Essentials Flashcards
Who were the Serfs? What could happen to them?
Labour workers owned by masters| Bought or sold
What were Mirs?
Village communes where peasants lived and worked
What is autocracy?
Total power by one person
What is a Tsar?
Emperor of Russia
What was the Orthodox Church?
Official state religion of Tsarist Russia
What was conscription?
Forced service, usually for 25 years
What was Serfdom?
Where peasants are property of their masters
What is Emancipation?
Freedom
What was the Bureaucracy?
Civil servants who undertake administrative tasks
Who were the Westernisers?
Russian intellectuals who believed Russia should follow Western lines
Who were the Slavophiles?
Russian intellectuals who believe Russia should seek a basis under tradition
Who were the Intellectuals?
Educated elite often critical of the Tsarist regime
What/When was the Crimean War?
Where Russia were up against Britain, France and Turkey| 1853-56
What does radical mean?
Fundamental change
What is the Zemstva? When were they set up?
Elected local government assemblies| 1864
What is a Liberal?
Someone who wanted more personal and economic freedom
What was St Petersburg?
Capital of Russia (later Petrograd and Leningrad)
What was the Ohkrana?
Third Section replacement
What was reaction?
Backwards behaviour returning to former ways
Who were the Land Captains?
Nobles with extensive local powers
What is a pogrom?
Attack on Jews
What is Russification?
Imposing Russian culture and language on ethnic minorities
What is anti-semitism?
Hatred towards Jews
Who were the ethnic minorities?
Primarily Poles, Finns, Ukrainians and Jews
What are Import Tariffs?
Money paid when goods are brought into Russia
Who were Kadets?
Constitutional Democratic Party members
What was universal suffrage?
Vote for all people
Who were Octobrists?
Moderate Conservative party
Who were the Bolshevik Party? Who led them?
A faction broken away from the Social Democratic Working PartyLenin
What were “civil rights”?
Personal rights
What was the Socialist Revolutionary Party? What did it support?
Populist party founded in 1901| Land redistribution
What was the Social Democratic Workers’ Party? What 2 factions did this party later split into?
Marxist party founded in 1898| Bolsheviks and Mensheviks
What does “proletarian” mean?
Exploited working-class member
What were Mensheviks?
Marxists
What was the Central Committee?
Body elected by party congress
What was Kronstadt?
St Petersburg’s main seaport
What is meant by “dual power”?
Power-sharing between the Provisional Government and Petrograd Soviet
What is a constituent assembly?
A governing body who draw up a new constitution
Who were the Red Guards?
Bolshevik armed forces
What is a mandate?
Authority to carry out a policy
What was the Cheka?
Bolshevik secret police
Who are Commissars?
Socialist ministers
What was Sovnarkom?
Soviet Council of People’s Commissars
What is the Politburo?
The highest policy-making body in the Soviet Union
What is meant by a “purge”?
“A cleaning out of impurities”
What was Stakhanovite?
A movement named after a miner with record-breaking amounts of coal in 1935
What was the Komsomol?
Young Communist organisation
What was the NKVD?
Secret police force that succeeded the Cheka
What was the Kolkhoz?
Main collective farm of Russia
What was the Nomenklatura?
Privileged elite who ran the party machine
What was the Cold War?
Tension between the US and Soviet Union post-WW2
What was Samizdat?
Secret publication of banned literature
What was Burzhui?
Abusive term against anti-Communists
What was a constitutional monarchy?
Where the ruler’s power is limited by an elected assembly
What was Marxism?
A political ideology that believes all history is driven by economic forces which create class struggles
What was a Narodnik?
Russian name for a populist
What were show trials?
Propagandist trials held for political purposes
What was a socialist?
Someone who believes factory and land should belong to the people
What was a Soviet?
An elected council that controlled factories or local areas
What were trade unions?
Organisations that represent workers in negotiations
What was the Winter Palace? Where is it located?
Home of the Tsar| St Petersburg
Who was Alexander II? What was he known as?
Tsar from 1855-1881| Tsar Liberator
Who were Nicholas and Dmitri Milyutin?
Brothers who were close advisers of Alexander II
Who was Alexander III?
Tsar from 1881 to 1894
Who was Konstantin Pobedonostev?
Tutor and adviser to Alexander III
Who was Leon Trotsky? What did he mastermind?
An orator| Takeover of Petrograd in 1917
Who was Julius Martov?
Social Democratic Workers’ Party leader
Who was Mikhail Von Reutern? How long was he in his role for?
Minister of Finance| 1862-78
Who was Ivan Vyshnegradsky? How long was he in his role for?
Finance Minister| 1887-92
Who was Sergei Witte? What was he credited for?
Finance Minister from 1892-1903| Rapid expansion of the Russian economy
Who was Nicholas II? What did he want to uphold?
Tsar from 1894-1917| Autocracy
Who was Vladimir Lenin? What city was named after him?
Bolsheviks leader from 1903| Petrograd - Leningrad
Who was Prince Lvov? Who did he lead after 1917?
Wealthy landowner| Provisional Government
Who was Gregory Rasputin? When was he assassinated?
A mystic peasant with influence| 1916
Who was Alexandra (1916)?
