14th party congress in 1925 call for
transformation of our country from an agrarian into an industrial one, capable by its own efforts to producing the necessary means
14th party congress known as
the industrialisation congress
what was NEP maintained throughout 1926 despite
concerns raised about how more investment was needed to drive industry forwards
what was announced at the 15th party congress
the end of NEP and the beginning of the first five year plan for rapid industrialisation
what was the first 5 year plan known as
the great turn
what was the great turn driven by
a number of economic factors and stalins desire to establish his leadership
what was the NEP failing to do by 1927
to produce the growth that many leading communists sought, and a war scare in the late 1920s made them particularly nervous
why did gov want to increase USSRS military strength and develop its self-sufficiency
so that is was less reliant on foreign imports
what was essential to move towards socialism
to develop industry and not have a state dependent on peasants and grain harvest
how did the great turn suit stalins personal style
to have strong central control over the economy, known as ‘central planning’
what targets did Stalin set in his 5 year plans
-very ambitious targets for enterprises to attain
what were the targets intended to do
force managers and workers to devote their maximum effort to the programme
what were the launching and fulfillment of the plans accompanied by
lots of propaganda
why did statistics show huge improvements in industry following 5 year plans
- failure to achieve target deemed a criminal offence
- all those involved in administering and carrying out plans went to great lengths to ensure reported statistics showed huge improvements
what was built into the system of industrialisation from the start
corruption and faulty reporting
aims of first 5 year plan
- increase production 300% by setting targets for growth
- develop heavy industry
- boost electricity production 600%
- double output of light industry
what did the publicity surrounding the launch of the first 5 year plan provoke
an enthusiastic response
what did stalin claim of 5 year plans that evidenced its success
targets met in 4 years instead of 5
why was it claimed first 5 year plan targets met in 4 years not 5
over enthusiastic reporting by local officials, keen to show loyalty and effort
were any major targets of first 5 year plans met, in reality
no
what brought impressive growth in first 5 year plans
major investment
first 5 year plan: electricity
x3
first 5 year plan: coal and iron output
x2
first 5 year plan: steel production
1/3
examples of what sprung up during first 5 year plans
new railways, engineering plants, hydro-electric power schemes and industrial complexes
what targets were not met in first 5 year plans
chemical industry
what industries were neglected under first 5 year plans
house building, food processing and other consumer industries
what obstacles were there to effective development in first 5 year plan
too few skilled workers and too little effective coordination
what lost out in first 5 year plan
smaller industrial works and workshops, in competition from bigger factories
aims of second 5 year plan
- continue development of heavy industry
- put new emphasis on light industries and consumer goods
- develop communications to provide links between cities and areas of industry
- boost engineering and tool making
when were three good years
1934-36 (second 5yp)
when was Moscow metro opened
1935
Volga canal opened
1937
what did dnieprostroi dam produce
HEP
when was dnieprostroi dam completed
1932
what happened to dnieprostroi dam under 2nd 5yp
extended, with 4 more generators
which industries grew rapidly under 25yp
electricity production and chemical industries grew
which new metals were mined for first time under 25yp
copper, zinc and tin
25yp: steel output
x2
25yp: coal production
x2
what was the soviet union by 19927
virtually self sufficient in metal goods and machine tools
why did the focus of second 5 year plan change slightly in 1936
greater emphasis placed on rearmament
4% 1933 17% 1937
which industries failed to meet its targets under 5 year plans
oil production no appreciable increase in consumer goods (some expansion in footwear and food processing)
which emphasis continued into 25yp
quantity rather than quality
aims of third 5yp
- focus on development of heavy industry
- promote rapid rearmament
- complete transition to communism
third 5yp: main beneficiary
heavy industry, strong growth in machinery and engineering
third 5yp: spending of what doubled 1938-40
rearmament
what adverse effect did increased spending on rearmament have (3rd)
steel production stagnated, oil failed to meet targets (fuel crisis) and many industries found themselves short of raw materials
third 5yp: what was relegated to lowest priority
consumer goods
third 5yp: what was the biggest problem
dearth of good managers, specialists and technicians following stalins purges, exceptionally hard winter and diversion of funds
why did third 5yp finish early
german invasion 1941
first 5yp
1928-32
second 5yp
1933-37
third 5yp
1938-42
central planning system: who were priorities in planning established by
party
central planning system: what were laid down by party
output targets and labour norms
central planning system: how were instructions passed down to industrial managers
through bureaucratic layers
central planning system: what was meant by managers having to ‘balance the books’
paying for fuel, raw materials and labour from their enterprises income
central planning system: what could managers who failed to meet targets find themselves accused of
wrecking
central planning system: who were bonuses paid to
enterprises that exceeded targets
what were changes in agricultural organisation seen as a prerequisitie for
rapid industrialisation
why was surplus grain needed
for export and to enable the purchase of industrial equipment and to feed a growing industrial workforce
what did stalins great turn involve a move towards
collective frming
what was hoped of collectives
would provide for more efficient farming, give more opportunity for mechanisation, make grain collection easier and socialise the peasants
what did stalin believe that some of grain procurement problems were caused by
the kulaks, who understood how to make money by holding back supplies
what did stalin announce in December 1929
that he would annihilate the kulaks as a class
what were the red army and cheka used for
to execute, identify or deport the kulaks
how did some peasants try to avoid being labelled as kulaks
by killing their livestock and destroying their crops- added to rural probems
in January 1930, stalin announced that what percentage of grain farming areas were to be collectivised that year
25%
what did collectivisation go hand in hand with
the destruction of the kulaks, whos treatment was designed to frighten poorer peasants into joining kolkhoz collectives
march 1930, what percentage of peasants households had been collectivied
58%
why was a brief return to voluntary collectiiviasation permitted until after the harvest had been collected in 1930
the speed of collectivisation created hostility
stalin accused party members of becoming dizzy with success
what happened upon the return to voluntary collectivisation 1930
numbers immediately began to fall back
October 1930, only around 20% households still collectivised
collectivisation stage one
1929-30
collectivisation stage 2
1930-41
how did the second stage of collectivisation proceed
at a slower pace and accompanied by the establishment of 2500 machine tractor stations
why were mts introduced
to provide seed and maintain the hire machinery to the kolkhozes
mts secondary purpose
to ensure quotas were collected and to control countryside by dealing with trouble makers
problems with dekulakisation
inhumane and removed 10 million of the most successful farmers
why did livestock numbers not exceed pre-collectivisaion until 1953
grain and livestock destroyed by peasants
what did unrealistic procurement quotas lead to
peasants being forced to hand over almost all of their grain in some areas
why were the collectives poorly organised
the party actitivsts who helped establish them knew nothing of farming
too few tractors, insufficient animals to pull plouhs and lack of fertilisers
why was there a famine in spring 1932 in the Ukraine
October 1931 dought and kulak deportations
what happened to anyone who stole from a collective under a law of august 1932
could be jailed for 10 yeara
what did further decrees give 10 year sentences for
any attempt to sell meat or grain before quotas were filled, and internal passports were brought in to stop peasants leaving collectives
what did peasants refer to collectivisation as
second serfdom
why did peasants see little incentive to work hard
never received share o profits of collective farm they were promised
what was the peasants only interest and why
their private plots as they could grow goods to sell in the market place
how did the state seem to achieve its purpose in promoting collectivisation overall
the industrial workforce was fed and exports of grain increased
who were the agricultural improvements at the cost of
the peasants themselves
Which structures established by Lenin were perpetuated by Stalin
Rule by one party and centralised control
What influence did Stalin assert
An increasingly dominant personal influence
What did the party contribute to predominate over
State institutions
What was control ensured through.
