Section 1 Flashcards
What was Mid-19th Century Russia like?
Large but economically underdeveloped
What was the ratio of villagers to town dwellers?
11:1
How much of the population were illiterate peasants?
85%
What 2 places did Serfs belong to?
Village communes/Mirs
In what 2 ways were Serfs owned?
Private/State
In what 2 ways did Serfs pay their master?
What 3 things could their masters do to them?
Rent and labour
Bought/Sold/Beaten
What was Russia ruled as in 1855? How was it run?
An empire
An Autocratic Tsar
What was the Tsar head of?
Russian Orthodox Church
What was the Tsar believed to have possessed?
Semi-divine powers
What were edicts? What could the Tsar choose?
Law
His own advisers
When did Alexander II become Tsar? What was Russia involved in?
March 1855
Crimean War
Which 3 countries had Russia been fighting in the Crimean War since 1853?
Britain/France/Turkey
What 2 battles did Russia lose in 1854?
Battles of Balaclava/Inkerman
What did Russia lose in August 1855? What was it?
Sevastopol
Major naval base
What 2 things did Russia’s 1856 final defeat highlight?
Reliance on Serf armies/Conscripts
Economic backwardness
How much of Russia’s expenditure was spent on the army? What 3 things did the army suffer from?
45%
Incompetent officers/Humiliation/Increase in Serf uprisings
What 3 things had Alexander II done prior to Serf emancipation?
Travelled the empire/Served on father’s Council of State/Led a Serfdom committee
What 2 benefits did Alexander II believe Serf Emancipation would have?
To curb tensions/Stimulate the economy
Which 2 groups also believed in the idea of Serf emancipation? Who were 2 key figures of the latter?
Family/Bureaucrats
Nicholas and Dmitri Milyutin
What were the 4 types of motives behind Alexander II’s reforms?
Political/Economic/Moral/Intellectual
What type of motive was nobility debt? Why did nobility debt occur?
Political
Nobles shunned business and relied on serfs
What type of motive was declining incomes? What 2 things caused this? What 2 things were masters forced to do?
Political
Growing Serf population/Inadequate agriculture
Mortgage/Sell Serfs as security for loans
What type of motive was Serfdom? What 2 things prevented reform?
Economic
Inability to move to town factories/Internal demands for goods low
What type of motive was experimentation? What 2 things prevented reform? What did the latter lead to?
Economic
Mirs prevented experimentation/Rural poverty led to a state debt of 54 million roubles
What type of motive were the Westernisers? What did they believe?
Moral/Intellectual
Russia should abandon Serfdom
What type of motive were the Slavophiles? What 2 things did they believe?
Moral/Intellectual
Serfdom should be reformed/Russia should stay as a traditional peasant society
What type of motive were the Intellectuals? What did they believe?
Moral/Intellectual
People were treated like animals
What type of motive were the Nihilists? What did they believe?
Moral/Intellectual
Sweep all tradition
What did Historian John Gooding about Russia in the Mid-19th century?
“It was more backwards now than at the beginning of the century”
political context: how can the Russian empire be described in 1855
autocratic
political context: Who was the head of the empire
tsar
political context: what title did the tsar take
‘emperor and autocrat of all russia’
political context: who was at the head of the Russian orthodox church in name only
the tsar
political context: what was the tsar believed to be by orthodox believers
The embodiment of god on earth
political context: what were Russians taught to show to the tsar
devotion and accept their conditions on earth as the will of god
political context: what did the patriarch of Moscow provide for the tsar
spiritual guidance
political context: what was the procurator of the holy synod
gov minister appointed by tsar to run church affairs
political context: why were the structures of the church and state intertwined
those at the head of the church hierarchy were subject to tsarist control over appointments, religious education, church finance
political context: what is an edict
an official order issued by a person/authority
political context: how much involvement did the tsar have in making edicts
he had advisers and ministers but they were all chosen by the tsar himself and no one could do anything without tsars approval
political context: who were the tsars main advisory bodies
The imperial council/chancellery
The council of ministers
The senate
political context: Where were the tsar and central gov based
in the imperial capital of St Petersburg
political context: who did the regime also depend on and why
The provincial nobility for support
political context: provincial definition
Living away from the capital
political context: how can nobles loyalty to tsar be described
sense of obligation remained strong and all landowners expected to keep order on their estates
political context: Civil servants
Paid noble officials selected from a table of ranks that laid down the requirements for office
political context: What was the bureaucracy riddled by
Internal corruption and incompetence
political context: What was operation in the bureaucracy
One way with no provision for suggestion
political context: How big was the tsars army
1.5 million- worlds largest
political context: Who were the tsars army made up of
Conscripted serfs- each forced into service for 25 years
political context: Where were the conscripted serfs made to live
In a military colony
political context: How much of the governments spending was absorbed by army and navy
45%
political context: Cossacks
Service of elite regiments belonging to tsar with special social privileges
political context: What did the Cossacks act as
Personal bodyguard for tsar and police reinforcements
political context: What had the country developed into to maintain autocracy
A police state
political context: What did the police state prevent
- freedom of speech, the press and travel abroad
- political meetings and strikes
political context: What was present at every level of government
Censorship
political context: What was the secret state security run by
The third section of the emperors imperial council
political context: What did third section agents do
Keep a strict surveillance over population
political context: What did third section have power to do
Carry out raids, arrest and imprison and exile anyone suspected of anti tsarist behaviour
political context: What did the military defeat at crimean bring to light
The need for change to the new tsars attention
the economic situation: Which 4 countries were well advanced industrially when AII came to power
Britain, Belgium, France and states comprising germany
the economic situation: What were transforming the landscape in well industrialised countries
Mills, factories and railways
the economic situation: What was Russia’s economy mostly comprised of
Rural with a ratio of 11:1 village to town dwellers- 2:1 in Britain
the economic situation: Reasons for Russia’s economic backwardness
Much of territory was inhospitable
size and climate placed severe strains on economic development
the economic situation: Who was europes main exporter of agricultural produce mid 19th century
Russia
the economic situation: What did Russia possess vast reserves of
Timber, coal, gold and oil
the economic situation: Why did Russia’s potential remain untapped
Communications between different parts of empire were poor
the economic situation: Primary cause for Russia’s lack of economic progresss
Russia’s commitment to a serf based economy
the economic situation: Who were reliant on serfs
Landowning aristocracy, tsarist gov and army
the economic situation: Why did the serfs inhibit economic development
They were poor and had little incentive to develop into wage earners
the economic situation: why were few goods purchased by peasants
they were mostly self suffiecient
the economic situation: how did exchanges take place in peasant markets
‘in kind’: one thing swapped for another
the economic situation: where were market forces beginning to develop
near large cities
the economic situation: why were market forces beginning to develop near cities
peasants sought wage-work at slack times in the farming year
the economic situation: what were attitudes like towards market force amongst the majority
money irrelevant and there was no internal market demand
the economic situation: how did the small landowning elite obtain what they needed
from their serfs in the form of service and feudal dues
the economic situation: what were the landowning elites generally uninterested in
how efficiently their estates operated
the economic situation: what did serf owning provoke for many
idleness
the economic situation: why was their no opportunity for capital accumulation
income was generally falling
the economic situation: why was income genrally falling
rural population growth and agricultural changes in western Europe- increased competitiveness and productivity of European markets
