Essentials Flashcards
1
Q
Who were the Serfs? What could happen to them?
A
Labour workers owned by masters| Bought or sold
2
Q
What were Mirs?
A
Village communes where peasants lived and worked
3
Q
What is autocracy?
A
Total power by one person
4
Q
What is a Tsar?
A
Emperor of Russia
5
Q
What was the Orthodox Church?
A
Official state religion of Tsarist Russia
6
Q
What was conscription?
A
Forced service, usually for 25 years
7
Q
What was Serfdom?
A
Where peasants are property of their masters
8
Q
What is Emancipation?
A
Freedom
9
Q
What was the Bureaucracy?
A
Civil servants who undertake administrative tasks
10
Q
Who were the Westernisers?
A
Russian intellectuals who believed Russia should follow Western lines
11
Q
Who were the Slavophiles?
A
Russian intellectuals who believe Russia should seek a basis under tradition
12
Q
Who were the Intellectuals?
A
Educated elite often critical of the Tsarist regime
13
Q
What/When was the Crimean War?
A
Where Russia were up against Britain, France and Turkey| 1853-56
14
Q
What does radical mean?
A
Fundamental change
15
Q
What is the Zemstva? When were they set up?
A
Elected local government assemblies| 1864
16
Q
What is a Liberal?
A
Someone who wanted more personal and economic freedom
17
Q
What was St Petersburg?
A
Capital of Russia (later Petrograd and Leningrad)
18
Q
What was the Ohkrana?
A
Third Section replacement
19
Q
What was reaction?
A
Backwards behaviour returning to former ways
20
Q
Who were the Land Captains?
A
Nobles with extensive local powers
21
Q
What is a pogrom?
A
Attack on Jews
22
Q
What is Russification?
A
Imposing Russian culture and language on ethnic minorities
23
Q
What is anti-semitism?
A
Hatred towards Jews
24
Q
Who were the ethnic minorities?
A
Primarily Poles, Finns, Ukrainians and Jews
25
What are Import Tariffs?
Money paid when goods are brought into Russia
26
Who were Kadets?
Constitutional Democratic Party members
27
What was universal suffrage?
Vote for all people
28
Who were Octobrists?
Moderate Conservative party
29
Who were the Bolshevik Party? Who led them?
A faction broken away from the Social Democratic Working PartyLenin
30
What were "civil rights"?
Personal rights
31
What was the Socialist Revolutionary Party? What did it support?
Populist party founded in 1901| Land redistribution
32
What was the Social Democratic Workers' Party? What 2 factions did this party later split into?
Marxist party founded in 1898| Bolsheviks and Mensheviks
33
What does "proletarian" mean?
Exploited working-class member
34
What were Mensheviks?
Marxists
35
What was the Central Committee?
Body elected by party congress
36
What was Kronstadt?
St Petersburg's main seaport
37
What is meant by "dual power"?
Power-sharing between the Provisional Government and Petrograd Soviet
38
What is a constituent assembly?
A governing body who draw up a new constitution
39
Who were the Red Guards?
Bolshevik armed forces
40
What is a mandate?
Authority to carry out a policy
41
What was the Cheka?
Bolshevik secret police
42
Who are Commissars?
Socialist ministers
43
What was Sovnarkom?
Soviet Council of People's Commissars
44
What is the Politburo?
The highest policy-making body in the Soviet Union
45
What is meant by a "purge"?
"A cleaning out of impurities"
46
What was Stakhanovite?
A movement named after a miner with record-breaking amounts of coal in 1935
47
What was the Komsomol?
Young Communist organisation
48
What was the NKVD?
Secret police force that succeeded the Cheka
49
What was the Kolkhoz?
Main collective farm of Russia
50
What was the Nomenklatura?
Privileged elite who ran the party machine
51
What was the Cold War?
Tension between the US and Soviet Union post-WW2
52
What was Samizdat?
Secret publication of banned literature
53
What was Burzhui?
Abusive term against anti-Communists
54
What was a constitutional monarchy?
Where the ruler's power is limited by an elected assembly
55
What was Marxism?
A political ideology that believes all history is driven by economic forces which create class struggles
56
What was a Narodnik?
Russian name for a populist
57
What were show trials?
Propagandist trials held for political purposes
58
What was a socialist?
Someone who believes factory and land should belong to the people
59
What was a Soviet?
An elected council that controlled factories or local areas
60
What were trade unions?
Organisations that represent workers in negotiations
61
What was the Winter Palace? Where is it located?
Home of the Tsar| St Petersburg
62
Who was Alexander II? What was he known as?
Tsar from 1855-1881| Tsar Liberator
63
Who were Nicholas and Dmitri Milyutin?
Brothers who were close advisers of Alexander II
64
Who was Alexander III?
Tsar from 1881 to 1894
65
Who was Konstantin Pobedonostev?
Tutor and adviser to Alexander III
66
Who was Leon Trotsky? What did he mastermind?
An orator| Takeover of Petrograd in 1917
67
Who was Julius Martov?
Social Democratic Workers' Party leader
68
Who was Mikhail Von Reutern? How long was he in his role for?
Minister of Finance| 1862-78
69
Who was Ivan Vyshnegradsky? How long was he in his role for?
Finance Minister| 1887-92
70
Who was Sergei Witte? What was he credited for?
Finance Minister from 1892-1903| Rapid expansion of the Russian economy
71
Who was Nicholas II? What did he want to uphold?
Tsar from 1894-1917| Autocracy
72
Who was Vladimir Lenin? What city was named after him?