Parallel structures and most levels and the dual membership of party and gov offices held by trusted members of nomenklatura
What did Stalin grow increasingly concerned about and what did this lead to
The party reflecting his wishes- led to party congresses being called less frequently
What appointments did Stalin control through his position as general secretary
The more important appointments to the party apparat
What controlled the nomenklatura and what did this mean
The apparatchiki controlled the nomenklatura- meant Stalin commanded vast patronage over all important positions throughout soviet society
What did Stalin prefer to work with than the politburo
Personally selected commities
What did Stalin use his power of appointment to do
Build up the party memebership and develop an elaborate bureaucracy of loyal servants
How did an expansion in oarty membership begin
With the Lenin enrolment 1924-25 in commemoration of his death
By how much did party membership increase under the Lenin enrolment
Almost doubled to one million
Where did most new oarty members tend to be drawn from
Younger and less well educated urban workers and ex peasants who were less interested in ideological debate and more concerned with their own careers
What were New party memebers often attracted by
Stalin’s more nationalist energetic and sometimes brutal policies and knew that loyalty could bring benefits for themselves and their families
Who was the 1936 constitution drafted by
Bukharin
What did Stalin claim that the 1936 constitution was
The most democratic in the world
What did the 1936 constitution proclaim
The USSR to be a federation of eleven soviet republics
What was the all Russian congress of soviets replaced by under 1936 constitution
A new supreme soviet made up of the soviet of the union and the soviet of nationalities
What did each republic have if it’s own under the 1936 constitution
Supreme soviet
What did the 1936 constitution promise to ethnic groups
Local autonomy and support for national cultures and languages
What did 1936 constitutions promise (elections)
Four yearly elections with right to vote for all over 18 including former people
What statement of civil rights was the 1936 constitution accompanied with
Freedom from arbitrary arrest and right to free speech
What may the 1936 consitituonbs main intention have been
To impress foreigners
What did the verbal control exercised over the republics budgets unsure
The primacy of union laws and little real regional independence
What happened despite the consitituon acknowledging the right of any union republic to leave union
Party leaders in Georgia’s planned succession in 1951 purged
Why did the supreme soviet only meet for a few days twice a year
Said to be so that members could continue regular employment but it meant the body provided more of a sense of participation than any actual involvement in policy making
How was the supreme soviet viewed by the oarty
As a forum for imparting decisions back to localities rather than for electors to present their views to the centre
From when did Stalin consciously develop his own cult
December 1929, he’s 50th bday
What image of himself did Stalin oromote and why
An image that helped to noire confidence during a period of rapid change
How was Stalin universally portrayed
As Lenin’s true disciple and companion
What were produced to glorify Stalin’s role
Paintings and posters
In what years was Stalin’s cult fully established
1933-39
What was produced as the main historical textbook for all institutions in 1938
The all union communist Party
what did stalin assume a major role in the all union communist party
the October revolution, while Trotsky and other old Bolsheviks portrayed as enemies of the people
how were photographs doctored in the all union communist party
to remove stalins enemies and show stalin at the side of lenin
what did the adulation stalin received show
the strength of support he had acquired within soviet union
why did people praise stalin
because they benefiited from his rule or hoped to benefitted in the future and needed to be assured of his patronage
who was stalin seen as a father to
his people
what had stalin been referred to as
the red tsar and a god like figure
how was stalins rule different from lenins
stalins rule was personal, he was above the party and no longer depended on it
How did collectivisation strengthen Stalin’s position
The atmosphere of crisis brought about by Stalin’s enforced collectivisation and his new economic plans for industry helped increase his power
How did propaganda increase Stalin’s power
It celebrated his image
Who did he purge elites to replace them with
A new, younger group of officials
What placed a limitation on Stalin’s power
The inefficiency of the bureaucracy at local level
What did Stalins rise to the leadership position give him oppurtunity to do
show his skill in out-manouvering and defeating those who opposed him
why did stalin extend the use of terror and class warfare
to enforce collectivisation through the destruction of the kulaks and maintain his 5 year plans for industry
who did he send to labour campls
‘bourgeouis managers’. specialists and engineers who he accused of machine breaking and sabotage
when was the shakty show trial
1928
what was the shakty show trial a clear indication of
stalins determination to find a scapegoat for the chaos caused by his own economic policies
what message did the shakty show trial give out
the regime had to maintain its vigilence against those who were set to destroy it
when was the industrial party show trial
november 1930
what happened in the industrial party show trial of 1930
a group of industrialists were accused of sabotage
when was the metro vickers trial
1933
what happneed in the metro vickers trial of 1933
british specialists found guilty of wrecking activities
what was happening by 1929 as a result of so many prisoners
soviet prisons could no longer cope with numbers of ‘opponents’ in prisons
who was commissioned in 1929 to investigate ways in which the prison population could be put to better use
yagoda
what did yagodas proposal for prisons involve
building on the corrective-labour camps established by lenin in remote areas of the north and siberia
how was it believed that gulags could contribute to economic growth
by offering minimum per capita funding and imposing economies of scale
who were the gulags to be placed under the direct authority of
OGPU
when did stalins wife commit suicide
november 1932
what did stalins wife leave a suicide note saying
criticising stalins policies and showing her sympathy for stalins poltical enemies
what effect did stalins wife suicide have on him according to figes
it unhinged him- he now felt that even those closest to him could be betraying him behind his back
why was stalins position insecure in 1932
bukharin had been relected to the central committee in june 1930
which two opposition groups emerged within party elite in 1932
- informal group of old bolsheviks
- ryutin platform
what did old bolsheviks (opposition) meetings discuss
debated stalins removal
what happened to the old bolsheviks
they were quickly arrested and Smirnov expelled from the party
what did the ryutin platform disapprove of
stalins political direction and personality
what did ryutin send to the central committee
an appeal urging stalins removal
what happened to ryutins circle
arrested
suggested stalin called for immediate execution but overruled by poltiburo and kirov
why were zinvoiev and kamenev expelled from the party and exiled
for knowing of the opposition groups’ existence and failing to report it to police
what was ryutin sentenced to and what happened to him
sentenced to 10 years in prison
shot on stalins orders 1937
what did stalin announce in april 1933 as a result of ryutin platform
general purge of the party
what percentage of party membership were branded ryutinites
18%
what did stlain announce at the 17th party congress in 1934
that the anti leninist opposition had been defeated
whart did stalin mean by anti leninist opposition
those who opposed his own policies and leadership