the economic situation: what had the increased productivity of European markets forced land owners into
debt and had to take out mortgages on estates which had previously been owned outright be their families
the social context: social division in Russia 1855
between land owning elites and serf majority
the social context: what did the land owning elite consist of
the clergy, nobility, civil officials etc
the social context: who else was in productive classes in addition to serfs
urban artisans, manufactures and merchants
the social context: what was the striking feature of mid nineteenth Russian society
the absence of any coherent middle class
the social context: intelligentsia
small number of professionals e.g. doctors but these were sons of nobles often
the social context: what was class based on
birth, land and service
the social context: what limited social mobility
legal barriers
the social context: what were serfs restricted by socially
dues and direct/indirect taxes to the government
the social context: what did the elites pay tax wise
they were exempt from monetary taxes
political context: what did the civil servants make up
the bureaucracy
political context: bureaucracy definition
system of gov in which most important decisions are taken by state officials rather than elected reps
political context: who were the higher ranks of the military reserved for
nobles who bought and sold their commissions
political context: what was discipline like for the lower ranks
harsh discipline and army life was tough
political context: what did alexander I consider setting up following the French revolution
an advisory representative assembly
political context: what did Nicholas I believe in
strict autocracy and severe restrictions imposed on russias nationalities
what had the Sultan struggled to control since 1820s
the Christians in his European dominions
how did Tsar NI react to the Sultans struggle
he seized the opportunity to increase Russian influence in the area
how did Nicholas the first try to increase russia influence in the ottoman empire
by posing as protector of the slavs and christians
what did Nicholas I do in june 1853
sent a Russian army to Moldavia and wallachia
what did NI sending an army provoke the turks to do
declaring war in october
what brought the british and French into the war
Russia sank a squadron from the Turkish black sea fleet
why did the british and French defend turkey
they were anxious to protect their own trading interests in the area
what was the war marred by
incompetence on both sides
what was the death toll made worse by
the outbreak of cholera
what did Russia suffer badly from
outdated technology, poorr transport and inadequate leadership
what did the Russian army lack as a result of its size
the flexibility and determination of the French and british units
when and where were the Russians defeated
Balaclava- October 1854
Inkerman- November 1854
what did NI address to his son shortly before he died- March 1855
I hand over to you my command, unfortunately not in as good order as I would have wished
what happened by September
the fortress of Sebastopol had fallen to its enemies- Russia humiliated and shocked
what had the course of fighting revealed
Russia’s military and administrative inadequacies
why was the war disastrous
trade disrupted, peasant uprisings escalated and intelligentsia renewed cries for something to b done to close gap between Russia and west
Which treaty added to Russias humiliation after the crimean war?
treaty of Paris: prevented russias warships from using black sea in times of peace
what did failure in the Crimean war provide
the wake up call that Russia needed
how many serfs did AII emancipate in 1861
51 million
what has his decision to emancipate been hailed as
the product of the tsars own liberal and humanitarian ideas
what was the emancipation followed by
reforms in other areas such as the army, local gov, judiciary
what has the series of reforms led to
him being given name ‘Tsar Liberator’
what does Emmons refer to emancipation edict as
piece of state directed manipulation of society aimed to strengthen social and political stability rather than product of liberal thinking
what does Emmons state reforms were intended for
maintaining tsarist authority
what does Emmons interpretation suggest
it backfired and created division between gov and landed gentry
what could AII views on serfdom have been shaped by
- romantic tutor- Zhukovsky
- travels around empire
- party of st Petersburg progress
which other family members had been committed to abolition of serfdom for sometime
GD Konstantin (Brother) GD Elena (AUNT)
what were alexanders natural tendencies
conservative rather than liberal
what alarmed AII and convinced him that change needed to occur
increase in peasant uprisings since 1840s
what were the main catalyst for reform
humiliations an efficiencies of Crimean war
who pleaded for reform in order to ‘strengthen the state and restore dignity’
Dmitry Milyutin
what did Dimtry Milyutin believe about the army
needed modernising and only a free population would provide labour needed for military improvement
what was AII like in conserving autocracy
determined to maintain autocracy and uphold god given duties but felt pressure for reform
how did AII begin his reign
releasing political prisoners and pardoning decemberists
who were decemberists
group involved in plot to assassinate his father
what did AII relax at start of his reign
controls on censorship, restrictions on foreign travel and uni entrance
what did AII ask nobles for in March 1856
asked them to produce suggestions for an emancipation measure
how did AII try and win noble support for emancipation
toured countryside giving pro emancipation speeches
who did emancipation edict initially apply to
privately owned serfs
when did state serfs receive freedom
1866
what did emancipation edict grant
serfs freedom and an allotment of land
what did landowners receive under emancipation edict
government compensation
what were freed serfs required to pay
redemption payments to the government over 49 years
where did the serfs have to stay until redemption payments were made
within the mir/peasant commune
what was the mir made responsible for
distributing allotments, controlling farming and collecting and paying peasants taxes
what were volosts established for
to supervise the mirs
what were volosts
peasant communities consisting of several villages/hamlets
from when did the volosts run their own courts
1863
what did the volosts replace
the landlords jurisdiction over serfs
what period was there befpre freedoms were granted
a two year period of temporary obligation
what happened during the temporary obligation period
allocations were worked out
what land did landowners keep
meadows, pasture, woodland and a personal holding
what land was given to the mirs
open fields
how many serfs remained ‘temporary obligated’ to their landlords until 1881
15%
when were redemption payments made compulsory
1881
who did well out of land allocation
kulaks
why did kulaks do well
bought up extra land-produce surplus grain- export
how did some serfs raise living standards
those who obtained passport to leave Mir- worked in industrialising cities
how did landowners benefit
used compensation to get out of debt
why did peasants feel cheated by emancipatopn
land allocations unfair + land allocated divided as sons inherited land and shared
what persisted as a result of mir being so traditional
subsistence farming and technical backwardness
what percentage of peasantry able to produce surplus by 1878
50%
what made rural life difficult after emancipation
loss of former benefits, restrictions on travel and burden of redemption payments
what led to violent outbreaks in countryside
resentment of kulaks
what did landowners resent after emancipation and what occurred as a result
loss of influence- student protests
who reorganised the armed forces
Dmitry Milyutin
what did milyutin want armed forces to be
smaller, more professional and efficient and less expensive
what was made compulsory for all classes (military)
conscription at the age of 21
what was the length of military service reduced from and to
25-15 years with 10 in reserves
which military system was abandoned under milyutins reforms
military colonies
what were the reforms to military punishments
they were made less severe
what medical reforms were there in the military
better provisioning and medical care established
what happened to weaponary and command structure in reforms
modern weaponry and a new command structure established
why were military colleges set up
to provide better training for non-noble officer corps
how was literacy within the army improved
mass army education campaigns in 1870s-90s
what happened to the officer class as a result of military reforms
still remained largely aristocratic
how did the wealthy get around the military reforms
found substitutes to serve in their place
did military reform fix problems of supply and leadership?