German wife of Nicholas II
Who was Alexander Kerensky? What did he eventually lead in July 1917?
Socialist Revolutionary| Provisional Government
Who was General Lavr Kornilov? Who did he try to “coup” against?
Army general| Provisional Government
Who was Joseph Stalin? What did he exercise until his death?
General Secretary of the Communist Party| Dictatorial control
Who was Sergei Kirov? When was he executed?
Party Secretary of Leningrad| 1934
Who was Lev Kamenev? When was he executed?
Member of the Politburo| 1936
Who was Gregory Zinoviev? When was he executed?
Close ally of Lenin and the October Revolution| 1936
Who was Georgy Malenkov?
Prime Minister post-Stalin to 1955
Who was Nikita Khrushchev?
Communist Party First Secretary from 1953-64
Who was Lavrenty Beria? When was he executed?
Head of NKVD from 1938| 1953
Who was Vyacheslav Molotov?
Part of collective Soviet leadership after Stalin’s death
Who was Leonid Brezhnev?
Close ally of Khrushchev who eventually brought him down
Who was Father Gapon?
Orthodox priest who negotiated workers’ unions
Who was Peter Lavrov?
Populist who led a group of students to the countryside to spread socialist ideas
What happened in 1874?
Populist campaigns for “Go To The People”
What happened in 1861?
Serf Emancipation
What happened in 1855?
Alexander II becomes Tsar
What happened in 1881?
Alexander II bombed
Who became Minister of Finance in 1892? How long were they in this position for?
Sergei Witte| Until 1903
What took place across Russia between 1891-92?
Famine
What was founded in 1898?
Social Democratic Working Party (SDs)
What type of unrest existed in Russia from 1901-05?
Industrial unrest
What Party split into two groups in 1903? What 2 groups did they become?
Social Democratic Workers’ Party| Bolsheviks and Mensheviks
What War took place in 1904?
Russo-Japanese War
What massacre happened in January 1905?
Bloody Sunday
What Soviet is formed under the October Manifesto of 1905?
St Petersburg Soviet
Who carries out agrarian reform from 1906-11?
Stolypin
What massacre/strike took place in 1912?
Lena goldfields strike
What date does Germany declare War on Russia on in 1914?
1st August
What does the Tsar assume command of in September 1916? What does he suspend?
The armed forces| Duma
What happens due to unrest in February 1917?
Strikes in Petrograd
What Soviet is formed on the 27th February 1917?
Petrograd Soviet
What Government is formed in March 1917?
Provisional Government
Which Tsar abdicated in March 1917?
Nicholas II
What demonstrations take place in July 1917? What are 2 key examples of this?
Anti-government demonstrations| July Days and Kornilov Affair
Who seizes key Petrograd landmarks between 24th-25th October 1917?
Bolsheviks
What government members are arrested between the 25th-27th October 1917? What type of government is announced?
Provisional Government| Bolshevik government
What was established in December 1917?
Cheka
What Assembly was forcibly dissolved in January 1918?
Constituent Assembly
What War started in 1918?
Civil War
What Policy was introduced in 1921?
NEP - New Economic Policy
Which key figure died in 1924?
Lenin
What Plan was activated in 1928?
First Five-Year Plan
What mass process started in 1929? What was called for with the Kulaks?
Mass collectivisation| Liquidation
What took place between 1932-33?
Famine
What famous trial took place in 1936? What 2 key figures were killed?
“Show trial”| Zinoviev and Kamenev
What act of Stalin’s was at its height during 1937-38?
Great Terror
Who invades Russia in 1941? What city is seized?
Nazis| Leningrad
What Battle takes place in 1942?
Battle of Stalingrad
What War ends in 1945?
Second World War
What Affair takes place in 1949?
Leningrad Affair
What Plot took place in 1952?
Doctors’ Plot
Who dies in 1953?
Stalin
What scheme begins under Khrushchev in 1954?
“Virgin Lands” scheme
What speech takes place in 1956? What process begins following this?
Khrushchev’s “secret speech”| De-Stalinisation
Who is awarded the Nobel Prize for their work Dr Zhivago in 1958?
Pasternak
What work did Solzhenitsyn published in 1962?
One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich
Who is removed from power in 1964?
Khrushchev
What was Mid-19th Century Russia like?
Large but economically underdeveloped
What was the ratio of villagers to town dwellers?
11:1
How much of the population were illiterate peasants?
85%
What 2 places did Serfs belong to?
Village communes/Mirs
In what 2 ways were Serfs owned?
Private/State
In what 2 ways did Serfs pay their master?| What 3 things could their masters do to them?
Rent and labour| Bought/Sold/Beaten
What was Russia ruled as in 1855? How was it run?
An empire| An Autocratic Tsar
What was the Tsar head of?
Russian Orthodox Church
What was the Tsar believed to have possessed?
Semi-divine powers
What were edicts? What could the Tsar choose?
Law| His own advisers
When did Alexander II become Tsar? What was Russia involved in?
March 1855| Crimean War
Which 3 countries had Russia been fighting in the Crimean War since 1853?
Britain/France/Turkey
What 2 battles did Russia lose in 1854?
Battles of Balaclava/Inkerman
What did Russia lose in August 1855? What was it?