why did bukharin, rykov, tomsky, radek and others who had challenged stalin in leadership struggle admit their ‘errors’
to give the impression of unity at the top
how many negative votes did stalin receive in the elections to the central committee
150- only 3 officially recorded
who did a split open up between following central committee elections
those who wanted to maintain the pace of industrialisation and others within politburo
what did kirov speak about regarding industrialisation
stopping forcible grain seizures and increasing workers rations
why did stalin feel threatned by kirov despite being close to him
only 2 of politburo formally supported stalin whereas kirov received a long standing ovation after his more moderate speech
what other issue arose from the 17th party congress
abolition of the title of general secretary
stalin and kirov given title of secretary of equal rank
why may stalin have supported him and kirov being given title of secretary of equal rank
in order to spread responsibility for economic crisis
what did the titles of secretary of equal rank mean in theory
that stalin was no more important than the other secretaries
when was kirov murdered
december 1934
what was stalin quick to claim after suspicious murder of kirov
that it was part of a trotskyite conspiracy led by zinovievites to overthrow party
what decree was published the day after kirovs murder
giving Yagoda powers to arrestand execute anyone found guilty of terrorist plotting
why were zinoviev, kamenev and 17 others arrested in january 1935
accused of instigating terrorism
sentenced to 5-10 years in prison
how many former associates of zinoviev were arrested
843
how many former people arrested, exiled or placed in camps in 1935
11,000
why was there a purge of kremlin employees
to uncover reputed ‘foreign spies’
what were 250,000 party members expelled as in 1935
anit-leninists
why was the chairman of the central committee expelled in 1935
for helping oppositionists find emplyoement in the kremlin
what was the purpose of the show trial in august 1936 involving zinoviev, kamenev and 14 others
- to give confessions and convictions
- prove existence of poltiical conspiracies
when were all 16 of august 1936 show trial found guilty of
involvement in a trotsky inspired plot to muder stalin and all were executed
who was yagoda replaed by in september 1936
yezhov
why was yagoda replaced
he had not been active enough in uncovering this conspiracy of zinoviev etc
what was staged in january 1937
a further show trial of 17 prominent communists
what were the defendents in january 1937 show trial accused of
plotting with trotdky to sabotage industry and to spy
what did yezhov accuse bukharin of
knowing about january 1937 conspiracy
what happened to bukharin when he refused to confess
he was expelled from the party and arrested
what happened to eight senior military commanders in may/june 1937
they were arrested, tortured and made to sign false confessions
how were the senior military commanders tired anf what were they convicted of
tried in secret in a military tribunal and convicted of espionage and of participating in a trotskyite rightist anti soviet conspiracy and shot
what happnened to the 767 members of high command in further ourge of military personel
- 512 execucuted
- 29 died in prison
- 13 committed suicide
- 59 jailed
when did the third and largest polticial show trial take place
march 1938
what happened in third show trial
21 bolsheviks interrogated and bukharin,rykov and yaghoda and 13 others senteced to be shot
what did the great purges merge with in 1937-38
the yezhovshcina
what was the great terror directed at
ordinary citizens
when did the persecution of ordinary citizens reach its height
mid 1937
what did a politburo resolution condemn in mid 1937
anti soviet elements in russian society
arrest list of over 250,000 drawn up
what were ordinary citizens encouraged to do
root out hidden enemies
how did the NKVD maintain a strict vigilence
emplying ‘reliables’ in offices, unis and factories
when did the pace of the purges slow down
after the end of 1938 when yeshov was replaced by beria
negative impact of yezhovchina
threatned to destabalise state and industry and administration suffered
how did stalin use yezhov as a scapegoat
accusing him of excessive zeal
what did the 18th party congress declare were no longer needed
the mass cleansings
what happened to yezhoxv
arrested and shot feb 1940
what also happened in 1940
hired assassin murdered trotsky in mexico
what position was stalin in by the end of the purges
a position of supreme power
why was stalin in a position of supreme power by end of purges
poltical rivals gone and quuashing of sentences helped restore faith in system and its leader
What type of man was the socialist man that Stalin wanted to create
The type of man who was publicly engaged and committed to the community
What would the socialist man have a sense of and what would he give to the state
A sense of social responsibility and would willingly give service to the state
Why did class based attacks continue in earnest in Stalin’s rule
Due to his decision to halt the NEP
What agenda was there in Lenin and Stalin’s time in creating new polcicies (socialist manG
The outcome had to be an environment in which the socialist man could flourish
Did the harsh living and working conditions experienced in Lenin’s time persist through Stalin’s rule
They got worse in Stalin’s early years
Why did living and working conditions get worse in Stalin’s early years
Peasants were herded into collectives and more emigrated to towns
What did the drive for industrialisation bring to workers
7 day working week and longer workers hours
What could arriving late or missing work result in
Dismissal, eviction from housing and loss of benefits
What became criminal (workers)
Damaging machinery or leaving a job without permission
Were strikes illegal
Yes
When were wage differentials, bonuses and payment by the piece introduced
1931
What did the introduction of wage differentials etc produce
A more diverse proletariat
What did it mean that workers were allowed to choose their place of work
They could move to improve their lot, while disciplinary rules were eased
Examples of propaganda campaigns which increased socialist competition
Stakhanovite movement
What did the Stakhanovite movement produce
A new proletarian elite
Why did Stalin’s industrialisation produce new opportunities for social advancement
- more peasants moved to towns
- more town workers became managers
- more children of workers benefitted from educational oppuritinies
What reduced the numbers competing for jobs and created plenty of vacancies at the top
Stalin’s purges
What did Stalin announce in 1993
‘Life has become better, comrades, life has become more joyous’
What we’re living condiditons like in the countryside
Primitive
Living conditions in towns
- workers lived in cramped communication apartments with inadequate sanitation
- public transport overcrowded, shops empty
When did real wages increase
In second 5 year plan
What were wages in second five year plan still lower than
Still lower in 1937 than they had been in 1928
When was rationing phased out
1935 but market prices were high
What could those in positions of importance in socialist system obtain
More goods more cheaply
What did Stalin revert to in 1930s with women
More traditional policies
What drove Stalin’s reversion to more traditional policies with women
Fall in population growth
Women: what became the focus of a new propaganda wave
Family
Women: how was Stalin’s portrayed in new family propaganda wave
As a father figure and ideal family man
Women: what was attacked under new propaganda wave
Divorce and abortion
Women: importance of what re-emphasised under family campaign
Marriage
Wedding rings reintroduced and new style wedding certificates issued
Women: in what new way were women portrayed in films and art
Muscular, plain dressed women who helped to build soviet Russia in 1920s and more feminine family woman with adoring children
Women: when were a number of meandered introduced which reversed earlier changes
1936
Women: what was introduced in 1936 to deter divorce