no problems still continued
who did the army struggle to win wars against
turkey (1877-78)
japan (1904-05)
Germany (1914-17)
zemstva
system of elected local councils established to replace rights and obligations of former serf owning gentry
at which two levels were the zemstva
district and provincial
how were the members of the zemstva chosen
through a system of electoral colleges
problem with voting procedure of zemstva
arranged in a way that allowed nobility to dominate
what were the zemstva given the power to do
improve public services, develop industrial projects and administer poor relief in times of hardship
what did the establishment of a degree of representative government raise the hopes of
members of intelligentsia who wanted representative national assembly
how was power of zemstva limited
had no control over taxes and provincial gov could overturn zemstva decisions
why were the zemstvas never truly people assemblies
they attracted doctors, lawyers and scientists who used meetings as opportunity to debate political issues and criticise central gov
in which areas was an overhaul of law particularly needed
property rights and a change in the administration of local justice
what was absent in old legal system
jury, laywers and examination of witnesses
accused considered guilty until proven innocent and judges decision was final
how was equality established before the law
single system of local, provincial and national courts
accused presumed innocent until proven guilty and could employ a lawyer to defend himself
who were criminal cases heard under the reform
barristers and a jury
who were the jury selected from
a list of property owners
who were judges appointed by and how did they benefit from reform
tsar
given better training and pay
who were local justices of the peace elected by
zemstva every 3 years
who were local justices of the peace independent from
political control
who were courts opened to
the public
where were national trials recorded
in the Russian courier- a gov newspaper
benefits of new legal system
- fairer and less corrupt
- public flocked to open courts
what did the legal reforms provide the opportunity for
layers of intelligentsia to criticise the regime
why did new juries sometimes acquit guilty
they sympathised with their plight
what was done to counter juries acquitting guilty through sympathy
new decree issued to permit political crimes to be tried by special procedures
where was trial by jury never established
Poland, the western provinces and the causcasus
which courts were excluded from legal reforms
ecclesiastical and military
why did the abolition of serfdom increase need for numeracy and literacy
peasants trying to run private smallholdings
what provided the opportunity for change in control and funding of education
establishment of zemstva
who were the education reforms under
alexander golovnin
what were universtities given the oppurtuntiy to do under the educational reform
govern themselves and appoint
who was responsibility for schooling transferred from and to
from Russian orthodox church to zemstva
which 2 tiers of education were extended
primary and secondary
what were schools declared
‘open to all’ regardless of class and sex
what effect did new independence given to universities have
increasing number of radical and militant thinkers
what happened as a result of education reforms being so successful
after 1866 it was deemed necessary to reassert gov control
how was censorship relaxed
restrictions on publishers reduced
foreign publications permitted with gov approval
press allowed to print editorials with comment on gov policy
what did relaxation of censorship lead to
short lived growth in number of books, journals and newspapers on sale in russia
what brought a retightening of gov control in 1870s
growth in critical writing
what areas was there some reform in
Russian orthodox church
conditions of jews and ethnic minorities
economic liberalisation
what led to a reversal of the lenient treatment of poles and jews
1863 polish rebellion
what was financial liberalisation at the expense of
the peasants
after what event was a more repressive policy undertaken under alexander the second
1866 tempted assassination attempt
what two events in 1865 caused AII to seek consolation in a mistress
eldest son died and wife suffering tuberculosis- withdrawn from public appearances
what did tsars withdrawal make him less inclined to resist
reactionary conservatives who believed tsars reforms had gone too far
what did the reactionaries fear
the spread of western ideas through universities and freer press
argued that ethnic minorities diluted Russian strength
what was aII convinced to do as a result of the reactionaries fears
replace liberal ministers with conservatives in 1866
who was Golovnin replaced by as minister for education in 1866
Dmitry tolstoy
who was valuev repleaced by as minister of internal affairs in 1866
timashev
who became head of third section 1866
shuvalov
who became minister of justice 1866
pahlen
what did Tolstoy feel was essential to eradicate western liberal ideas
tight control over education
what happened as a result of tolstoys ideas over education
zemstvas powers over education redcued and church regained its authority
what happened in terms of courses at uni
more liberal courses replaced by traditional curriculum
which subjects were encouraged and which forced out
subjects that encouraged critical thinking forced out
maths, latin encouraged
how did shuvalov strengthen the police
encouraged third section and stepped up persecution of minorities
what did pahlen ensure that the judicial system did
made an example of political agitators
when were new governor generals established
1879
what powers did governor generals have
emergency powers to prosecute in military courts and exile poltical offenders
how did pahlen intend to deter people from revolutionary activity
held open show trials
who was loris meilkov appointed for
minister of internal affairs
what did a further attempt on the tsars life in late 1870s lead him to accept
violence and unrest may be better curbed by widening democratic consultation
what did loris meilkov do
relaxed censorship, released polticial prisoners, removed salt tax
what happened to the third section under loris meilkob
abolished and powers transferred to regular police
what was created in place of the third section
Okhrana
what became known as the loris meilkov constitution
his proposals to include elected reps of nobility of zemstva and of town govs in debating drafts of some state decrees
what was the loris meilkov constitution in response to
zemstva demands
what happened on 13th march
tsar signed LM report- killed by bomb in afternoon
who influenced AIII strong commitment to autocracy
his tutor Pobedonostev
how did AIII begin his reign
hanging those involved in fathers assassination, manifesto of unshakeable autocracy and law on exceptional measures
what happened to loris meilkov proposals and reforming ministers under AIII
proposals abandoned and ministers resigned
who did AIII rely heavily on
conservatives
who was AIII first internal minister and who was he replaced by in 1882
ignatiev replaced by tolstoy
minister for education
delyanov
over procurator of holy synod
pobedonostev
how did Katkov help AIII
he was a journalist who helped justify AIII conservative views to literate public
what did land captains have the power to do
override elections to zemstva and village assemblies and disregard zemstvo decisions
what were land captains made responsible for
law enforcement and gov in countryside
what could land captains ignore
normal judicial process, overturned court judgements
how were election arrangements changed in 1890
reduce peasants vote and placed zemstva under central gov control
what happened to the electorate of towns in 1892