Sevastopol| Major naval base
What 2 things did Russia’s 1856 final defeat highlight?
Reliance on Serf armies/Conscripts| Economic backwardness
How much of Russia’s expenditure was spent on the army? What 3 things did the army suffer from?
45%| Incompetent officers/Humiliation/Increase in Serf uprisings
What 3 things had Alexander II done prior to Serf emancipation?
Travelled the empire/Served on father’s Council of State/Led a Serfdom committee
What 2 benefits did Alexander II believe Serf Emancipation would have?
To curb tensions/Stimulate the economy
Which 2 groups also believed in the idea of Serf emancipation? Who were 2 key figures of the latter?
Family/Bureaucrats| Nicholas and Dmitri Milyutin
What were the 4 types of motives behind Alexander II’s reforms?
Political/Economic/Moral/Intellectual
What type of motive was nobility debt? Why did nobility debt occur?
Political| Nobles shunned business and relied on serfs
What type of motive was declining incomes? What 2 things caused this? What 2 things were masters forced to do?
PoliticalGrowing Serf population/Inadequate agricultureMortgage/Sell Serfs as security for loans
What type of motive was Serfdom? What 2 things prevented reform?
Economic| Inability to move to town factories/Internal demands for goods low
What type of motive was experimentation? What 2 things prevented reform? What did the latter lead to?
Economic| Mirs prevented experimentation/Rural poverty led to a state debt of 54 million roubles
What type of motive were the Westernisers? What did they believe?
Moral/Intellectual| Russia should abandon Serfdom
What type of motive were the Slavophiles? What 2 things did they believe?
Moral/Intellectual| Serfdom should be reformed/Russia should stay as a traditional peasant society
What type of motive were the Intellectuals? What did they believe?
Moral/Intellectual| People were treated like animals
What type of motive were the Nihilists? What did they believe?
Moral/Intellectual| Sweep all tradition
What did Historian John Gooding about Russia in the Mid-19th century?
“It was more backwards now than at the beginning of the century”
What war ended in March 1856?
Crimean War
What did Alexander II do to examine emancipation?
Set up committees
What did Alexander II tour Russia delivering between 1858-59?
Pro-emancipation speeches
Who failed to agree on emancipation measures? What took place between them and Alexander II?
Provincial nobles| Debate
What did Alexander II establish? Who led it?
A committee of 38| Nicholas Milyutin
What was the emancipation of the serfs proclaimed in?
Alexander’s Edict of 1861
Who did emancipation only apply to? When did they receive their freedom?
Privately-owned serfs| 1866
What did emancipation permit? What did supporters find about it?
Modernisation| Not as “liberating” as expected
What did Landlords receive from emancipation? What 2 things could they use it for?
Government bonds, compensation| Redeem debt/invest in enterprises
What could some Landlords only do with their compensation? What were they forced to do?
Pay off debts| Sell land
What were Serfs declared? What 4 things could they do?
Free| Marry/Own property/Travel and have rights
What 2 things were Serfs given from emancipation? What varied?
Cottage/allotment of land| Quality of the latter
What could enterprising peasants buy? What could they sell?
Land| Surplus grain
What could Serfs do if they sold land?
Move to an industrialised city
What often remained theoretical about Serfs? Why?
Rights| Other terms of the Edict
What were Serfs required to pay? How many were needed?
Redemption payments annually| 49
What did redemption payments provoke?
Unrest
What was the issue with land prices? Where did this leave Serfs?
Fixed above market value| Debt
What 2 things did some peasants have to do to survive?
Work for their old masters/Rent land
What was the Mir responsible for? How long did Serfs remain here?
Tax and redemption collection| Until redemption pay was finished
What did the Mirs supervise? What did Mirs promote?
Farming of allocated land| Backward farming practices
What did Mirs do to peasants? Where couldn’t they leave?
Constrain them| Countryside
What were Landowners allowed to retain? How did some Serfs struggle? What did Serfs lose from Landowners?
Personal landsCouldn’t make a living without additional landProtection
What was opened by the Mirs for everyone?
Communal open fields
What was the Obruk? How long did it remain for?
Labour service| Two years of “temp obligation”
How did peasants feel about the Obruk? What happened over 4 months?
Resentful| 647 riots
What does Historian John Gooding say about the Emancipation Edict from a European perspective?
“To many Europeans, it might not have seemed like freedom at all”
What were 2 reasons for further reform?
Disappointment/Other issues
What type of reform was conscription? Who was it made compulsory for?
Military| All classes
What type of reform was length of service? How was it reduced?
Military| 25 to 15 years
What type of reform was welfare improvements? What type of punishment was abolished?
Military| Corporal
What was established to train officers? What was introduced to officers?
Military colleges| Modern weaponry
How could the new army be described after military reform?
Smaller but better-trained
What was reduced after military reform?
Costs
What was improved through army education campaigns?
Literacy
What type of leaders were officers still? What class served less time?
Aristocrats| Upper
What type of reform was rural councils? What was established at district and provincial levels in 1864?
Local government| Zemstva
What type of reform were council elections? How were they elected?
Local government| People, primarily Nobles
What 2 things were the Zemstva given more power to improve? Who did this relieve?