Larger fees and added penalties that men would be expected to contribute 60% income in child support
Women: what was criminalised 1936
Adultery
Women: when was contraception permitted
Only on medical grounds, banned if not
Women: who were financial incentives offered for
Large families
Tax exemptions granted for families of 6 or more and there were bonus payments for every additional child to 10 in the family
Women: growth in female industrial workers 1928-1949
1928 3 million
1940 13 million
Women: what percentage of industrial workforce was female by 1940
43%
Women: what was introduced to help women cope with work and family
Growth in provision of state nurseries, crèches and careens and more child clinics
Women: how much less did women earn than men
40%
Higher administrative posts held by men
Women: did divorce and abortion rate remain high
Yes still over 150,000 abortion’s to every 57,000 love births
Education: what was encouraged for less able
Increasing amounts of practical work encouraged
Education: what did the bulk of expansion and secondary and higher level involve
More formal teaching so as to develop the skills needed in a modern industrial society
Education: what did many schools become the responsibility of
Collective farms/town enterprises
Education: what were universities seen as
Agencies for delivering economic growth
Education: who were universities put under control of
Veshenka
Education: what system was abandoned in 1935
The quota system and selection reappeared for all
Education: what type of education existed for the selected
Rigid academic curriculum, formal teaching, report card tests and uniforms
Education: what were the core subjects
Reading writing and science 30% time devoted to Russian language and literature 20% maths 15% science 10% soviet style history
Education: what was introduced into middle and higher schools
Nationalism promoted and military training jntroduced
Education: to what profession did the Stakhanovite movement extent to
The teaching profession
Education: what were teachers encouraged to do under Stakhanovite movement
Set high targets for themselves and their students
Education: what could happen to teachers if students failed to do well
Teachers could be blamed and purged
Education: what percentage of 9-49 age groups in towns were literate by 1941
94%
Education: in what field were the USSR turning out strong graduates
Science
Youth organisations: what was RKSM renamed in 1926
Komsomol
Youth organisations: what was the age range of Komsomol extended to include
Children from 10-28 years
Youth organisations: what percentage of eligible youth had joined Komsomol 1926
Only 6%
Youth organisations: what did Komsomol teach
Communist values
Youth organisations: what was discouraged under Komsomol
Smoking drinking and religion
Youth organisations: What was encouraged under Komsomol
Volunteer Social work, sports, political and drama clubs
Youth organisations: what did young pioneer palaces serve as
Community centres for children
Youth organisations: when did Komsomol become directly affiliated with the party
1939
Youth organisations: what did members of the Komsomol take a path to live, study and fight for
The fatherland ‘as the great Lenin has instructed’ and ‘as the communist party teaches me’
Youth organisations: what was the name of the youth newspaper
Komonsolskaia Pravda
Youth organisations: what did komonsolskia Pravda encourage
Young people to protect family values and respect their parents
Youth organisations: how did membership of Komsomol and young pioneers offer chance for social mobility and educational advancement
The uniform singles these young members out and helped smooth their educational path
Youth organisations: what was opposition to komsomol like
Small number of secret oppositional youth organisations
Direct confrontation between organisations and state authorities rare
Religion: what was worship restricted to in 1929
Registered congregations
Religion: what prevented a holy day of church attendance from 1932
Introduced of an uninterrupted 7 day work week
Religion: what did Stalin’s 1936 constitution criminalise the publication of
Religious propaganda
Religion: when did priests regain the vote they had lost in 1918
1936
Religion: what was confiscated from Muslims during and after civil war
Muslim property and insitutiotins confiscated and sharia courts abolished
Religion: what did confiscation from Muslims produce
A split within Islamic church
‘New mosque’ took pro soviet line
Religion: when were pilgrimages to Mecca forbidden
1935
Religion: what led to backlash in central Asian Muslim communities 1935
Frequency of prayers, fasts and feasts reduced and wearing of veil forbidden
Religion: what was the fate of many Muslim priests
Imprisoned/executes
Religion: what did the anti religion drive also extend to
Buddhists and the Armenian and Georgian churches
How many churches and mosques closed by 1941
C- 40,000
M- 25,000
Religion: what strengthened religious belief
Attacks during period of collectivisation and purged
National minorities: what were soviet Jews given in 1926
A special national homeland settlement in which they could maintain their cultural heritage
National minorities: where was national homeland for Jews and what did it become in 1934
In far eastern province and became an autonomous republic in 1934
National minorities: what year were anti Semitic laws abolished
1917
National minorities: which language became acceptable
Yiddish but Hebrew didn’t because of religious connotations
National minorities: what did Stalinist policy in 1930s veer towards
Greater centralisation and less tolerance of the ethnic groups as he sought to create a single ‘soviet identity’
National minorities: what happened to the leaders of the different republics that formed the USSR if they deviated from the path laid down in Moscow
They were purged as bourgeois nationalists
National minorities: from when did Russian become the only language used in the red army
1938
National minorities: what happened despite propaganda which proclaimed the ‘family of nations’
Russians were firmly at the head
National minorities: when did Stalin begin his deportations of non Russians
In the 1930s
National minorities what was also revived in the 1930s
Anti Semitic attitudes especially in rural areas
Natuonal minorities: what were the motivations behind most of the campaigns
Politically rather than racially motivated
Propaganda: why did Stalin rely heavily on propaganda
To harness support for collectivisation and industrial policies
Propaganda: what reinforced the socialist message
Pictures of happy productive workers
Propaganda: example of heroes who were extolled as role models to copy
Stakhanov
Propaganda: what was every new initiative sold as
The inspiration of the all knowing leader
Propaganda: what did posters often show
Karl Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin in continuous progression, bringing enlightenment to Russian people
Propaganda: throughbwhat associations did Stalin strengthen his own position
Those made between himself and Lenin
‘Stalin is the Lenin of today’
Propaganda: what did some peasants have in their homes
A red corner of the great leaders
Propaganda: why did a cult of personality for Lenin grow under Stalin after Lenin’s death
Stalin wanted to appear as his disciple
Propaganda: how was Lenin being treated in the late 1920s
Like a god, whose words held the answer to all Russian problems
Propaganda: what did Stalin insist about Lenin’s body
That it be embalmed and Lenin’s tomb be turned into a shrine
Propaganda: what did Petrograd become
Leningrad
Cultural change: when was literature, art, architecture etc considered valuable
Only if it supported socialist ideology and the creation of the new socialist man
Cultural change: what kind of art had no place in the soviet state
Art for its own sake
Cultural change: what were writers expected to be
Engineers of the human soul
Cultural change: from 1932, what did all writers have to belong to
The union of soviet writers
Cultural change: what did the union of soviet writers exert control over
What was created and who was allowed to create