reduced to owners of property above a certain value
mayor and members of town councils subject to gov direction
who were the police led by 1881-1884
Von Plehve
what were the changes in policing at this time
no of police increased and new branches of criminal investigation dept set ip
what was there a drive to recruit in police
spies, counter spies and agents provocateurs
what could any area of the empire be deemed as by the 1882 statute on police surveillance
an area of subversion
what could police do to convicts, those aware of crimes and relatives of convicts under statute on police surveillance
arrest, detain, question, imprison or exile
what did the 1885 decree provide that minister of justice did
exercise greater control
what powers were the ministry of justice granted in 1887
hold closed court sessions
what did ministry of justice become responsible for in 1889
appointment of town judges
what were raised in 1887
property and educational qualifications needed by jurors
who were volost courts put under jurisdiction of 1889
Land Captains- countryside
judges- towns
what did delyanovs university charter make appointmens of staff subject to
religious moral and patriotic orientations rather than academic grounds
what did delyanov close and abolish
closed universities for women and abolished separate uni courts
what happened to primary education under delyanov
lowest class children restricted to primary education
placed in hands of church
why were education policies of dubious value
ran counter to govs attmepts to promote economic modernisation and failed to prevent student involvement in illegal polticial movements
what were the temporary regulations established by tolstoy under AIII
1) allowed papers to be closed down
2) ban placed on publishers
3) censorship extended to theatre art and culture
what positive changes were introduced in may 1881
reduced redemption fees payable and cancels arrears of some ex serfs
what was abolished may 1885
poll tax
introduction of what tax shifted burden of taxation a little from lowest classes
inheritance tax
when was peasants land bank established
1883
When were Land Captains established and who did they oversee?
1889; zemstva
what provoked ethnic minorities to assert their distinctive identities
development of national ideology
what had surfaced and brought rebellion 1830
polish nationalisms
what was set up 1840
finnish language pressure group
what did the secret brotherhood od saints Cyril and Methodius provoke in the Ukraine
national consciousness that sought to separate ukranian slavs from Russians
what was AII more concerned with than racial superiority
control
how did AII react to polish rebellion 1863
sent brother to deal with rebels
how did AII keep control without persecuting racial minorities
used concessions
examples of AII concessions
1864+1875- lativans able to convert to Lutheranism
finns- have own diet
what did period of increased reaction towards end of AII reign see
growing intolerance of national differences
russification in finland
diet reorganised to weaken political influence
use of russian language demanded
independent postal service abolished
Russian coinage replaced local currency
russification in poland
polish national bank closed
Russian language enforced in schools and universities
polish literature studied in Russian translation
administration changed to curb independence
russification in Baltic germany
Russian in all state offices, schools, police force and judicial system
german uni ‘dorpar’ became ‘iurev’
russification in the ukraine
limited use of ukranian language
all theatres in 5 provinces closed
military service arrangements extended
russification in siberia
uprising of ethnic peoples surpressed
how was adherence to orthodox church encouraged
laws benefitted those of orthodox faith
what were closed down in poland
catholic monasteries, influence of catholic priests curbed
who worked to convert heathens and Muslims in asia
all Russian orthodox missionary society
what were members of non orthodox churches not allowed to do from 1883
build new places of worship, wear religious dress except within meeting place and spread religious propaganda
results of russification
mass disturbance
resentment amongst educated and wealthy
growth of opposition groups
who suffered most from intense nationalism
jews
how many jews within Russian empire
5 million
since 1736 where had most jews been confined to
pale of settlement
why were jews hated in AII reign
non orthodox teachings and money lending and personal riches
where did AII allow wealthier jews to settle until polish revolt
outside pale
inflammatory slogan pobodonostev
beat the yids, save russia
on what grounds was AII anti Semitic
religious
what were AIII poltical concerns about jews
was believed that they orchestrated AII assassination
why may pogroms have started
business competition, encouragement from okrhana
how did gov curb pogroms
did little
who supported holy league organisation and what did they do
pobodonostev- coordinated early attacks against Jews - banned 1882
what did many jews do in response to pogroms
free over border to western europe
what did pogroms involve
jewish property burnt, shops and businesses destroyed, rape and murder
what did may laws add to
discrimination of jews
what did may laws condemn jews to
living in ghettoes in cities and towns
what did a separate decree of 1882 decrease the number of
jewish doctors in army
in which 2 ways did jews leave country
through own free will or forcibly expelled
what did policies towards jews remaining in country drive them to towards
revolutionary groups in particular Marxist socialist organisations
what stimulated opposition in AII reign
hope and disappointment brought by reforms
what did initial relaxation of censorship encourage
spread of radical literature
what did relaxation of controls on education increase
no of independently minded students
what did creation of zemstvas and dumas provide
platform for educated intellectuals to challenge tsarist policies
what did reform in judicial system produce
professionally trained lawyers skilled in art of persuasion
ready to challenge autocratic practices
why was moderate liberate opposition only small scale
only few literate and educated russians
what did liberal intellectuals have benefit of
education, time, wealth and interest to reflect on political matters
what did some intelligentsia seek the truth via
philosophical ideas eg nihilism/anarchy
what 2 categories did most liberal members of opposition fall into
slavophiles and westernisers
what did westernisers want
to catch up with the west by copying western ways
what did slavophiles favour
a superior Russian path to a better future
what was westernising liberal oppositions aim
reform the autocracy so the tsar would listen and rule in conjunction with his subjects
how did AII respond to st pt zemstva demanding a central body
he stood firmly against proposal
why did the attractions of the slavophiles diminish in 1890s
country moved forward towards industrialisation
why did industrialisation split the intelligentsia
some attracted by Marxist theory and some maintained more liberal stance
what happened in 1891-92 that left zemstva responsible for relief work
famine
tsarist gov didn’t take actions
what did famine provide evidence for
change needed
among which group of people did a more radical strand of opposition develop
younger generation
what were young Russia held responsible for in june 1862
a series of fires in capital
who was ‘the organisation’ set up by in 1863 and what was made
students at Moscow university
more calls for reform made
what was student idealism and determination heightened by
increased repression of later 1860s and influence of radical socialist writers
what was chernyshevsky the author of
the contemporary and what is to be done?