Public services and industry| The poor
What did the Zemstva offer at local level? Who were they dominated by? What did they improve?
Representative governmentNobles and “professionals”Welfare and education
How could people criticise government policies? What 2 things did they not have control over?
Zemstva forum| Taxation and law
What type of reform was a system of local, provincial and national courts?
Judicial
What type of reform is criminal cases? Who were they heard before?
Judiciary| Barristers and a jury
What type of reform was class judgement before law? How were they treated?
Judiciary| Equally
What happened to judges’ training and pay? What reform is this?
It improved| Judiciary
What happened to the system as a result of judiciary reform? What could a jury undermine? What was an example of this?
Fairer and less corruptGovernment controlVera Zasulich
What 2 courts continued in Russia after judiciary reform? Where didn’t this apply?
Ecclesiastical and military courts| Poland
What was important for Russia’s modernisation in education? Who led important changes?
Improvements in literacy and numeracy| Liberal Alexander Golovnin
Who took responsibility for primary education? Who was it free for?
Zemstva| All
What type of school was set up at secondary level? Where could students progress to from secondary education?
Vocational schools| University
When did universities become self-governing? What type of courses were offered?
1863| Liberal
What tripled between 1856-1880? How was there an increase in students?
Primary schools| Doubled
What was there a greater selection of at schools? What happened to the number of students at university?
Subjects| Tripled
What was the primary curriculum still based on? What did it offer?
Religion| Reading, writing and arithmetic
How was secondary education limited? Who was it limited to?
It had fees| The better-off
What did more radical students join? What were these committed to?
Opposition movements| Violence
What year did the Military reforms take place? What other reforms also took place that year?
1874| Judiciary
What 2 separate years did Local Government reforms take place?
1864| 1870
Between what period did Educational reforms take place?
1863-64
What feelings did reforms create in the 1860s?
Excitement and opposition
What did censorship relaxation encourage?
More radical books
What did educational changes lead to the growth of?
Radical student organisations
What did legal reforms promote? Who did they attract?
Legal careersMiddle class critical of government
When was the opposition group Young Russia formed? Who were they hostile to?
1862| Tsar and Church
When was the opposition group The Organisation formed? Who was it set up by and what did they carry out?
1863| Moscow Uni alumni, revolutionary activities
What sort of period set in between 1866-67? Why?
Reaction| Attempted Tsar assassinations
Who did Alexander II appoint? Who are 2 examples?
Reactionary ministers| Dmitry Tolstoy and Peter Shuvalov
What did the reactionary ministers argue about Russia?
Westernising changes were weakening Russia
What 2 type of reforms still continued? What happened to the others?
Economic and legal| Halted or reversed
Who was the authority of primary schools returned to? Whose activities were restricted?
Church| Zemstva
What were secondary schools ordered to remove from their curriculum?
Sciences
Where could vocational students only attend as of 1871?
Higher technical institutions
What subjects were banned in universities? Why?
Literature and history| Encouraged critical thought
What organisations were banned?
Student organisations
What could the government do over university appointments?
Veto
What was reasserted with the new education policies? What became restricted?
Religious control| The curriculum
What education was declined? How did people escape restrictions?
Female education| Studying abroad
What force’s work was increased?
Third Section
What trial could political offenders face? Until what year?
Show trials| 1878
Where could political crimes be tried from 1878?
Secret military courts
What were given to governor-generals? From what year?
Emergency powers for military courts and exile| 1879
Which groups of people thrived underground?
Critics and opponents
Why were show trials abandoned? Who is an example?
Sympathetic juries| Vera Zasulich
What war took place between 1877-78? What situation took place between 1879-80?
Russo-Turkish War| Famine
What recession started in the late 1870s? What event from the 1860s repeated itself relating to the Tsar?
Industrial| Assassination attempts
What commission did Alexander II establish? Under who?
Count Loris-Melikov
What position was Loris-Melikov appointed to in 1880? What was he to investigate?
Minister of the Interior| Revolutionary activities
Who was released because of Loris-Melikov?
Political prisoners
What was relaxed because of Loris-Melikov?
Censorship
Whose restrictions were lifted because of Loris-Melikov?
Zemstva
What was tax removed from because of Loris-Melikov?
Salt
What was abolished because of Loris-Melikov? Who replaced them?
Third Section| Okhrana
Whose ideas influenced young people? What view was promoted?
Radical thinkers| Socialism
Who was Chernyshevsky? What book did he write in 1863?
Editor of The Contemporary| What is to be done?
What view did Chernyshevsky have about revolution?
Peasants had to lead it for it to be successful
Who was Herzen? What structure did this advocate?
Editor of The Bell| Peasant based revolution
Who was Bakunin? What type of ownership did he promote?
Anarchist/socialist| Collective ownership
Whose book did Bakunin translate? What did he believe in?
Marx's Communist ManifestoA struggle of working and middle class would lead to a perfect society
What year did Lavrov encourage a populist movement? What was the name of the movement?
1874| Go to the people
How many Narodniks joined “Go to the people”? What would they do?
2000| Act as peasants and spread socialist ideas
What were 3 reasons for peasants rejecting Narodniks?
Fears they were secret policeIgnoranceChurch loyalty
What year did the second Narodnik movement take place? Why did it fail?