Bolsheviks leader from 1903| Petrograd - Leningrad
73
Who was Prince Lvov? Who did he lead after 1917?
Wealthy landowner| Provisional Government
74
Who was Gregory Rasputin? When was he assassinated?
A mystic peasant with influence| 1916
75
Who was Alexandra (1916)?
German wife of Nicholas II
76
Who was Alexander Kerensky? What did he eventually lead in July 1917?
Socialist Revolutionary| Provisional Government
77
Who was General Lavr Kornilov? Who did he try to "coup" against?
Army general| Provisional Government
78
Who was Joseph Stalin? What did he exercise until his death?
General Secretary of the Communist Party| Dictatorial control
79
Who was Sergei Kirov? When was he executed?
Party Secretary of Leningrad| 1934
80
Who was Lev Kamenev? When was he executed?
Member of the Politburo| 1936
81
Who was Gregory Zinoviev? When was he executed?
Close ally of Lenin and the October Revolution| 1936
82
Who was Georgy Malenkov?
Prime Minister post-Stalin to 1955
83
Who was Nikita Khrushchev?
Communist Party First Secretary from 1953-64
84
Who was Lavrenty Beria? When was he executed?
Head of NKVD from 1938| 1953
85
Who was Vyacheslav Molotov?
Part of collective Soviet leadership after Stalin's death
86
Who was Leonid Brezhnev?
Close ally of Khrushchev who eventually brought him down
87
Who was Father Gapon?
Orthodox priest who negotiated workers' unions
88
Who was Peter Lavrov?
Populist who led a group of students to the countryside to spread socialist ideas
89
What happened in 1874?
Populist campaigns for "Go To The People"
90
What happened in 1861?
Serf Emancipation
91
What happened in 1855?
Alexander II becomes Tsar
92
What happened in 1881?
Alexander II bombed
93
Who became Minister of Finance in 1892? How long were they in this position for?
Sergei Witte| Until 1903
94
What took place across Russia between 1891-92?
Famine
95
What was founded in 1898?
Social Democratic Working Party (SDs)
96
What type of unrest existed in Russia from 1901-05?
Industrial unrest
97
What Party split into two groups in 1903? What 2 groups did they become?
Social Democratic Workers' Party| Bolsheviks and Mensheviks
98
What War took place in 1904?
Russo-Japanese War
99
What massacre happened in January 1905?
Bloody Sunday
100
What Soviet is formed under the October Manifesto of 1905?
St Petersburg Soviet
101
Who carries out agrarian reform from 1906-11?
Stolypin
102
What massacre/strike took place in 1912?
Lena goldfields strike
103
What date does Germany declare War on Russia on in 1914?
1st August
104
What does the Tsar assume command of in September 1916? What does he suspend?
The armed forces| Duma
105
What happens due to unrest in February 1917?
Strikes in Petrograd
106
What Soviet is formed on the 27th February 1917?
Petrograd Soviet
107
What Government is formed in March 1917?
Provisional Government
108
Which Tsar abdicated in March 1917?
Nicholas II
109
What demonstrations take place in July 1917? What are 2 key examples of this?
Anti-government demonstrations| July Days and Kornilov Affair
110
Who seizes key Petrograd landmarks between 24th-25th October 1917?
Bolsheviks
111
What government members are arrested between the 25th-27th October 1917? What type of government is announced?
Provisional Government| Bolshevik government
112
What was established in December 1917?
Cheka
113
What Assembly was forcibly dissolved in January 1918?
Constituent Assembly
114
What War started in 1918?
Civil War
115
What Policy was introduced in 1921?
NEP - New Economic Policy
116
Which key figure died in 1924?
Lenin
117
What Plan was activated in 1928?
First Five-Year Plan
118
What mass process started in 1929? What was called for with the Kulaks?
Mass collectivisation| Liquidation
119
What took place between 1932-33?
Famine
120
What famous trial took place in 1936? What 2 key figures were killed?
"Show trial"| Zinoviev and Kamenev
121
What act of Stalin's was at its height during 1937-38?
Great Terror
122
Who invades Russia in 1941? What city is seized?
Nazis| Leningrad
123
What Battle takes place in 1942?
Battle of Stalingrad
124
What War ends in 1945?
Second World War
125
What Affair takes place in 1949?
Leningrad Affair
126
What Plot took place in 1952?
Doctors' Plot
127
Who dies in 1953?
Stalin
128
What scheme begins under Khrushchev in 1954?
"Virgin Lands" scheme
129
What speech takes place in 1956? What process begins following this?
Khrushchev's "secret speech"| De-Stalinisation
130
Who is awarded the Nobel Prize for their work Dr Zhivago in 1958?
Pasternak
131
What work did Solzhenitsyn published in 1962?
One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich
132
Who is removed from power in 1964?
Khrushchev
133
What was Mid-19th Century Russia like?
Large but economically underdeveloped
134
What was the ratio of villagers to town dwellers?
11:1
135
How much of the population were illiterate peasants?
85%
136
What 2 places did Serfs belong to?
Village communes/Mirs
137
In what 2 ways were Serfs owned?
Private/State
138
In what 2 ways did Serfs pay their master?| What 3 things could their masters do to them?
Rent and labour| Bought/Sold/Beaten
139
What was Russia ruled as in 1855? How was it run?
An empire| An Autocratic Tsar
140
What was the Tsar head of?
Russian Orthodox Church
141
What was the Tsar believed to have possessed?
Semi-divine powers
142
What were edicts? What could the Tsar choose?
Law| His own advisers
143
When did Alexander II become Tsar? What was Russia involved in?