what did chernyshevskys writings suggest
peasants had to be made leaders of revolutionary change
what did Herzen advocate in his journal
new peasant based social structure
what did herzen call on followers to do in 1869
go to the people
what view did Bakunin put forward
private ownership of land should be replaced by collective ownership and income should be based on number of hours worked
how did Bakunin help to introduce Marxism into russia
translated marx’s communist manifesto into russian in 1869
when was the Tchaikovsky circle set up
1868-69
what was the Tchaikovsky circle
literary society that organised printing, publishing and distribution of scientific and revolutionary literature
what did the circle seek
social revolution
what did the circle start to do from 1872
organise workers with the intention of sending them to work among peasants in countryside
another name for the populists
narodniks
what was the idea behind populism
going to the people
what did lavrov persuade a group of 2000 people to do in 1874
travel to countryside to persuade peasantry that the future of Russia depended on development of peasant commune
what did the populists aim to exploit
the resentment felt since the emancipation about ack of land and tax burden
why were the populist incomers reported to the authorities by the peasants
peasants ignorance, superstition, prejudice and deep rooted loyalty to tsar
how did nardodnysim have a benefit
helped to take radical opposition away from underground meeting rooms and into countryside
helped to make gov more aware of opponents
when was land and liberty set up
1877
what did land and liberty continue
populist traditions
what did land and liberty members seek
work within peasant commune but in less obtrusive manner than narodniks
what did some members of land and liberty carry out
political assassinations
when did the land and liberty organisation split
1879
into what 2 groups did land and liberty split into
black repartition and the peoples will
who organised black repartition
Plekhanov
why did black repartition take such name
wanted to share black soil provinces of Russia among peasants
what were the hopes of black repartitions
stimulating social change without violence
how did black repartition set about achieving their aims
worked peacefully among peasantry
what was black repartition severely weakened by
series of arrests in 1880-81
who led peoples will
mikhailov
how did mikhailov keep group informed of secret police activities
planted a spy in third section
what methods did peoples will advocate
violent ones, undermining gov by assassinating officials
how did AII assassination mark a turning point
security stepped up and new tsar retired to fortitfied castle
what effect did increased security have
ended populist movement
which forms of opposition continued underground after AII assassination
self education circles who translated writings of foreign socialists
contact with radicals in exile in west maintained
what did Plekhanov establish from Switzerland in 1883
emancipation of labour group
what did emancipation of labour group do
translated and arranged for Marxist tracts to be smuggled into Russia
sought to demonstrate Marxism fully applicable to russia
how did industrialisation benefit opposition groups
numbers of workers organisations, illegal trade unions, Marxist discussion circles and other groups developed- spreading Marxist ideas
what was industrialisation in Russia largely driven by
the state
why was industrialisation largely driven by the state
in a deliberate attempt to match the economic development of western europe
who was AII minister of finance 1862-78
von Reutern
what were reuterns reforms designed for
to boost the economy and provide funds to drive industrial growth
reuterns reforms
- treasury reformed
- new arrangements for collecting taxes put in place
- tax farming abolished
- tax system reformed
- banks and credit facilities extended
- state, municipal and savings banks established
how was trade promoted under reutern
reduction of import duties 1863
what were offered to private entrepreneurs to develop railways under reutern
government subsidies
how was foreign investment encouraged under reutern
government guaranteed annual dividend
for what industries was government support offered under reutern
cotton and mining
what did Reuten do to tax farming?