1876| People were arrested
What did the remaining Narodniks establish in 1877? What was it?
Land and Liberty| Commitment to assassinations
What 2 objectives did Land and Liberty have?
Assassinate Mezemstev (Third Section)Attempt to kill Alexander II
What 2 organisations did Land and Liberty split into in 1879?
Black Partition| People’s Will
Who was The Black Partition organised by? What was its aim?
Plekhanov| “Partition the black soil”
Who did The Black Partition work peacefully among? What did it spread to students and workers?
Peasants| Radical materials
What was the Black Partition weakened by? What did Plekhanov later become?
Arrests in 1880-81| A Marxist
Who led The People’s Will? What was it larger than?
Mikhailov| Black Partition
What did The People’s Will advocate? What was their biggest success?
Violence| Assassination of Alexander II
What 2 reasons did opposition spread?
Government failures| Demands for “reforms from below”
Who succeeded Alexander II? When was he crowned?
Alexander III| May 1881
Who was Alexander III advised by? Who was he?
Konstantin Pobedonostev| Procurator of the Holy Synod
What did Pobedonostev encourage the Tsar to reassert?
Autocracy
What did Alexander III publicly announce?
“I am the sole ruler, as only absolute power can safeguard Russia”
What group had 150 people arrested and hanged? Why?
People’s Will| Assassinated Alexander II
What happened to the powers of the police? What department was made to supervise the Okhrana?
They increased| Department of Police
Who were the Department of Police made responsible to? Why?
Ministry of Internal Affairs| So activities could be monitored
Who were also widely used? Who watched these people?
Spies| Secret spies
What land rule was put in place in 1882? What could police agents do?
Any area could be deemed “subversion”| Arrest, imprison and exile on suspicion
What judicial courts were reintroduced in 1885?
Closed courts
What did Alexander III introduce in 1889? Who were they appointed by?
Land Captains| Nobility
Who did Land Captains replace? Who could they override?
Magistrates| Zemstva
What 2 things could Land Captains overturn?
Local court judgements and flogging of peasants
What vote was reduced in 1890?
Zemstva peasant vote
Who were removed from office?
Outspoken Liberals
Whose creed did Alexander III adopt? What did this mean?
Pobedonostev’s “Autocracy, Orthodoxy and Nationality”| Russification
What is Russification?
Enforcement of Russian language and culture on ethnic minorities
What was declared as the first language? What did this mean for the judicial system?
Russian| Trials and local government had to be conducted in Russian
What was closed to non-fluent Russian speakers?
Public office
What Church was adherence encouraged for? How many Lutherans converted?
Orthodox| 37,000
What Catholic buildings were closed down? What were non-Orthodox churches not allowed to do?
Monasteries| Build new places of worship
Who suppressed Russification resistance?
The military
What 4 nationalities suffered the most?
Poles, Finns, Baltic Germans and Ukrainians
What was the intention of Russification? What did it intensify? What did it cause?
To “unite” the countryNational feelings for non-RussiansOpposition groups
Which religion suffered most from Russification? How many were living in Russia?
Jews| 5 million
What was ingrained in Russian society? What broke out between 1881-84?
Anti-semitism| Jewish pogroms
What did authorities not do a lot of? What happened to many Jews? What happened to some Jewish property?
Curb anti-semitic violenceRaped or murderedDestroyed
What was passed during Alexander III’s reign to restrict Jews? Where were Jews forced to live?
Laws| Ghettos
What happened to many Jews? Who were 2 key figures who joined revolutionary groups?
Emigrated or expelled| Leon Trotsky and Julius Martov
What does Historian Martin Sixsmith say about Alexander III’s intentions towards Russification?
“Alexander III wanted to unify the country by turning an empire into a nation”
What does Historian Orlando Figes say about Russification’s central aim?
“It had always been a central aim to assimilate non-Russian peoples”
What does Historian John Gooding say about Jews?
“Jews were seen as a particular problem”
What class did Russia not possess?
Middle class
What did Von Reutern believe Russia needed? What did he introduce?
Economic change| Reforms
What type of farming was abolished? What did this mean?
Tax-farming| Companies could no longer collect taxes
What organisation was reformed under Von Reutern? What systems were established?
The Treasury| Auditing and budgeting
What facilities were made available from Banks?
Credit facilities
What was offered to private railway companies?
Subsides
What was guaranteed by the government for foreign investors?
Annual dividends
What was lowered on trade? What was negotiated?
Tariffs| Trade treaties
What 2 industries expanded because of Von Reutern? What field was there an improvement in?
Cotton/Mining| Agriculture
In what 2 fields did mobility remained limited? What was slow?
Transport/Labour| Growth
What was unstable in the economy? Where did a lot of income go towards?
Russian Currency| Paying off debts
Which place did Russia remain underdeveloped towards?
Western Europe
What did Vyshnegradsky try to build up?
Industry
What tariffs were increased? How much by?
Import tariffs| 30%
Why were grain imports increased? How much were they increased by between 1881-91?
To make peasants sell to the state| 18%
Where did Russia get a loan from in 1888?
France
What 3 things did peasants suffer from under Vyshnegradsky?
High taxes High good pricesGrain requisitions
When did a famine take place under Vyshnegradsky? How many people died?