March 1855| Crimean War
144
Which 3 countries had Russia been fighting in the Crimean War since 1853?
Britain/France/Turkey
145
What 2 battles did Russia lose in 1854?
Battles of Balaclava/Inkerman
146
What did Russia lose in August 1855? What was it?
Sevastopol| Major naval base
147
What 2 things did Russia's 1856 final defeat highlight?
Reliance on Serf armies/Conscripts| Economic backwardness
148
How much of Russia's expenditure was spent on the army? What 3 things did the army suffer from?
45%| Incompetent officers/Humiliation/Increase in Serf uprisings
149
What 3 things had Alexander II done prior to Serf emancipation?
Travelled the empire/Served on father's Council of State/Led a Serfdom committee
150
What 2 benefits did Alexander II believe Serf Emancipation would have?
To curb tensions/Stimulate the economy
151
Which 2 groups also believed in the idea of Serf emancipation? Who were 2 key figures of the latter?
Family/Bureaucrats| Nicholas and Dmitri Milyutin
152
What were the 4 types of motives behind Alexander II's reforms?
Political/Economic/Moral/Intellectual
153
What type of motive was nobility debt? Why did nobility debt occur?
Political| Nobles shunned business and relied on serfs
154
What type of motive was declining incomes? What 2 things caused this? What 2 things were masters forced to do?
PoliticalGrowing Serf population/Inadequate agricultureMortgage/Sell Serfs as security for loans
155
What type of motive was Serfdom? What 2 things prevented reform?
Economic| Inability to move to town factories/Internal demands for goods low
156
What type of motive was experimentation? What 2 things prevented reform? What did the latter lead to?
Economic| Mirs prevented experimentation/Rural poverty led to a state debt of 54 million roubles
157
What type of motive were the Westernisers? What did they believe?
Moral/Intellectual| Russia should abandon Serfdom
158
What type of motive were the Slavophiles? What 2 things did they believe?
Moral/Intellectual| Serfdom should be reformed/Russia should stay as a traditional peasant society
159
What type of motive were the Intellectuals? What did they believe?
Moral/Intellectual| People were treated like animals
160
What type of motive were the Nihilists? What did they believe?
Moral/Intellectual| Sweep all tradition
161
What did Historian John Gooding about Russia in the Mid-19th century?
"It was more backwards now than at the beginning of the century"
162
What war ended in March 1856?
Crimean War
163
What did Alexander II do to examine emancipation?
Set up committees
164
What did Alexander II tour Russia delivering between 1858-59?
Pro-emancipation speeches
165
Who failed to agree on emancipation measures? What took place between them and Alexander II?
Provincial nobles| Debate
166
What did Alexander II establish? Who led it?
A committee of 38| Nicholas Milyutin
167
What was the emancipation of the serfs proclaimed in?
Alexander's Edict of 1861
168
Who did emancipation only apply to? When did they receive their freedom?
Privately-owned serfs| 1866
169
What did emancipation permit? What did supporters find about it?
Modernisation| Not as "liberating" as expected
170
What did Landlords receive from emancipation? What 2 things could they use it for?
Government bonds, compensation| Redeem debt/invest in enterprises
171
What could some Landlords only do with their compensation? What were they forced to do?
Pay off debts| Sell land
172
What were Serfs declared? What 4 things could they do?
Free| Marry/Own property/Travel and have rights
173
What 2 things were Serfs given from emancipation? What varied?
Cottage/allotment of land| Quality of the latter
174
What could enterprising peasants buy? What could they sell?
Land| Surplus grain
175
What could Serfs do if they sold land?
Move to an industrialised city
176
What often remained theoretical about Serfs? Why?
Rights| Other terms of the Edict
177
What were Serfs required to pay? How many were needed?
Redemption payments annually| 49
178
What did redemption payments provoke?
Unrest
179
What was the issue with land prices? Where did this leave Serfs?
Fixed above market value| Debt
180
What 2 things did some peasants have to do to survive?
Work for their old masters/Rent land
181
What was the Mir responsible for? How long did Serfs remain here?
Tax and redemption collection| Until redemption pay was finished
182
What did the Mirs supervise? What did Mirs promote?
Farming of allocated land| Backward farming practices
183
What did Mirs do to peasants? Where couldn't they leave?
Constrain them| Countryside
184
What were Landowners allowed to retain? How did some Serfs struggle? What did Serfs lose from Landowners?
Personal landsCouldn't make a living without additional landProtection
185
What was opened by the Mirs for everyone?
Communal open fields
186
What was the Obruk? How long did it remain for?
Labour service| Two years of "temp obligation"
187
How did peasants feel about the Obruk? What happened over 4 months?
Resentful| 647 riots
188
What does Historian John Gooding say about the Emancipation Edict from a European perspective?
"To many Europeans, it might not have seemed like freedom at all"
189
What were 2 reasons for further reform?
Disappointment/Other issues
190
What type of reform was conscription? Who was it made compulsory for?
Military| All classes
191
What type of reform was length of service? How was it reduced?
Military| 25 to 15 years
192
What type of reform was welfare improvements? What type of punishment was abolished?
Military| Corporal
193
What was established to train officers? What was introduced to officers?
Military colleges| Modern weaponry
194
How could the new army be described after military reform?
Smaller but better-trained
195
What was reduced after military reform?
Costs
196
What was improved through army education campaigns?
Literacy
197
What type of leaders were officers still? What class served less time?
Aristocrats| Upper
198
What type of reform was rural councils? What was established at district and provincial levels in 1864?