Abolished it
how did reuterns reforms encourage enterprise
opportunities provided by gov subsidies and trade treaties
what did the use of foreign technical expertise and capital support under reutern
industrial expansion (railway saw expansion)
what was the annual growth rate during reuterns term of office
6%
what were the new developments under reutern
oil extraction, ironworks
how did economy remain weak despite reuterns reforms
- 1/3 gov expenditure went on repayment of debts
- rouble subject to variation
- limitations of emancipation edict kept peasantry poor and domestic market small
- tariff reductions meant decline in gov revenue
when was the decision to raise tariffs taken
1878
when did Vyshnegradsky take over as minister of finance
1887
what was the import tariff designed to boost under Vyshnegradsky
home production and helped iron industry and development of industrial machinery
how did Vyshnegradsky balance budget whilst financing enterprise
- negotiated valuable loans
- increased indirect taxes
- mounted a drive to swell grain exports
how did Vyshnegradsky policy appear successful on surface
1881-1891 grain exports +18% and Russian budget in surplus
what was Vyshnegradsky export drive achieve at expense of
peasants who paid taxes and saw their grain requisitioned by state
what did Vyshnegradsky famously say about exports
‘we ourselves shall not eat, but we shall export’
what did Vyshnegradsky export drive ultimately lead to
widespread famine due to bad harvest and no reserve stores
who was Vyshnegradsky successor
Witte
what was Witte totally committed to
economic modernisation as a means of curbing revolutionary activity
what did Witte believe was only way forward
continue with protective tariffs, heavy taxation and forced exports to generate capital
what did much of Wittes investment go into
mining, metal trades, oil and banking
who did Witte encourage to oversee industrial developments
foreign engineers to advise on planning and techniques
what industry saw major expansion under Witte
railway
how much land did the average peasant receive
little less than four hectares
which factors hampered agricultural change
high taxes, grain requisitions, traditional farming practices
what was the problem with land banks
the loans they offered merely increased debts
why was there an increase in agricultural production in the 1870s-1880s
kulaks positive response to Vyshnegradskys export drive
what did the 1891-92 famine show
average peasant had too little land to become prosperous
Social divisions: what did Russia’s traditional land based society move towards as industrialisation spread
One more focused on money, capital and wages
Social divisions: what did the period see the beginnings of
An emergent new middle class and urban working class
The landed elite: why had their personal landholdings declined after emancipation
Some sold out to pay off debts/abandoned farming in favour of more rewarding professional activities
The landed elite: what percentage of university professors in 1880 were from hereditary nobility
1/5
The landed elite: how many nobles owned their own business in 1882
700
The landed elite: how many nobles employed in commerce in 1882
2500
The landed elite: which governorships did nobles find themselves in
Zemstva and provincial governorships
The landed elite: why did they retain despite changes to their position
Retained much of precious wealth and status
The middle class: why did Russia’s middle class begin to grow
Urban and industrial expansion and an increase in educational opportunities
The middle class: what were in greater demand
Bankers, doctors, teachers and administrators
The middle class: what provided enterprising oppurtunities
Gov contracts to build railways and state loans to set up factories
The middle class: what were there opportunities to do at the lower end of the scale
Take up management positions or set up as workshop owners or traders
The urban working class: what was number of urban workers despite growth
Still very small- 2% population
The urban working class: why did some peasants sell up
Join migrant groups building railways/become urban workers
The urban working class: how many inhabitants in st Petersburg in 1864 were peasants by birth
1 in 3
The urban working class: what were conditions in factories like
Grim and early factories paid little heed to workers welfare
The urban working class: what did reforming legislation in 1882-90 implement
1) Regulation of child labour
2) reduction in working hours
3) reduction in excessive fines
4) appointment of inspectors with powers to check up on living and working conditions
The urban working class: what was payment in kind
Payment in goods/services such as accommodation rather than money wages
The urban working class: what were payments like despite peasants being attracted by regular wages
Payments rarely generous
The urban working class: how many strikes per year 1886-94 despite being illegal
33
The position of the peasantry: kulaks
Bought up land
Employed labour and sometimes acted as pawn brokers with land
The position of the peasantry: what was life like for poorest peasants
Life getting harsher as they turned into landles labourers
The position of the peasantry: what did zemstvo survey in 1880s state about poorest peasants
2/3 of former serfs in Tambov region unable to feed household without falling into debt
The position of the peasantry: how did living standards vary
Areas of former state peasants tended to be better off than those of emancipated privately owned
The position of the peasantry: why were former state serfs better off that privately owned ones
They’d been granted more land
The position of the peasantry: evidence of poor living standards of peasants
Large proportion turned down as unfit for military service
Mortality rates higher than those in any other European country
The position of the peasantry: what was average life expectancy for males and females
M 27
F 29
In England it was 45
Cultural influence of church: what percentage of population were subscribed to Orthodox Church
70%
Cultural influence of church: what was russia According to tradition
A holy land that had been chosen by god to save the world
Cultural influence of church: how had church administration changed by the late nineteenth century
Moved to holy synod and tsars position became more secular
Cultural influence of church: how did the domination of the Orthodox Church benefit the regime
Moral domination of Orthodox Church over superstitious and ill educated peasantry hugely benefitixal to regime as a means of contr l
Cultural influence of church: what were priests expected to do
Read out imperial manifestos and decrees, keep statistics, root out opposition and inform the police of any suspicious activity
Cultural influence of church: why was an ecclesiastical commission set up in 1862
After a report expressing concern about clerical poverty and behaviour
Cultural influence of church: what reforms were introduced in 1868
To improve education of priests
Cultural influence of church: what was church given increased power over under Delyanov
Primary education
Cultural influence of church: why did AIIIs policy of Russification allow him to promote orthodoxy throughout the empire
-became an offence to covert from orthodoxy to another faith/publish criticisms of it
Cultural influence of church: how many Muslims and pagans converted to orthodoxy under AII
8500 m
50,000 P
what did russias traditional land based society move towards as industrialisation spread
one more focused on money, capital and wages
landed elite
small but diverse group, mostly of noble status
why did landed elites personal landholdings decline after emancipation edict
some sold out to pay off debts and others abandoned farming in favour of more rewarding professional activities
what percentage of university professors came from hereditry nobility in 1880
nearly 1/5
how many nobles owned their own business in Moscow by 1882
700
how many nobles employed in transport, commerce and industry
2500
why did Russia’s middle class begin to grow
urban and industrial expansion and an increase in educational opportunities
what professions were in greater demand
bankers, doctors, teachers and administrators
what did government contracts to build railways and state loans to set up factories provide
tremendous opportunities for those who were enterprising
what opportunities were there at the lower end of the scale
more opportunities to take up management positions or set up as workshop owners and traders
what was the expansion of industry accompanied by
a growth in the urban population
how small was the number of urban workers in this period
no more than 2% population
what was it very common for peasants to do
move to the towns to work temporarily whist returning to their villages to help in busy times, such as harvest
why did some peasants sell up and leave the countryside
to either join a migrant group building railways or to become urban workers
what percentage of inhabitants in st Petersburg in 1864 were peasants by birth
1/3
what were condiditons in the cities like
grim- the early factories paid little heed to their workers welfare
what did the reforms in 1882-90 state
- regulation of child labour
- reduction in working hours
- reduction in excessive fines and payment in kind
- appointment of inspectors with powers to check up on working and living conditions
how effective were the reforms
contributed very little towards improving the lives of the growing working class
what were peasants attracted to the towns by
prospect of regular wages- rarely generous payments
how many strikes between 1886-1894
33 per year
how were the peasants divided
kulaks at the top
how did kulaks buy up land
perhaps with aid of loans from peasants land bank
what was life like for the poorest peasants
- getting harsher
- turned into landless labourers
- 1880 2/3 former serfs in Tambov region unable to feed household without falling into debt
which area of peasants tended to be better off
areas of former state peasants tended to be better off than those of emancipated privately owned serfs
why were former state owned peasants better off
been granted more land
what was the average life expectancy for male and female peasants
- 27 M
- 29 W
- England: average 45
what effect did economic change have on the peasantry
failed to improve the lot of the peasantry, may have affected them for the worse
what percentage of the population subscribed to the orthodox church
70%
what was Russia seen as, owing to tradition
Holy Land that had been chosen by god to save the world
tsar possessed a holiness which made him a saint on earth
what had happened to church administration by late 19th century and effect on tsars position
church admin moved to holy synod and tsars position became more secular
how did the regime use the church as a means of control
moral domination over superstitious and ill educated peasantry hugely beneficial to regime
role of priests
had close ties with village and role assigned by state eg, read out manifestos and decrees, keep statisitics
what did Pyotr Valuav set up the Ecclesaistical commission in response to in 1858
report expressing concern about clerical poverty and behaviour
who was Pyotr Valuev
minister of internal affairs
what did the ecclesiastical commission do
looked into church organisation and practice in 1862
what reforms were introduced in 1868
to improve education of priests
what were the church given increased control over under Ivan Delyanov
primary education
what did the church possess strict controls over
-censorship
what did the church courts judge
moral and social ‘crimes’
awarded punishments to those found guilty
how many muslis and pagans converted to orthodoxy during aiiis reighn
8500 M
50000 P
how many catholics and Lutherans converted to orthodoxy in Poland and Baltic provinces
40000 altogether
What war ended in March 1856?