Cultural change: what was individual expression deemed
Politically suspect
Cultural change: what did the new norms demand adherence to
The doctrine of socialist realism
Cultural change: what did socialist realism mean according o the writers
The truthful, historically concrete representation of reality in its revolutionary development
Cultural change: what does socialist realism mean in simpler terms
Writers were not to represent soviet life exactly as it was at the time, they were to show what it might become
Cultural change: what were literature and art used to show
How the march to communism was inevitable
Cultural change: who was the frame of reference for writers laid down by
Andrei zhdanov
Cultural change: when was the frame of reference for writers laid down
April 1934 at first congress of union of soviet writers
Cultural change: what were works expected to glorify
The working man, and particularly communities working together and embracing new technology
Cultural change: era of
Happy endings
Cultural change: what did the mid 1930s see a ruthless attack on
The avant-grade
Cultural change: what did Pravda produce a damning critique of in 1936
Dmitry shostakovichs opera lady Macbeth of mtensk
Cultural change: what was Shostakovich accused of
Leftist distortions
Cultural change: what was there no attempt to create
A new proletarian culture which was in any way distinct from the upper class/bourgeois culture of ore revolutionary era
Cultural change: what kind of culture was promoted
Folk culture
Cultural change: what did the folk theme tie in well with
Stalin’s commitment to national values and praise for Russians great heritage
How can Stalin’s state be described by 1941
Highly centralised and authoritarian
How can some of the foundations of Stalin’s state by 1941 be seen in the Leninist years
- Lenin always favoured single party rule
- fought against coalition gov 1917 and forced closure of constituent assembly
What did Marxist doctrine speak of the state doing
Withering away
How did Stalin go further than Lenin in upholding the state
Extended one oarty domination and redefined centralisation
Examples of democratic structures that Stalin’s 1936 constitution included
Universal suffrage
What was made clear that reinforced Stalin’s intent to preserve the one party state
It was made clear that the communist oarty and its institutions were the only bodies that could put candidates up for election
What did the structure of government still provide for
Parallel appointments in both government and party hierarchy
What was the nomenklatura system of propellers used to do
Reward loyal officials
What effect did the nomenklatura system of price levels have
Concentrated decision making into a much smaller number of hands
Where was the ultimate source of all authority concentrated in the hands of
Stalin
What policy meant that all power emanated from Stalin himself
Centralisation
What did Stalin add to his own mystique by doing
Restricting those who he had direct access with
What has it been suggested that the Soviet Union changed from
A one party state with a powerful leader to a personal dictatorship
Who did Stalin attack within the communist oarty
Those who he saw as potential enemies and rivals
What evidence is there that Stalin could not exert perfect control
Rural hostility and the welcome which some soviet citizens gave to the invading Germans in 1941
What had Stalin’s 5 year plans transformed Russia into by 1941
Highly industrialised and urbanised nation
What percentage of population lived in towns in 1926
17%
What percentage of people lived in towns 1939
33%
What had the USSR overtaken Britain in by 1940
Iron and steel production
How did Stalin help lay the foundation for the ultimate soviet victory in the Second World War
By developing heavy industry, transport and power resources
Production of what was vastly stepped up in third five year plan
Coal and oil production
What did spending on rearmament rise from between 1938-1941
27.5 billion roubles to 70.9 billion roubles
How was economic development uneven
Massive growth in heavy industry but consumer production had been so neglected that consumer goods were scarcer in 1941 than they had been under NEP
What did drive for quantity not quality lead to
Bad quality of goods
What was the 1941 nation still producing less grain than
Under the NEP
What techniques were there insufficient attention paid to
Modern farming techniques and limited use of agricultural machiner
Why was agricultural equipment sometimes neglected
There was insufficient trained individuals to service and repair it
Why had communist control in the countryside grown stronger
Socialist communal values had been put in place
What had increased urbanisation and expansion of town populations helped create
A far stronger working class proletariat
What was claimed through education, propaganda arts etc
That the fulfilment of socialist values was well underway
What does Robert Servixe suggest after interviewing soviet citizens
Support for welfare pokcicies at time there was also a feeling of resignation to life’s hardships
What was the society that emerged in the 1930s different from
The socialist ideals of the October revolution
What was there instead of a classless society
A hierarchical society dominated by the privelleged elite organised around party and nomenklatura
What were the urban and rural working classes ruthlessly driven by
Their soviet masters
What main issue did Bolsheviks face when consolidating authority?
They were a minority
What did Bolsheviks aspire to be the party of? What did they lack?
Party of the people
Mass support
What signed Treaty developed an increasing wide array of opposition?
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
What was Russia facing economically by spring 1918?
Collapse
What item wasn’t effectively reaching the cities? What did this cause for workers?
Grain
Hunger
What system was disrupted by the War? What item wasn’t effectively getting to the cities?
Transport system
Grain
What type of farming did peasants revert to as a result of land redistribution? What did they have little of to sell?
Subsistence farming
Surplus grain
Why did peasants have little reason to sell their limited grain? How did this become an issue?
There were few goods to exchange for it
Workers took control of the factories with no management plan
What did the factories’ shortage of raw materials lead to a decrease of? What item specifically?
Industrial output
Consumer goods
What erupted in 1918 as a result of food shortages? Why did workers flee the cities?
Food riots
To search for food
What did the workers’ search for food lead to a shortage of?
Labour in factories
Between what 2 groups was a civil war developing in the spring of 1918?
Bolshevik “Reds”
Non-Bolshevik “Whites”
What regime was at stake following the Reds’ and the Whites’ conflict?
Communism
What did Bolsheviks have to ensure the army was provided with? What did this lead to the development of?
Food and weapons
More centralised control system
What policy was adopted to control the economy and look after the army?
“War Communism”
How would Red Guards and soldiers take grain from peasants?
By force
What was placed entirely under state control under War Communism? What replaced workers’ committees?
Industry
Managers
What discipline was imposed? How could you get fined?
Factory discipline
Lateness and absence
What rationing was introduced? Who got the highest priority of food?
Food rationing
Workers and Red Army
Who got the lowest priority of food under food rationing?
Bourgeoisie
What might have influenced and dictated War Communism?
Necessity for control
What did War Communism enable the Bolsheviks to extend? Who did Lenin want to deal with?
Class warfare
“Class enemies”
What did Bolsheviks see as a primary force to develop socialism?
Centralised control
What was the most controversial aspect of early Bolshevik rule? How did Lenin justify it?
Red Terror
It ensured the survival of the regime
Who was the main target of Red Terror? What were they forced to hand over?
Peasants
Grain to feed soldiers/workers
What force supported the grain requisitioning teams?