Local government| Zemstva
199
What type of reform were council elections? How were they elected?
Local government| People, primarily Nobles
200
What 2 things were the Zemstva given more power to improve? Who did this relieve?
Public services and industry| The poor
201
What did the Zemstva offer at local level? Who were they dominated by? What did they improve?
Representative governmentNobles and "professionals"Welfare and education
202
How could people criticise government policies? What 2 things did they not have control over?
Zemstva forum| Taxation and law
203
What type of reform was a system of local, provincial and national courts?
Judicial
204
What type of reform is criminal cases? Who were they heard before?
Judiciary| Barristers and a jury
205
What type of reform was class judgement before law? How were they treated?
Judiciary| Equally
206
What happened to judges' training and pay? What reform is this?
It improved| Judiciary
207
What happened to the system as a result of judiciary reform? What could a jury undermine? What was an example of this?
Fairer and less corruptGovernment controlVera Zasulich
208
What 2 courts continued in Russia after judiciary reform? Where didn't this apply?
Ecclesiastical and military courts| Poland
209
What was important for Russia's modernisation in education? Who led important changes?
Improvements in literacy and numeracy| Liberal Alexander Golovnin
210
Who took responsibility for primary education? Who was it free for?
Zemstva| All
211
What type of school was set up at secondary level? Where could students progress to from secondary education?
Vocational schools| University
212
When did universities become self-governing? What type of courses were offered?
1863| Liberal
213
What tripled between 1856-1880? How was there an increase in students?
Primary schools| Doubled
214
What was there a greater selection of at schools? What happened to the number of students at university?
Subjects| Tripled
215
What was the primary curriculum still based on? What did it offer?
Religion| Reading, writing and arithmetic
216
How was secondary education limited? Who was it limited to?
It had fees| The better-off
217
What did more radical students join? What were these committed to?
Opposition movements| Violence
218
What year did the Military reforms take place? What other reforms also took place that year?
1874| Judiciary
219
What 2 separate years did Local Government reforms take place?
1864| 1870
220
Between what period did Educational reforms take place?
1863-64
221
What feelings did reforms create in the 1860s?
Excitement and opposition
222
What did censorship relaxation encourage?
More radical books
223
What did educational changes lead to the growth of?
Radical student organisations
224
What did legal reforms promote? Who did they attract?
```Legal careersMiddle class critical of government```
225
When was the opposition group Young Russia formed? Who were they hostile to?
1862| Tsar and Church
226
When was the opposition group The Organisation formed? Who was it set up by and what did they carry out?
1863| Moscow Uni alumni, revolutionary activities
227
What sort of period set in between 1866-67? Why?
Reaction| Attempted Tsar assassinations
228
Who did Alexander II appoint? Who are 2 examples?
Reactionary ministers| Dmitry Tolstoy and Peter Shuvalov
229
What did the reactionary ministers argue about Russia?
Westernising changes were weakening Russia
230
What 2 type of reforms still continued? What happened to the others?
Economic and legal| Halted or reversed
231
Who was the authority of primary schools returned to? Whose activities were restricted?
Church| Zemstva
232
What were secondary schools ordered to remove from their curriculum?
Sciences
233
Where could vocational students only attend as of 1871?
Higher technical institutions
234
What subjects were banned in universities? Why?
Literature and history| Encouraged critical thought
235
What organisations were banned?
Student organisations
236
What could the government do over university appointments?
Veto
237
What was reasserted with the new education policies? What became restricted?
Religious control| The curriculum
238
What education was declined? How did people escape restrictions?
Female education| Studying abroad
239
What force's work was increased?
Third Section
240
What trial could political offenders face? Until what year?
Show trials| 1878
241
Where could political crimes be tried from 1878?
Secret military courts
242
What were given to governor-generals? From what year?
Emergency powers for military courts and exile| 1879
243
Which groups of people thrived underground?
Critics and opponents
244
Why were show trials abandoned? Who is an example?
Sympathetic juries| Vera Zasulich
245
What war took place between 1877-78? What situation took place between 1879-80?
Russo-Turkish War| Famine
246
What recession started in the late 1870s? What event from the 1860s repeated itself relating to the Tsar?
Industrial| Assassination attempts
247
What commission did Alexander II establish? Under who?
Count Loris-Melikov
248
What position was Loris-Melikov appointed to in 1880? What was he to investigate?
Minister of the Interior| Revolutionary activities
249
Who was released because of Loris-Melikov?
Political prisoners
250
What was relaxed because of Loris-Melikov?
Censorship
251
Whose restrictions were lifted because of Loris-Melikov?
Zemstva
252
What was tax removed from because of Loris-Melikov?
Salt
253
What was abolished because of Loris-Melikov? Who replaced them?
Third Section| Okhrana
254
Whose ideas influenced young people? What view was promoted?
Radical thinkers| Socialism
255
Who was Chernyshevsky? What book did he write in 1863?
Editor of The Contemporary| What is to be done?
256
What view did Chernyshevsky have about revolution?
Peasants had to lead it for it to be successful
257
Who was Herzen? What structure did this advocate?
Editor of The Bell| Peasant based revolution
258
Who was Bakunin? What type of ownership did he promote?
Anarchist/socialist| Collective ownership
259
Whose book did Bakunin translate? What did he believe in?
```Marx's Communist ManifestoA struggle of working and middle class would lead to a perfect society```
260
What year did Lavrov encourage a populist movement? What was the name of the movement?
1874| Go to the people
261
How many Narodniks joined "Go to the people"? What would they do?