Crimean War
What did Alexander II do to examine emancipation?
Set up committees
What did Alexander II tour Russia delivering between 1858-59?
Pro-emancipation speeches
Who failed to agree on emancipation measures? What took place between them and Alexander II?
Provincial nobles
Debate
What did Alexander II establish? Who led it?
A committee of 38
Nicholas Milyutin
What was the emancipation of the serfs proclaimed in?
Alexander’s Edict of 1861
Who did emancipation only apply to? When did they receive their freedom?
Privately-owned serfs
1866
What did emancipation permit? What did supporters find about it?
Modernisation
Not as “liberating” as expected
What did Landlords receive from emancipation? What 2 things could they use it for?
Government bonds, compensation
Redeem debt/invest in enterprises
What could some Landlords only do with their compensation? What were they forced to do?
Pay off debts
Sell land
What were Serfs declared? What 4 things could they do?
Free
Marry/Own property/Travel and have rights
What 2 things were Serfs given from emancipation? What varied?
Cottage/allotment of land
Quality of the latter
What could enterprising peasants buy? What could they sell?
Land
Surplus grain
What could Serfs do if they sold land?
Move to an industrialised city
What often remained theoretical about Serfs? Why?
Rights
Other terms of the Edict
What were Serfs required to pay? How many were needed?
Redemption payments annually
49
What did redemption payments provoke?
Unrest
What was the issue with land prices? Where did this leave Serfs?
Fixed above market value
Debt
What 2 things did some peasants have to do to survive?
Work for their old masters/Rent land
What was the Mir responsible for? How long did Serfs remain here?
Tax and redemption collection
Until redemption pay was finished
What did the Mirs supervise? What did Mirs promote?
Farming of allocated land
Backward farming practices
What did Mirs do to peasants? Where couldn’t they leave?
Constrain them
Countryside
What were Landowners allowed to retain? How did some Serfs struggle? What did Serfs lose from Landowners?
Personal lands
Couldn’t make a living without additional land
Protection
What was opened by the Mirs for everyone?
Communal open fields
What was the Obruk? How long did it remain for?
Labour service
Two years of “temp obligation”
How did peasants feel about the Obruk? What happened over 4 months?
Resentful
647 riots
What does Historian John Gooding say about the Emancipation Edict from a European perspective?
“To many Europeans, it might not have seemed like freedom at all”
What were 2 reasons for further reform?
Disappointment/Other issues
What type of reform was conscription? Who was it made compulsory for?
Military
All classes
What type of reform was length of service? How was it reduced?
Military
25 to 15 years
What type of reform was welfare improvements? What type of punishment was abolished?
Military
Corporal
What was established to train officers? What was introduced to officers?
Military colleges
Modern weaponry
How could the new army be described after military reform?
Smaller but better-trained
What was reduced after military reform?
Costs
What was improved through army education campaigns?
Literacy
What type of leaders were officers still? What class served less time?
Aristocrats
Upper
What type of reform was rural councils? What was established at district and provincial levels in 1864?
Local government
Zemstva
What type of reform were council elections? How were they elected?
Local government
People, primarily Nobles
What 2 things were the Zemstva given more power to improve? Who did this relieve?
Public services and industry
The poor
What did the Zemstva offer at local level? Who were they dominated by? What did they improve?
Representative government
Nobles and “professionals”
Welfare and education
How could people criticise government policies? What 2 things did they not have control over?
Zemstva forum
Taxation and law
What type of reform was a system of local, provincial and national courts?
Judicial
What type of reform is criminal cases? Who were they heard before?
Judiciary
Barristers and a jury
What type of reform was class judgement before law? How were they treated?
Judiciary
Equally
What happened to judges’ training and pay? What reform is this?
It improved
Judiciary
What happened to the system as a result of judiciary reform? What could a jury undermine? What was an example of this?
Fairer and less corrupt
Government control
Vera Zasulich
What 2 courts continued in Russia after judiciary reform? Where didn’t this apply?
Ecclesiastical and military courts
Poland
What was important for Russia’s modernisation in education? Who led important changes?
Improvements in literacy and numeracy
Liberal Alexander Golovnin
Who took responsibility for primary education? Who was it free for?
Zemstva
All
What type of school was set up at secondary level? Where could students progress to from secondary education?
Vocational schools
University
When did universities become self-governing? What type of courses were offered?
1863
Liberal
What tripled between 1856-1880? How was there an increase in students?
Primary schools
Doubled
What was there a greater selection of at schools? What happened to the number of students at university?
Subjects
Tripled
What was the primary curriculum still based on? What did it offer?
Religion
Reading, writing and arithmetic
How was secondary education limited? Who was it limited to?
It had fees
The better-off
What did more radical students join? What were these committed to?
Opposition movements
Violence
What year did the Military reforms take place? What other reforms also took place that year?
1864
Judiciary
What 2 separate years did Local Government reforms take place?
1864
1870
Between what period did Educational reforms take place?
1863-64
What feelings did reforms create in the 1860s?