Cheka
What happened to peasants under Red Terror? Where did this particularly happen?
Imprisoned, exiled and executed
Pro-White areas
How did Bolsheviks view socialists and SRs?
“Enemies of the people”
How many people were likely executed between 1918-21? Where were others sent?
Half a million
Labour camps
Who continued the use of terror as a political weapon after Lenin?
Stalin
What did Lenin dictate in December 1922? What was he partially paralysed by?
His “Testament”
A stroke
Who did Lenin give his opinion of in his Testament? Why was he particularly critical of Stalin?
Politburo
He insulted his wife
What post did Lenin suggest Stalin should be removed from?
General Secretary of the Politburo
Who were members of the Politburo afraid of? What 2 major events did he triumph in?
Trotsky
October Revolution and Civil War
Who was seen as charismatic and a brilliant orator? Who was seen as methodical and unthreatening?
Trotsky
Stalin
What was Trotsky critical of within the Politburo?
The decline of internal party democracy
Who did Stalin appoint to key positions as General Secretary? Why?
His own supporters
So they “owed” their place to Stalin
What 2 reasons was Trotsky absent from Lenin’s funeral?
He was recovering from illness
He was misled about the date
Who praised Lenin at Lenin’s funeral? What did Stalin “commit” himself to?
Stalin
Carrying on Lenin’s work
What kind of revolution did Trotsky believe in? What did he believe Russia should actively encourage abroad?
Permanent revolution
Socialist revolutions
What decree did Stalin believe in? What did this allow Stalin to accuse Lenin of?
Socialism in One Country
Not having faith in Russian people
How did many Politburo members view Trotsky? What did they fear?
Arrogant and dangerously ambitious
He would become too dominant
What skill/ambition of Stalin’s did many people underestimate?
Political skill and ambition
What machine did Stalin have control over? What did he “deliver”?
Party machine
“The votes”
What position was Trotsky forced out of in 1925?
Commissar for War
When was Trotsky expelled from the Communist Party? When was he deported?
1927
1929
What 2 systems of Lenin’s did Stalin maintain and extend?
One-party rule and centralised control
What was Stalin keen to assert within his party? What congresses took place less frequently?
Political dominance
Party congresses
What did Stalin control as General Secretary? What type of bureaucracy was developed?
Major party appointments
Loyal servants
What increase did Stalin benefit from in the 1920s and 1930s? What was noticeable about new members?
Party membership increase
They were younger and less educated
What did new Communist Party members know about party loyalty? What did this lead to?
It would benefit them and their families
Reliable supporters of Stalin’s dictatorship
What did Stalin ironically claim about the 1936 Constitution?
It was “the most democratic in the world”
What autonomy was promised in the 1936 Constitution? What did centralisation cause?
Regional
Little self-government
How often did the 1936 Constitution promise elections?
Every 4 years
What rights were promised in the 1936 Constitution? What happened to these rights?
Civil rights
Ignored
When and under who were some elements of the “Stalinist dictatorship” established?
Lenin in the 1920s
What does Historian Robert Service argue Stalin gained the reputation of?
“Stalin gained the reputation of an unprincipled bureaucrat”
What did Lenin say that “Soviets + Electrification” equals? What did he want to modernise to show this equation worked?
“Communism”
Russia
What type of ownership had Lenin abolished in 1917? What control did he recognise of the workers?
Private ownership
Their control of factories
What did the workers’ control of factories legitimise?
Actions in cities and countrysides
Why did Lenin increase state intervention for the workers? What fell as a result?
They weren’t experienced enough
Production
What did peasants horde under heavy state intervention? Why?
Grain
Fewer industrial goods were for sale
What was a basic human right necessary for the success of the Civil War? What Communism did this begin?
Workers and soldiers were fed
War Communism
Why were Kulaks mostly targeted by requisitioning squads? What kind of “enemies” were they?
They had more grain to extract
“Class enemies”
Where were factories nationalised? What hours were extended?
Cities
Working hours
What was issued to stop workers leaving cities for food?
Internal passports
Who won the Civil War? What did they fail to increase?
Bolsheviks
Factory production
How much had industrial output decreased from 1914-21?
20%
What did peasants resist in countrysides? What did they grow less of?
Food requisitioning
Grain
What did many peasants destroy of their own to survive in countrysides? How many died partially because of this?
Livestock
Millions
What 3 things had spread around the Soviet Union by 1922?
Famine
Disease
Strikes
What revolts were widespread in Russia? What particular revolt was significantly alarming for the government?
Peasant revolts
Kronstadt sailors uprising
How did Lenin appear after suppressing revolts? What did he announce in August 1921?
Shaken
NEP
What requisitioning ended under the NEP? How much grain were peasants taxed on?
Grain requisitioning
20%
What would the state continue to control in its economy? What industry did this involve?
Its “commanding heights”
Heavy industry
What was allowed under the NEP for businesses? What size businesses were only allowed?
Private trade
Small businesses
What was economic recovery in the NEP led by? What was there an end to?
Increase in grain to cities
Unrest and revolts
What class of peasants were revived? What type of men emerged?
Kulaks
“NEPmen”
What production was slow under the NEP? What did peasants hold back as a result of a lack of consumer goods?
Industrial production
Grain
How much did grain procurement increase between 1926-27?
75%
What seizures did Stalin order? What did he believe was a solution to the grain crisis?
Grain seizures
“Large-scale farms of a collective type”
What Plan did Stalin announce in December 1927? Why did he believe the Soviet Union needed modernisation?
“Five-Year Plan”
So it could catch up with the Western world
What did Stalin say about the importance of his Five-Year Plans?
“Either we do it or we shall be crushed”
What did the Soviet Union become under the FYP? How did it plan to defend itself?
Self-sufficient
Building industries
What would the Soviet Union export to pay for machinery? What decree of Stalin’s did this emphasise?
Grain
“Socialism in One Country”
What does Historian Orlando Figes argue about the NEP?
“It was an ill-formated attempt to redefine socialism”
What does Historian J. P. Netting argue about the supply of the Soviet Union during the first FYP?
“During the first FYP, the Soviet Union was abundantly supplied”
What does Historian Edward Acton state about the base of the Soviet Union by 1941?
“The Soviet Union had established a mighty industrial base”
What did the FYPs set high targets for? What were these targets broken down into geographically?
Industry
Regions and factories
What would happen if targets were not met? What did this pressurise in the workplace?
Arrest, prison or worse
Quantity over quality
What did propaganda portray target plans as? What was the Soviet Union to become?
A final blow to capitalism
A massive, industrial power
What type of industry was emphasised in the first 3 FYPs? What are some examples of this industry?
Heavy industry
Oil, coal and steel
What happened to the 1932 targets in 1929? What was achieved despite the fact no targets were ever reached?
They were increased
Increases in big production
What output trebled by 1932?