2000| Act as peasants and spread socialist ideas
262
What were 3 reasons for peasants rejecting Narodniks?
Fears they were secret policeIgnoranceChurch loyalty
263
What year did the second Narodnik movement take place? Why did it fail?
1876| People were arrested
264
What did the remaining Narodniks establish in 1877? What was it?
Land and Liberty| Commitment to assassinations
265
What 2 objectives did Land and Liberty have?
```Assassinate Mezemstev (Third Section)Attempt to kill Alexander II```
266
What 2 organisations did Land and Liberty split into in 1879?
Black Partition| People's Will
267
Who was The Black Partition organised by? What was its aim?
Plekhanov| "Partition the black soil"
268
Who did The Black Partition work peacefully among? What did it spread to students and workers?
Peasants| Radical materials
269
What was the Black Partition weakened by? What did Plekhanov later become?
Arrests in 1880-81| A Marxist
270
Who led The People's Will? What was it larger than?
Mikhailov| Black Partition
271
What did The People's Will advocate? What was their biggest success?
Violence| Assassination of Alexander II
272
What 2 reasons did opposition spread?
Government failures| Demands for "reforms from below"
273
Who succeeded Alexander II? When was he crowned?
Alexander III| May 1881
274
Who was Alexander III advised by? Who was he?
Konstantin Pobedonostev| Procurator of the Holy Synod
275
What did Pobedonostev encourage the Tsar to reassert?
Autocracy
276
What did Alexander III publicly announce?
"I am the sole ruler, as only absolute power can safeguard Russia"
277
What group had 150 people arrested and hanged? Why?
People's Will| Assassinated Alexander II
278
What happened to the powers of the police? What department was made to supervise the Okhrana?
They increased| Department of Police
279
Who were the Department of Police made responsible to? Why?
Ministry of Internal Affairs| So activities could be monitored
280
Who were also widely used? Who watched these people?
Spies| Secret spies
281
What land rule was put in place in 1882? What could police agents do?
Any area could be deemed "subversion"| Arrest, imprison and exile on suspicion
282
What judicial courts were reintroduced in 1885?
Closed courts
283
What did Alexander III introduce in 1889? Who were they appointed by?
Land Captains| Nobility
284
Who did Land Captains replace? Who could they override?
Magistrates| Zemstva
285
What 2 things could Land Captains overturn?
Local court judgements and flogging of peasants
286
What vote was reduced in 1890?
Zemstva peasant vote
287
Who were removed from office?
Outspoken Liberals
288
Whose creed did Alexander III adopt? What did this mean?
Pobedonostev's "Autocracy, Orthodoxy and Nationality"| Russification
289
What is Russification?
Enforcement of Russian language and culture on ethnic minorities
290
What was declared as the first language? What did this mean for the judicial system?
Russian| Trials and local government had to be conducted in Russian
291
What was closed to non-fluent Russian speakers?
Public office
292
What Church was adherence encouraged for? How many Lutherans converted?
Orthodox| 37,000
293
What Catholic buildings were closed down? What were non-Orthodox churches not allowed to do?
Monasteries| Build new places of worship
294
Who suppressed Russification resistance?
The military
295
What 4 nationalities suffered the most?
Poles, Finns, Baltic Germans and Ukrainians
296
What was the intention of Russification? What did it intensify? What did it cause?
To "unite" the countryNational feelings for non-RussiansOpposition groups
297
Which religion suffered most from Russification? How many were living in Russia?
Jews| 5 million
298
What was ingrained in Russian society? What broke out between 1881-84?
Anti-semitism| Jewish pogroms
299
What did authorities not do a lot of? What happened to many Jews? What happened to some Jewish property?
Curb anti-semitic violenceRaped or murderedDestroyed
300
What was passed during Alexander III's reign to restrict Jews? Where were Jews forced to live?
Laws| Ghettos
301
What happened to many Jews? Who were 2 key figures who joined revolutionary groups?
Emigrated or expelled| Leon Trotsky and Julius Martov
302
What does Historian Martin Sixsmith say about Alexander III's intentions towards Russification?
"Alexander III wanted to unify the country by turning an empire into a nation"
303
What does Historian Orlando Figes say about Russification's central aim?
"It had always been a central aim to assimilate non-Russian peoples"
304
What does Historian John Gooding say about Jews?
"Jews were seen as a particular problem"
305
What class did Russia not possess?
Middle class
306
What did Von Reutern believe Russia needed? What did he introduce?
Economic change| Reforms
307
What type of farming was abolished? What did this mean?
Tax-farming| Companies could no longer collect taxes
308
What organisation was reformed under Von Reutern? What systems were established?
The Treasury| Auditing and budgeting
309
What facilities were made available from Banks?
Credit facilities
310
What was offered to private railway companies?
Subsides
311
What was guaranteed by the government for foreign investors?
Annual dividends
312
What was lowered on trade? What was negotiated?
Tariffs| Trade treaties
313
What 2 industries expanded because of Von Reutern? What field was there an improvement in?
Cotton/Mining| Agriculture
314
In what 2 fields did mobility remained limited? What was slow?
Transport/Labour| Growth
315
What was unstable in the economy? Where did a lot of income go towards?
Russian Currency| Paying off debts
316
Which place did Russia remain underdeveloped towards?
Western Europe
317
What did Vyshnegradsky try to build up?
Industry
318
What tariffs were increased? How much by?
Import tariffs| 30%
319
Why were grain imports increased? How much were they increased by between 1881-91?
To make peasants sell to the state| 18%
320
Where did Russia get a loan from in 1888?