1891-92| 350,000
What did Witte want from abroad? What 3 things did he increase investment in?
Loans| Mining, oil and banking
What did Witte encourage European experts to oversee? What did he want advice on?
Development| Planning
What did Witte achieve with the railway network?
A huge expansion
Why did emancipation bring little change to agriculture for peasants?
Peasants had too little land to become prosperous
Why did the Mir fail to bring agricultural success?
Backwards farming practices favoured by the elders
Who were the biggest Landowners? What did many of them do?
Nobles| Sell their land to pay debts
Why did some Landowners abandon farming? What did some of them start up?
To learn professions| Businesses
How did Kulaks buy land? Who did Kulaks employ?
Loans from the Peasants Land Bank| Lower peasants
What did the poorer peasants become?
Landless labourers
Why were most peasants unable to do military service? What was the average life expectancy in Russia for peasants?
Unfit| 28
What does Historian Orlando Figes say about the economic partitions?
“Partitions made little economic sense”
When did Alexander III die? At what age?
September 1894| 49
Who succeeded Alexander III? How was he related to Alex?
Nicholas II| Son
What did Nicholas II admit about ruling Russia? What religious belief did he have?
He had no idea how| It was a God-given duty to preserve autocracy
What 2 things did Nicholas II prove incapable of doing as Tsar?
Making firm decisions or giving a sense of direction
What 2 groups did Nicholas II rely on to challenges of his authority?
Army and Ohkrana
Where was there increasingly widespread unrest?
Towns and countryside
Who did the Tsar dismiss in 1903? What happened as a result?
Sergei Witte - most competent adviser| He was surrounded by reactionary ministers
What did peasants suffer from? What did they destroy?
Land hunger| Landlords’ barns
What did industrial workers form? What did they become involved in?
Illegal trade unions| Strikes
What was formed in 1904 in St Petersburg? Who formed it?
An official union| Father Gapon
Why was an official trade union formed?
To prevent workers joining socialists
When did the Japanese attack Russia? What Port was attacked?
January 1904| Port Arthur
Who was Plehve? What did he call for after the events of Port Arthur?
Minister of Internal Affairs| A “short, swift victorious war”
What was the Russo-Japanese War meant to divide attention from in Russia?
Political unrest at home
Where were Russian forces defeated in March 1904? How many Russians were killed?
Mukden| 90,000
How many Russian ships were sunk in May 1904? What battle was this?
24 of 27| Battle of Tsushima
When did Russia surrender Port Arthur? Who did this increase opposition towards?
December 1904| Government
What other name is the 1905 Revolution known as?
Bloody Sunday
What happened on the 3rd January 1905? How many workers took part?
Strikes at Putilov| 150,000
What happened on the 9th January 1905? What did they demand?
Father Gapon led 20,000 workers to the Winter Palace| Improved working conditions
Who was assassinated on 4th February 1905?
Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich
What union was forced in March 1905? Who co-ordinated strikes?
“All Russian Union of Railway Workers”| Soviets
What happened overseas in June 1905?
Mutiny on ship Potemkin
Where were sympathetic crowds located after the Potemkin mutiny? How many were killed by police?
Odessa| 2,000
What happened in August 1905? What union was formed?
Peasant riot| Peasant union
What was promised on 6th August 1905?
State Duma
What took place in September 1905? What did this cause in October?
Printers’ strike| General strike
How did Russia seem economically by October 1905?
Near collapse
Where were there strikes and demonstrations? Where were peasant uprisings?
Cities| Countryside
Why did Alexander III make his decree? What 2 things did he promise?
Pressure from advisers| Civil liberties and State Duma
What are examples of civil liberties?
Free speech, press, assembly
Who was the State Duma elected by? What did the Duma pass?
Universal suffrage| Laws
Who accepted the Manifesto? Who are 3 group examples of these?
Liberals| Kadets, Progressives and Octobrists
Which 2 socialist groups rejected the Manifesto? What do they stand for?
SR/SD| Revolutionaries and Democrats
What were many workers unconvinced by in the Manifesto? Who did they continue to support?
Tsar’s promises| Socialist groups
What uprising continued? What was hoped for?
Peasant uprising| Land redistribution
Who remained loyal to the Tsar?
Army
What 2 places did the army storm in November/December 1905?
Moscow and St Petersburg HQ
What happened to Soviet leaders? What was the worst punishment?
Arrested or exiled to Siberia| Execution
Where was order restored by the army? What ended for peasants?
Countryside| Redemption payments
When were the Fundamental Laws introduced? What were they?
April 1906| A constitution
Which 2 groups refused to participate in the Fundamental Laws?
SRs and Bolsheviks
What did the Tsar exercise in the Fundamental Laws?
Supreme autocratic power
What did the Tsar initiate in the Fundamental Laws?
Legislation and approval
Who could the Tsar appoint and dismiss as part of the Fundamental Laws? What could he summon and dissolve?
Ministers| Duma
What could the Tsar do in an emergency?
Rule by decree
What did the Tsar never have any intention of becoming?
A “constitutional monarch”
When was the First Duma active? Who was it dominated by?
May-June 1906| Radicals and Kadets
What did the First Duma demand? Why did the Duma dissolve?