Electricity
What amount was the 1932 target for coal? What was achieved?
75 million tons
64 million tons
What amount was the 1932 target for oil? What was achieved?
- 7 million tons
21. 4 million tons
What amount was the 1932 target for iron ore? What was achieved?
- 2 million tons
12. 1 million tons
What amount was the 1932 target for pig iron? What was achieved?
10 million tons
6.2 million tons
What was maintained in production through the 1930s? What goods were neglected?
Growth
Consumer goods
What military idea was prioritised in the 1930s? Why?
Rearmament
Fear of war was increasing
Where was an industrial complex built in the 1930s? How long did it take to build?
Magnitogorsk
A few years
What Dam was constructed that improved electricity production? How much did production improve?
Dnieprostroi Dam
500%
What was the huge cost of new infrastructure? Who mostly suffered?
Human lives
Displaced peasants
What conditions deteriorated for Soviet workers? What was the main reason for this?
Living conditions
The rise of an urban population
What primary aim did Stalin succeed in during the 1930s? Who did he defeat in WW2?
Making the Soviet Union a powerhouse
Nazi Germany
When was the first FYP? When was the second?
1928-32
1933-37
When was the third FYP? When was the fourth?
1938-41
1946-50
When was the fifth FYP? When was the sixth?
1951-55
1956-60
When was the seventh and final FYP?
1959-65
What happened to several villages resulting from collectivisation? What happened to all equipment and livestock?
They were amalgamated
It was pooled
What was procured under collectivisation? What 2 reasons saw this?
Grain
To feed the workforce
To pay for imports of equipment
What activists implemented collectivisation? Who were they backed by?
Communist Party members
Secret police and soldiers
Why did Stalin destroy the Kulaks?
To force peasants into submission
Who suffered from increased state control? What were they classed as if they opposed forced collectivisation?
Peasants
“Kulaks”
How many peasants had been collectivised by March 1930? How much since 1939?
50%
90%
What was being burned and killed in opposition to collectivisation?
Crops and livestock
How were many collectives being ran by farmers? Why?
Ineffectively
Little knowledge
What production declined as a consequence of collectivisation? What exports increased?
Food production
Grain exports
How many people died as a result of famine in Ukraine from 1932-33?
3 million
When did the Soviet Union finally recover pre-war levels of grain production?
1939
Why were many peasants driven off and forced into labour camps?
To build the industrial Soviet Union
What way of life was destroyed because of collectivisation? What was this life based around?
Peasants way of life
Community and Church
What does Historian Orlando Figes state that Stalin’s war on Kulaks had little to do with?
“Stalin’s war against the kulaks had little to do with economic considerations”
What did the Soviet regime encourage to create a classless society? What would families share?
Communal living
Kitchens and toilets
What life was often subjected to public scrutiny? Whose interests were seen as superior to individuals?
Private life
The community
What is a term used by the communists to describe the “class enemy”?
Burzhui
What did people try to hide behind as private life was slowly being abolished? Why?
A mask of conformity
To preserve their own identity
Why was the Communist Party so keen to unmask potential threats?
To subject them to the purges
What did the October Revolution intend to bring to Russia? What did workers take control of as a result of the revolution?
Greater equality
Factories and farms
What harsh discipline was introduced under War Communism?
Harsh labour discipline
What 2 reasons saw working conditions deteriorate under Stalin?
Seven-day work week
Longer hours
What was introduced in the 1930s to increase one’s productivity?
Bonuses and payments
What elite did the Stakhanovite movement produce? For what 2 reasons were they better off?
Labour elite
Higher wages and better housing
What conditions deteriorated in the countryside? Why?
Living conditions
Collectivisation
What 2 elements characterised the poor standards of urban living?
Overcrowding
Poor sanitising
What Revolution produced greater opportunities for women? What 2 things could they get assistance with?
Communist Revolution
Jobs and childcare
What marital process was made easier? What medical procedure was legalised under Lenin?
Divorce
Abortion
What did women begin to do in increasing numbers? What was provided to benefit childcare?
Work
Nurseries
What did women have to carry on doing while juggling a job? Which gender initiated most divorces?
Housework
Men
What did Stalin begin to extol in the early 1930s? Why?
Traditional family values
Falling birth rate
What did Soviet propaganda portray Stalin as to families? How were women portrayed?
A “father figure”
As mothers opposed to workers
What legal procedure was made more difficult under Stalin? What was offered to large families facing a divorce?
Divorce
Financial incentives
How much of the industrial workforce were women by 1940?
43%
What key element was seen as crucial to building a new socialist society? Who provided free schooling for all?
Education
Lenin
What training was provided from Lenin’s educational curriculum? How was this workforce described?
Vocational training
“Socially useful labour”
What key institutions played a role in indoctrinating socialism? Who were students told to inform the authorities on?
Universities and schools
Teachers/parents holding “anti-Soviet” views
Where in society were improvements made? How many people under the age of 50 were literate?
Education
90%
What was the name of the youth-wing to the Communist Party? When was it formed?
Komosomol
1918
What was the name of the junior-wing of the Communist Party? When was it established?
Pioneers
1922
What did the Pioneers take an oath to? What did they wear?
The Communist Party
A special uniform
Who did Komsomol encourage its young members to assist? What clubs did they set up? What work were they encouraged to participate in?
Police
Political clubs
Voluntary social work
What did Komsomol membership ease? What did it enhance?
Educational advancement
Job prospects
How many members did Komosomol have by 1940? What did some of its members controversially prefer?
10 million
Western culture
What does Historian Orlando Figes state about family decrees from the mid-1930s?
“They aimed to strengthen the Soviet family”
What does Historian Sheila Fitzpatrick mention about the purges of “class enemies”?
“Party officials replaced class enemies purged from central government”
What did Marx famously describe religion as? Who was this statement meant to keep quiet?
“The opium of the people”
Lower classes
What did Lenin recognise about religion in Russia? What did he flexibly allow?
They were very religious
Different religious worships
Who launched a campaign to weaken the Orthodox Church’s powers? What happened to the Church’s lands?
Lenin
Seized
Who were Church schools taken over by? What were monastries turned into?
Muslim schools
Schools, hospitals and prisons
What happened to many Orthodox priests?
They lost their lives
What places of worship did Stalin destroy? What did he confiscate?
Rural churches
Bric-a-brac
What did Stalin’s anti-Rural Church perspective arouse? What did he label his opponents as?
Huge opposition
“Kulaks”
How many churches were open for worship by 1940? What is this a percentage of in comparison to 1917?
500
1%
What did the Bolsheviks promise for the ethnic minorities in 1917? Who opted for independence?
National self-determination
Finns
How were minorities represented in the Communist Party?
As national minorities
What kind of Tsarist laws concerning minorities were abolished? What language became more widely used as a result?