France
321
What 3 things did peasants suffer from under Vyshnegradsky?
High taxes High good pricesGrain requisitions
322
When did a famine take place under Vyshnegradsky? How many people died?
1891-92| 350,000
323
What did Witte want from abroad? What 3 things did he increase investment in?
Loans| Mining, oil and banking
324
What did Witte encourage European experts to oversee? What did he want advice on?
Development| Planning
325
What did Witte achieve with the railway network?
A huge expansion
326
Why did emancipation bring little change to agriculture for peasants?
Peasants had too little land to become prosperous
327
Why did the Mir fail to bring agricultural success?
Backwards farming practices favoured by the elders
328
Who were the biggest Landowners? What did many of them do?
Nobles| Sell their land to pay debts
329
Why did some Landowners abandon farming? What did some of them start up?
To learn professions| Businesses
330
How did Kulaks buy land? Who did Kulaks employ?
Loans from the Peasants Land Bank| Lower peasants
331
What did the poorer peasants become?
Landless labourers
332
Why were most peasants unable to do military service? What was the average life expectancy in Russia for peasants?
Unfit| 28
333
What does Historian Orlando Figes say about the economic partitions?
"Partitions made little economic sense"
334
When did Alexander III die? At what age?
September 1894| 49
335
Who succeeded Alexander III? How was he related to Alex?
Nicholas II| Son
336
What did Nicholas II admit about ruling Russia? What religious belief did he have?
He had no idea how| It was a God-given duty to preserve autocracy
337
What 2 things did Nicholas II prove incapable of doing as Tsar?
Making firm decisions or giving a sense of direction
338
What 2 groups did Nicholas II rely on to challenges of his authority?
Army and Ohkrana
339
Where was there increasingly widespread unrest?
Towns and countryside
340
Who did the Tsar dismiss in 1903? What happened as a result?
Sergei Witte - most competent adviser| He was surrounded by reactionary ministers
341
What did peasants suffer from? What did they destroy?
Land hunger| Landlords' barns
342
What did industrial workers form? What did they become involved in?
Illegal trade unions| Strikes
343
What was formed in 1904 in St Petersburg? Who formed it?
An official union| Father Gapon
344
Why was an official trade union formed?
To prevent workers joining socialists
345
When did the Japanese attack Russia? What Port was attacked?
January 1904| Port Arthur
346
Who was Plehve? What did he call for after the events of Port Arthur?
Minister of Internal Affairs| A "short, swift victorious war"
347
What was the Russo-Japanese War meant to divide attention from in Russia?
Political unrest at home
348
Where were Russian forces defeated in March 1904? How many Russians were killed?
Mukden| 90,000
349
How many Russian ships were sunk in May 1904? What battle was this?
24 of 27| Battle of Tsushima
350
When did Russia surrender Port Arthur? Who did this increase opposition towards?
December 1904| Government
351
What other name is the 1905 Revolution known as?
Bloody Sunday
352
What happened on the 3rd January 1905? How many workers took part?
Strikes at Putilov| 150,000
353
What happened on the 9th January 1905? What did they demand?
Father Gapon led 20,000 workers to the Winter Palace| Improved working conditions
354
Who was assassinated on 4th February 1905?
Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich
355
What union was forced in March 1905? Who co-ordinated strikes?
"All Russian Union of Railway Workers"| Soviets
356
What happened overseas in June 1905?
Mutiny on ship Potemkin
357
Where were sympathetic crowds located after the Potemkin mutiny? How many were killed by police?
Odessa| 2,000
358
What happened in August 1905? What union was formed?
Peasant riot| Peasant union
359
What was promised on 6th August 1905?
State Duma
360
What took place in September 1905? What did this cause in October?
Printers' strike| General strike
361
How did Russia seem economically by October 1905?
Near collapse
362
Where were there strikes and demonstrations? Where were peasant uprisings?
Cities| Countryside
363
Why did Alexander III make his decree? What 2 things did he promise?
Pressure from advisers| Civil liberties and State Duma
364
What are examples of civil liberties?
Free speech, press, assembly
365
Who was the State Duma elected by? What did the Duma pass?
Universal suffrage| Laws
366
Who accepted the Manifesto? Who are 3 group examples of these?
Liberals| Kadets, Progressives and Octobrists
367
Which 2 socialist groups rejected the Manifesto? What do they stand for?
SR/SD| Revolutionaries and Democrats
368
What were many workers unconvinced by in the Manifesto? Who did they continue to support?
Tsar's promises| Socialist groups
369
What uprising continued? What was hoped for?
Peasant uprising| Land redistribution
370
Who remained loyal to the Tsar?
Army
371
What 2 places did the army storm in November/December 1905?
Moscow and St Petersburg HQ
372
What happened to Soviet leaders? What was the worst punishment?
Arrested or exiled to Siberia| Execution
373
Where was order restored by the army? What ended for peasants?
Countryside| Redemption payments
374
When were the Fundamental Laws introduced? What were they?
April 1906| A constitution
375
Which 2 groups refused to participate in the Fundamental Laws?
SRs and Bolsheviks
376
What did the Tsar exercise in the Fundamental Laws?
Supreme autocratic power
377
What did the Tsar initiate in the Fundamental Laws?
Legislation and approval
378
Who could the Tsar appoint and dismiss as part of the Fundamental Laws? What could he summon and dissolve?
Ministers| Duma
379
What could the Tsar do in an emergency?
Rule by decree
380
What did the Tsar never have any intention of becoming?
A "constitutional monarch"
381
When was the First Duma active? Who was it dominated by?