Radical change| Vote of no confidence
When was the Second Duma active? Who engineered elections to gain Octobrists?
February-June 1907| Peter Stolypin
Who increased the number of radical deputies due to participation?
Bolsheviks and SRs
What did the Second Duma oppose?
Most Tsarist proposals
When was the Third Duma active? What did Stolypin introduce?
November 1907-June 1912| Emergency law for representation
Who dominated the Third Duma?
Octobrists and Conservatives
When was the Fourth Duma active? Who couldn’t co-operate?
November 1912-17| Right and left deputies
What did the Fourth Duma vote for in 1914? Why was it suspended in 1915?
War credits| Demanding more power
What does Historian Orlando Figes say about Nicholas II and his autocratic values?
“Nicholas was opposed to limitation upon his autocratic prerogatives”
What does Historian Martin Sixsmith say about Nicholas II offering concessions?
“He offered concessions in the hope of defusing tension”
What did Witte believe that was essential for a revolution? What continued between 1892 and 1914?
Industrialisation| The drive for growth
Between 1892 and 1914, what rate did the Russian economy grow?
8% per annum
What was raised to encourage foreign loans?
Interest rates
What was introduced in 1897 to increase business confidence? What was this backed by?
New rouble (currency)Gold
How was industrial development funded? What type of industry was prioritised?
Foreign capital| Heavy industry
How many KM of railway track did Russia have by 1914?
62,000
What was the purpose of the Trans-Siberian railway?
To link Russia with the Far East
What stimulated heavy industries? Who was given reduced transport costs and government revenue?
Railway development| Manufacturers
Due to the cost of railways, what did Russia become dependent on?
Foreign investment
What was Russia the 5th largest power of in the world?
Industrial power
How much did Coal increase from 1880-1910?
3.2-25.4 million metric tons
How much did Pig Iron increase from 1880-1910?
0.42-3 million metric tons
How much did Crude Oil increase from 1880-1910?
0.5-12.1 million metric tons
What remained small-scale in the 1890s?
Agriculture
Who was Stolypin in 1906? What did he believe in to prevent peasant unrest?
Minister of the Interior| Agricultural reform
What type of ownership did Stolypin want to increase to create farmer profit?
Individual peasant ownership
Who did Stolypin want to help support the regime of agriculture?
Kulaks and profit-orientated farmers
What system/type of ownership was abolished in November 1906?
Mir| Collective ownership
When were redemption payments abolished? Where could peasants leave?
January 1907| Villages
What could peasants apply for with permission? What would be consolidated?
Consolidation for single farms| Scattered strips of farm
What was newly reformed to fund purchases?
Peasant Land Bank
What was used to encourage settlements in Siberia? What happened to them?
Government subsides| Increased
How much did peasant ownership increase from 1905-1915?
20% to 50%
What was produced that rose annually? What was the Russia the biggest exporter of in 1909?
Grain production| Cereal
Who often bought out poorer peasants to increase the efficiency in farms?
Kulaks
How many peasants moved from an overpopulated Siberia? What was prominently made in the region?
3,500,000| Dairy and cereal
Why did some peasants sell up? What did this boost the supply of?
To move to towns| Industrial labour
By 1914, how much land had successfully been transferred from communal to private ownership?
10%
In 1914, how much of peasant holdings were based on scattered strips? What were peasants reluctant to?
90%| New farming methods
Who lost their land? What did many do afterwards?
Poorer peasants| Factory or seasonal work
What was Siberia like in terms of climate?
Difficult terrain
What did industrialisation help strengthen in Russia? What did it bring about?
Economy| Changes
What new emerson proved detrimental to the Tsarist regime?
Middle and urban working class
What middle class occupations became more prominent in society? Where did many of these people play a role?
Owners, managers, traders and professionals| Zemstva
What was lacking in the middle class that made them opponents to Tsarism? When was this finally established?
Elected national assembly| 1906
How did the urban population increase from 1867-1917? Approximately how much of the population were factory workers?
7 to 28 million| 10%
What did the urban working class suffer from? What rates were high?
Appalling working and living conditions| Mortality rates
Where did some of the urban working class rent rooms? Where else were they accommodated?
Overcrowded blocks| Barracks
How many rented houses in St Petersburg had no running water? How was sewage collected?
40%| Handcarts
What could employers do due to limited regulation? What did this fail to keep pace with?
Pay minimum wage| Inflation
By 1914, how much of the workforce was compromised by women?
20%
When did an industrial depression hit?
1900-1908
What was officially banned before 1905? How did some strikes take place?
Strikes| Illegally and violently
What 2 provisions were improved by 1914? What did every change lead to?
Education and social welfare| More demand for change
What law was introduced in 1885 which restricted work?
Night-time work was only allowed for men
What legal document had to be drawn up by law in 1886?
Contracts of employment
What employment law was introduced in 1892?
Employment of under 12s and females in labour was banned
How were working hours reduced by a law in 1897?
Working hours were reduced to 11.5
What inspection was expanded by law in 1903?
Factory inspectorate
What unions were made legal by 1905?
Trade unions
What insurance for workers was introduced as a law in 1912?
Sickness and accident insurance
How were factory hours legally reduced in 1914?