Anti-Semitic laws
Yiddish
What did the Soviet Union become under Stalin? What had to be taught in schools from 1938 and primarily used in the Red Army?
A centralised state
Russian
What Revolution led to a burst of artistic creativity? Who encouraged this?
October Revolution
Lenin
What did Lenin believe solely about art and literature? Who was even more clear about this?
“Art and literature should serve the people”
Stalin
What did Stalin want art and literature to promote? What did this mean by the 1930s?
Socialism
Conforming to Stalin’s standards
What did Stalin believe writers were to people? What did he believe art was really about?
“Engineers of the human soul”
Shaping Soviet society
What Union did all writers have to belong to from 1934? What were they meant to strive towards?
The Soviet Union of Writers
“Socialist realism”
What did writers have to ensure their work could be understood by? What 2 things were the characters meant to politically represent?
Workers Socialism and "class enemies"
What writer praised Stalin’s 1st FYP? How did he describe it?
Maxim Gorky
“High-spiritual value”
Where were anti-Stalin writers taken? What happened to many writers as a result?
Labour camps
They committed suicide
Which composer had to famously tread a fine line after his controversial operas? What was an example of a controversial opera written by them?
Shostakovich
“Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk”
What did Lenin and Stalin both appreciate in reaching the masses? What would they try and win the masses over with?
Propaganda
Socialism
Which leader particularly exploited visual propaganda to make him appeal as a worthy successor? How did he portray himself?
Stalin
As a “father figure”
What did Stalin claim to guide the masses through? What paradise was promised?
Collectivisation and industrialisation
Socialist paradise
Who manufactured Stalin’s propagandist image? Who controlled this?
Communist Party machine
The media
Which leader sought to become a political icon? What did he strengthen in turn?
Stalin
His political power
What did Bolsheviks face from day one in power? What happened to thousands of “Anti-Bolsheviks”?
Opposition
Sent to labour camps
What did the Cheka implement during the Civil War? Who was this meant to eliminate?
Red Terror
“Enemies of the people”
What did Lenin issue a ban on in 1921? What was this meant to curb?
“Ban on factions”
Criticism
Whose methods did Stalin exploit? What in particular did he intensify?
Lenin’s
Terror
Who else did Stalin eliminate other than actual opposition? From which Committee did this include members of?
Potential opposition
Central Committee
What 2 things made Stalin fear his colleagues would betray him?
Wife’s suicide
Criticism of collectivisation
How many members of the Communist Party were excluded from 1932-33? What took place after that was systematic?
A million
Purges on senior members
What potential rival to Stalin was killed in 1934? How did Stalin use this as a pretext with Trotskyite, Zinoviev-Kamenev members?
Kirov
He arrested multiple factions of the party
What 2 factions existed in the Communist Party at the time of Kirov’s murder?
Trotskyites
Zinoview-Kamenev faction
Which 2 key figures were shot at a “show trial” in 1936? How many Bolsheviks were also killed?
Zinoviev and Kamenev
14
What happened to key Bolshevik leaders and military high commanders in 1937?
Executed
Which 3 key figures were shot in 1938?
Bukharin
Rykov
Yagoda - former head of NKVD
Where was Trotsky assassinated? What year?
Mexico
1940
Who was Stalin’s terror increasingly aimed at from 1938 onwards? What were the public encouraged to inform the government about?
Citizens
“Hidden enemies”
What was the planning of arresting citizens similar to? Around how many people were executed or died in prison?
Planning industrial production targets
Hundreds of thousands
How much of the population was arrested during the purges?
1 in 18
What is one lesser known element of the purges? Who are 2 examples of this?
Deportation of national minorities
Poles and Germans
Why did Stalin deport national minorities during the purges? How many Poles were shot during the campaign?
Fear they would join an invading army
100,000
When did Stalin call a halt to the terror? Why?
November 1938
The population were frightened
What did Stalin achieve as a result of the purges? Who did he replace these people with?
Eliminated all opponents
Stalinists
What 2 things did Stalin obtain control of post-purges?
Party
People
What does Historian Martin Sixsmith state happened to “class enemies” after the 1918 Lenin assassination attempt?
“Class enemies were rounded up and executed for their social origin”
What does Historian D. Volkogonov say about why Stalin began the purges?
“Stalin was driven by a powerful need to win”
What does Historian Orlando Figes say the “Great Terror” was “an amalgam” of?
“The Great Terror was an amalgam of Party purging and great show trials”
Who did Stalin encourage great reverence for? What did he portray himself as continuing to do?
Lenin
Continuing Lenin’s work
What did Stalin identify Lenin loyalty as loyalty to? What had Stalin succeeded in doing by the late 1920s?
The Party
Identifying his own authority
What did opposition to Stalin seem like under his authority?
Opposition to Lenin, the Party and Revolution
What were 4 key features of Stalinist rule that were already established under Lenin?
One-party rule
Secret police
Terror
Show trials
What did Lenin say that the ruthless task of the Bolsheviks was?
“The ruthless destruction of the enemy”
What warfare did Stalin continue? What 2 groups were particularly targeted?
“Class warfare”
Kulaks & bourgoisie
How could Stalin’s rule be described as compared to Lenin’s rule?
A more developed and repressive authoritarian rule
What 2 events did the purges constitute a complete break from? What did this develop?
Bolshevik Revolution
Lenin’s regime
Stalin’s personal rule
Who did Stalin replace old Bolsheviks with? What didn’t these people have loyalty to?
Nomenklatura
Bolshevik Revolution
Who did the Nomenklatura depend on for their positions? What were 3 benefits included in their roles?
Stalin
Privileges - luxury apartments, food, cars etc.
Who was unlikely to criticise Stalin? How could the 1939 Party Congress be described from Stalin’s perspective?
Nomenklatura
Subservience
Who did Stalin rely on to implement his policies? How could the policies be moderated?
Thousands of officials
State of local conditions
What were 2 effects of Stalin’s policies in Russia?
Corruption
Elimination
What transformation had the Soviet Union undergone by 1941? What kind of society was the Union becoming?
Economic transformation
An industrialised, urban society
What did the development of industries and infrastructure enable Russia to withstand?
Nazi Germany
What goods production was neglected? What failed to recover from the collectivisation crisis?
Consumer goods
Agriculture
By 1941, what was being produced at a lesser extent than under the NEP?
Grain
Where did nearly all peasants work and live by 1941? Who were they supervised by?
Kolkhoz
Officials
What was scarce in the Kolkhoz? What was overcrowded?
Food
Housing
What conditions became harsher in the late 1930s? What was prioritised?
Living/working conditions
Rearmament
What had become hierarchical in Russian society? What was unequal?
Class
Class burden
What 2 divisions were there in Russia's class system? What were Stakhanovites rewarded with?
Privileged elite
Workers
Higher pay
What does Historian John Gooding state about industrial production by 1940?
“It was about 3x what it had been at the start of the 1st FYP”