May-June 1906| Radicals and Kadets
382
What did the First Duma demand? Why did the Duma dissolve?
Radical change| Vote of no confidence
383
When was the Second Duma active? Who engineered elections to gain Octobrists?
February-June 1907| Peter Stolypin
384
Who increased the number of radical deputies due to participation?
Bolsheviks and SRs
385
What did the Second Duma oppose?
Most Tsarist proposals
386
When was the Third Duma active? What did Stolypin introduce?
November 1907-June 1912| Emergency law for representation
387
Who dominated the Third Duma?
Octobrists and Conservatives
388
When was the Fourth Duma active? Who couldn't co-operate?
November 1912-17| Right and left deputies
389
What did the Fourth Duma vote for in 1914? Why was it suspended in 1915?
War credits| Demanding more power
390
What does Historian Orlando Figes say about Nicholas II and his autocratic values?
"Nicholas was opposed to limitation upon his autocratic prerogatives"
391
What does Historian Martin Sixsmith say about Nicholas II offering concessions?
"He offered concessions in the hope of defusing tension"
392
What did Witte believe that was essential for a revolution? What continued between 1892 and 1914?
Industrialisation| The drive for growth
393
Between 1892 and 1914, what rate did the Russian economy grow?
8% per annum
394
What was raised to encourage foreign loans?
Interest rates
395
What was introduced in 1897 to increase business confidence? What was this backed by?
```New rouble (currency)Gold```
396
How was industrial development funded? What type of industry was prioritised?
Foreign capital| Heavy industry
397
How many KM of railway track did Russia have by 1914?
62,000
398
What was the purpose of the Trans-Siberian railway?
To link Russia with the Far East
399
What stimulated heavy industries? Who was given reduced transport costs and government revenue?
Railway development| Manufacturers
400
Due to the cost of railways, what did Russia become dependent on?
Foreign investment
401
What was Russia the 5th largest power of in the world?
Industrial power
402
How much did Coal increase from 1880-1910?
3.2-25.4 million metric tons
403
How much did Pig Iron increase from 1880-1910?
0.42-3 million metric tons
404
How much did Crude Oil increase from 1880-1910?
0.5-12.1 million metric tons
405
What remained small-scale in the 1890s?
Agriculture
406
Who was Stolypin in 1906? What did he believe in to prevent peasant unrest?
Minister of the Interior| Agricultural reform
407
What type of ownership did Stolypin want to increase to create farmer profit?
Individual peasant ownership
408
Who did Stolypin want to help support the regime of agriculture?
Kulaks and profit-orientated farmers
409
What system/type of ownership was abolished in November 1906?
Mir| Collective ownership
410
When were redemption payments abolished? Where could peasants leave?
January 1907| Villages
411
What could peasants apply for with permission? What would be consolidated?
Consolidation for single farms| Scattered strips of farm
412
What was newly reformed to fund purchases?
Peasant Land Bank
413
What was used to encourage settlements in Siberia? What happened to them?
Government subsides| Increased
414
How much did peasant ownership increase from 1905-1915?
20% to 50%
415
What was produced that rose annually? What was the Russia the biggest exporter of in 1909?
Grain production| Cereal
416
Who often bought out poorer peasants to increase the efficiency in farms?
Kulaks
417
How many peasants moved from an overpopulated Siberia? What was prominently made in the region?
3,500,000| Dairy and cereal
418
Why did some peasants sell up? What did this boost the supply of?
To move to towns| Industrial labour
419
By 1914, how much land had successfully been transferred from communal to private ownership?
10%
420
In 1914, how much of peasant holdings were based on scattered strips? What were peasants reluctant to?
90%| New farming methods
421
Who lost their land? What did many do afterwards?
Poorer peasants| Factory or seasonal work
422
What was Siberia like in terms of climate?
Difficult terrain
423
What did industrialisation help strengthen in Russia? What did it bring about?
Economy| Changes
424
What new emerson proved detrimental to the Tsarist regime?
Middle and urban working class
425
What middle class occupations became more prominent in society? Where did many of these people play a role?
Owners, managers, traders and professionals| Zemstva
426
What was lacking in the middle class that made them opponents to Tsarism? When was this finally established?
Elected national assembly| 1906
427
How did the urban population increase from 1867-1917? Approximately how much of the population were factory workers?
7 to 28 million| 10%
428
What did the urban working class suffer from? What rates were high?
Appalling working and living conditions| Mortality rates
429
Where did some of the urban working class rent rooms? Where else were they accommodated?
Overcrowded blocks| Barracks
430
How many rented houses in St Petersburg had no running water? How was sewage collected?
40%| Handcarts
431
What could employers do due to limited regulation? What did this fail to keep pace with?
Pay minimum wage| Inflation
432
By 1914, how much of the workforce was compromised by women?
20%
433
When did an industrial depression hit?
1900-1908
434
What was officially banned before 1905? How did some strikes take place?
Strikes| Illegally and violently
435
What 2 provisions were improved by 1914? What did every change lead to?
Education and social welfare| More demand for change
436
What law was introduced in 1885 which restricted work?
Night-time work was only allowed for men
437
What legal document had to be drawn up by law in 1886?
Contracts of employment
438
What employment law was introduced in 1892?
Employment of under 12s and females in labour was banned
439
How were working hours reduced by a law in 1897?
Working hours were reduced to 11.5
440
What inspection was expanded by law in 1903?
Factory inspectorate
441
What unions were made legal by 1905?
Trade unions
442
What insurance for workers was introduced as a law in 1912?