Reduced to 10 hours per day
What declined in the years 1910-13? What 2 reasons led to this?
Real wages| Inflation/employers
What miners in 1912 went on strike? Why?
Lena goldfield miners in Siberia| Long hours and poor pay
What did the Lena strikers demand? How many were killed by the army?
Better pay and living conditions| 500
How many strikes took place alongside Lena in Russia in 1912? How many in 1913?
2,000| 24,000
How many strikes took place in 1914? What took place in July 1914?
Over a million| General strike at St Petersburg
What does Historian Edward Acton say about unused land?
“Unused land was brought under cultivation”
At what level did peasants continue to live? What event from 1891-92 caused this?
Substience level| Great Famine
How much per acre was grain output in Russia compared to Britain and Germany?
1/3
What were peasants driven hard to produce? What were they forced to pay?
Surplus for export| High taxes
What population made living conditions worse? Who were holdings divided by?
Rural population| Sons and the amount of land families had
Who could Kulaks afford to employ? What gulf widened in society?
Labour| Kulaks and labourers
Whose mortality rates were high? What did they have limited access to?
Peasants| Doctors
What standards varied in Russia? Where was there prosperity?
Living standards| Ukraine
Where were backward farming methods still favoured? Whose support mostly came from there?
Central Russia| Bolsheviks
How much of nobility land was transferred to peasants and dwellers from 1861-1914? What 2 things did most nobles retain?
1/3| Wealth and position in government
Who emerged as industrialisation gained pace? What did many of them serve on?
Middle classZemstva
What did the Orthodox Church have close ties with? What did the Tsar allegedly rule by?
Tsarism| “Divine right”
What did the Orthodox Church exercise sway over? What did this benefit?
Superstitious peasantry| Tsarist regime
Who had close ties to the village? What were they expected to do?
Priests| Read out decrees
What controls did the Church exercise? What would the courts hand down punishments for?
Censorship| Social/moral crimes
Under which Tsar did the Church have increased control over primary education? What became a crime in terms of Orthodox loyalty?
Alexander III| You couldn’t convert to another faith
Who did the Church have less hold of in the cities? What type of ideas had more appeal?
Growing working classSocialism
What development brought new opportunities for women? What provision was expanded?
Economic| Education
What percentage of children were in primary school by 1914? Between what ages?
45%| 8-11
What flourished at the end of censorship? When did censorship end?
Popular press| 1905
What novels were cheaply produced for the newly literate?
Tolstoy and Dostoevsky
What had Russian culture embraced by 1914?
More than the elite
What 2 things did millions of people remain respectful to even after cultural changes?
Autocracy and Orthodox Church
What did millions go out on the streets for in 1913?
300th anniversary of Romanov dynasty
What did industrial and educational expansion produce? What did they seek?
Middle classLiberal change
Where did support for the middle class come from? Who were they joined by?
Professional groups| Liberal Nobility
What were 2 Liberal priorities?
Civil rights and a State Duma
Who was strongly represented in the Zemstva? What were they highly critical of?
Liberals/Professionals| Autocracy
What was introduced in 1889 that caused further opposition? How was it fuelled?
Land Captains| Overruling Zemstva decisions
What event exemplified Tsarist incompetence?
Great Famine
What was dismissed as a “senseless dream” in 1895? Whose idea was this?
National Duma| Zemstvo of Tver
What organisation was banned in 1896?
“All-Zemstva Organisation”
Who helped popularise political changes? Who is an example of this?
Liberal intellectuals| Tolstoy
What was legalised in 1900? Who was given permission to legalise this?
Trade unions| S.V. Zubatov - Head of Moscow Ohkrana
When was Zubatov’s permission revoked? Why?
1903| Trade unions attempted a general strike
When was the first liberal opposition group formed? What was it called?
1899| Beseda
What did Beseda merge with in 1903? Who led them?
Union of Liberation| Peter Struve
What was Struve formerly? What did he oppose?
Marxist| Violent revolution
What did Struve want Tsarism to become?
A constitutional monarchy
How many banquets were held over winter 1904? Why?
50| To spread the union’s message
What did liberal opposition have before 1905? What 2 things were they won over by?
Limited political influence| October Manifesto and Duma
Who was the liberal opposition largely represented by? What did they believe in?
Kadets| Constitutional Democracy
Who did liberals try to co-operate with? What were they increasingly frustrated by?
Tsarist government| Intransigence of the Tsarist regime
Who was arrested after the first Duma dissolved in 1906? What was reduced in size after the second Duma dissolved in 1907?
Kadet leaders| Electorate
What did the Tsar increasingly ignore to pass laws? What was there little semblance to by 1914?
Dumas| Constitutional Monarchy
What ideology seemed far off in Russia by 1894? What did the Great Famine revive?
Marxism| Rural socialism
When were the SRs established? What 2 ideologies did it combine?
1901| Marxism and Populism
Who edited the SRs journal? What was it called?
Chernov| Revolutionary Russia
How many political assassinations did the SRs carry out from 1901-05? What key figure was assassinated in 1911?
2,000| Stolypin
How many SRs were executed from 1901-11?
2,000
What ideology gained more support as industrialisation increased?
Marxism