Sickness and accident insurance
443
How were factory hours legally reduced in 1914?
Reduced to 10 hours per day
444
What declined in the years 1910-13? What 2 reasons led to this?
Real wages| Inflation/employers
445
What miners in 1912 went on strike? Why?
Lena goldfield miners in Siberia| Long hours and poor pay
446
What did the Lena strikers demand? How many were killed by the army?
Better pay and living conditions| 500
447
How many strikes took place alongside Lena in Russia in 1912? How many in 1913?
2,000| 24,000
448
How many strikes took place in 1914? What took place in July 1914?
Over a million| General strike at St Petersburg
449
What does Historian Edward Acton say about unused land?
"Unused land was brought under cultivation"
450
At what level did peasants continue to live? What event from 1891-92 caused this?
Substience level| Great Famine
451
How much per acre was grain output in Russia compared to Britain and Germany?
1/3
452
What were peasants driven hard to produce? What were they forced to pay?
Surplus for export| High taxes
453
What population made living conditions worse? Who were holdings divided by?
Rural population| Sons and the amount of land families had
454
Who could Kulaks afford to employ? What gulf widened in society?
Labour| Kulaks and labourers
455
Whose mortality rates were high? What did they have limited access to?
Peasants| Doctors
456
What standards varied in Russia? Where was there prosperity?
Living standards| Ukraine
457
Where were backward farming methods still favoured? Whose support mostly came from there?
Central Russia| Bolsheviks
458
How much of nobility land was transferred to peasants and dwellers from 1861-1914? What 2 things did most nobles retain?
1/3| Wealth and position in government
459
Who emerged as industrialisation gained pace? What did many of them serve on?
```Middle classZemstva```
460
What did the Orthodox Church have close ties with? What did the Tsar allegedly rule by?
Tsarism| "Divine right"
461
What did the Orthodox Church exercise sway over? What did this benefit?
Superstitious peasantry| Tsarist regime
462
Who had close ties to the village? What were they expected to do?
Priests| Read out decrees
463
What controls did the Church exercise? What would the courts hand down punishments for?
Censorship| Social/moral crimes
464
Under which Tsar did the Church have increased control over primary education? What became a crime in terms of Orthodox loyalty?
Alexander III| You couldn't convert to another faith
465
Who did the Church have less hold of in the cities? What type of ideas had more appeal?
```Growing working classSocialism```
466
What development brought new opportunities for women? What provision was expanded?
Economic| Education
467
What percentage of children were in primary school by 1914? Between what ages?
45%| 8-11
468
What flourished at the end of censorship? When did censorship end?
Popular press| 1905
469
What novels were cheaply produced for the newly literate?
Tolstoy and Dostoevsky
470
What had Russian culture embraced by 1914?
More than the elite
471
What 2 things did millions of people remain respectful to even after cultural changes?
Autocracy and Orthodox Church
472
What did millions go out on the streets for in 1913?
300th anniversary of Romanov dynasty
473
What did industrial and educational expansion produce? What did they seek?
```Middle classLiberal change```
474
Where did support for the middle class come from? Who were they joined by?
Professional groups| Liberal Nobility
475
What were 2 Liberal priorities?
Civil rights and a State Duma
476
Who was strongly represented in the Zemstva? What were they highly critical of?
Liberals/Professionals| Autocracy
477
What was introduced in 1889 that caused further opposition? How was it fuelled?
Land Captains| Overruling Zemstva decisions
478
What event exemplified Tsarist incompetence?
Great Famine
479
What was dismissed as a "senseless dream" in 1895? Whose idea was this?
National Duma| Zemstvo of Tver
480
What organisation was banned in 1896?
"All-Zemstva Organisation"
481
Who helped popularise political changes? Who is an example of this?
Liberal intellectuals| Tolstoy
482
What was legalised in 1900? Who was given permission to legalise this?
Trade unions| S.V. Zubatov - Head of Moscow Ohkrana
483
When was Zubatov's permission revoked? Why?
1903| Trade unions attempted a general strike
484
When was the first liberal opposition group formed? What was it called?
1899| Beseda
485
What did Beseda merge with in 1903? Who led them?
Union of Liberation| Peter Struve
486
What was Struve formerly? What did he oppose?
Marxist| Violent revolution
487
What did Struve want Tsarism to become?
A constitutional monarchy
488
How many banquets were held over winter 1904? Why?
50| To spread the union's message
489
What did liberal opposition have before 1905? What 2 things were they won over by?
Limited political influence| October Manifesto and Duma
490
Who was the liberal opposition largely represented by? What did they believe in?
Kadets| Constitutional Democracy
491
Who did liberals try to co-operate with? What were they increasingly frustrated by?
Tsarist government| Intransigence of the Tsarist regime
492
Who was arrested after the first Duma dissolved in 1906? What was reduced in size after the second Duma dissolved in 1907?
Kadet leaders| Electorate
493
What did the Tsar increasingly ignore to pass laws? What was there little semblance to by 1914?
Dumas| Constitutional Monarchy
494
What ideology seemed far off in Russia by 1894? What did the Great Famine revive?
Marxism| Rural socialism
495
When were the SRs established? What 2 ideologies did it combine?
1901| Marxism and Populism
496
Who edited the SRs journal? What was it called?
Chernov| Revolutionary Russia
497
How many political assassinations did the SRs carry out from 1901-05? What key figure was assassinated in 1911?
2,000| Stolypin
498
How many SRs were executed from 1901-11?
2,000
499
What ideology gained more support as industrialisation increased?
Marxism