Excitement and opposition
What did censorship relaxation encourage?
More radical books
What did educational changes lead to the growth of?
Radical student organisations
What did legal reforms promote? Who did they attract?
Legal careers Middle class critical of government
When was the opposition group Young Russia formed? Who were they hostile to?
1862
Tsar and Church
When was the opposition group The Organisation formed? Who was it set up by and what did they carry out?
1863
Moscow Uni alumni, revolutionary activities
What sort of period set in between 1866-67? Why?
Reaction
Attempted Tsar assassinations
Who did Alexander II appoint? Who are 2 examples?
Reactionary ministers
Dmitry Tolstoy and Peter Shuvalov
What did the reactionary ministers argue about Russia?
Westernising changes were weakening Russia
What 2 type of reforms still continued? What happened to the others?
Economic and legal
Halted or reversed
Who was the authority of primary schools returned to? Whose activities were restricted?
Church
Zemstva
What were secondary schools ordered to remove from their curriculum?
Sciences
Where could vocational students only attend as of 1871?
Higher technical institutions
What subjects were banned in universities? Why?
Literature and history
Encouraged critical thought
What organisations were banned?
Student organisations
What could the government do over university appointments?
Veto
What was reasserted with the new education policies? What became restricted?
Religious control
The curriculum
What education was declined? How did people escape restrictions?
Female education
Studying abroad
What force’s work was increased?
Third Section
What trial could political offenders face? Until what year?
Show trials
1878
Where could political crimes be tried from 1878?
Secret closed military courts
What were given to governor-generals? From what year?
Emergency powers for military courts and exile
1879
Which groups of people thrived underground?
Critics and opponents
Why were show trials abandoned? Who is an example?
Sympathetic juries
Vera Zasulich
What war took place between 1877-78? What situation took place between 1879-80?
Russo-Turkish War
Famine
What recession started in the late 1870s? What event from the 1860s repeated itself relating to the Tsar?
Industrial
Assassination attempts
What commission did Alexander II establish? Under who?
Count Loris-Melikov
What position was Loris-Melikov appointed to in 1880? What was he to investigate?
Minister of the Interior
Revolutionary activities
Who was released because of Loris-Melikov?
Political prisoners
What was relaxed because of Loris-Melikov?
Censorship
Whose restrictions were lifted because of Loris-Melikov?
Zemstva
What was tax removed from because of Loris-Melikov?
Salt
What was abolished because of Loris-Melikov? Who replaced them?
Third Section
Okhrana
Whose ideas influenced young people? What view was promoted?
Radical thinkers
Socialism
Who was Chernyshevsky? What book did he write in 1863?
Editor of The Contemporary
What is to be done?
What view did Chernyshevsky have about revolution?
Peasants had to lead it for it to be successful
Who was Herzen? What structure did this advocate?
Editor of The Bell
Peasant based revolution
Who was Bakunin? What type of ownership did he promote?
Anarchist/socialist
Collective ownership
Whose book did Bakunin translate? What did he believe in?
Marx's Communist Manifesto A struggle of working and middle class would lead to a perfect society
What year did Lavrov encourage a populist movement? What was the name of the movement?
1874
Go to the people
How many Narodniks joined “Go to the people”? What would they do?
2000
Act as peasants and spread socialist ideas
What were 3 reasons for peasants rejecting Narodniks?
Fears they were secret police
Ignorance
Church loyalty
What year did the second Narodnik movement take place? Why did it fail?
1876
People were arrested
What did the remaining Narodniks establish in 1877? What was it?
Land and Liberty
Commitment to assassinations
What 2 objectives did Land and Liberty have?
Assassinate Mezemstev (Third Section) Attempt to kill Alexander II
What 2 organisations did Land and Liberty split into in 1879?
Black Partition
People’s Will
Who was The Black Partition organised by? What was its aim?
Plekhanov
“Partition the black soil”
Who did The Black Partition work peacefully among? What did it spread to students and workers?
Peasants
Radical materials
What was the Black Partition weakened by? What did Plekhanov later become?
Arrests in 1880-81
A Marxist
Who led The People’s Will? What was it larger than?
Mikhailov
Black Partition
What did The People’s Will advocate? What was their biggest success?
Violence
Assassination of Alexander II
What 2 reasons did opposition spread?
Government failures
Demands for “reforms from below”
Who succeeded Alexander II? When was he crowned?
Alexander III
May 1881
Who was Alexander III advised by? Who was he?
Konstantin Pobedonostev
Procurator of the Holy Synod
What did Pobedonostev encourage the Tsar to reassert?
Autocracy
What did Alexander III publicly announce?
“I am the sole ruler, as only absolute power can safeguard Russia”
What group had 150 people arrested and hanged? Why?
People’s Will
Assassinated Alexander II
What happened to the powers of the police? What department was made to supervise the Okhrana?
They increased
Department of Police
Who were the Department of Police made responsible to? Why?
Ministry of Internal Affairs
So activities could be monitored
Who were also widely used? Who watched these people?
Spies
Secret spies
What land rule was put in place in 1882? What could police agents do?
Any area could be deemed “subversion”
Arrest, imprison and exile on suspicion
What judicial courts were reintroduced in 1885?
Closed courts
What did Alexander III introduce in 1889? Who were they appointed by?
Land Captains
Nobility
Who did Land Captains replace? Who could they override?
Magistrates
Zemstva
What 2 things could Land Captains overturn?
Local court judgements and flogging of peasants
What vote was reduced in 1890?
Zemstva peasant vote
Who were removed from office?
Outspoken Liberals
Whose creed did Alexander III adopt? What did this mean?
Pobedonostev’s “Autocracy, Orthodoxy and Nationality”
Russification
What is Russification?
Enforcement of Russian language and culture on ethnic minorities
What was declared as the first language? What did this mean for the judicial system?
Russian
Trials and local government had to be conducted in Russian
What was closed to non-fluent Russian speakers?
Public office
What Church was adherence encouraged for? How many Lutherans converted?
Orthodox
37,000
What Catholic buildings were closed down? What were non-Orthodox churches not allowed to do?
Monasteries
Build new places of worship
Who suppressed Russification resistance?
The military
What 4 nationalities suffered the most?
Poles, Finns, Baltic Germans and Ukrainians
What was the intention of Russification? What did it intensify? What did it cause?
To “unite” the country
National feelings for non-Russians
Opposition groups
Which religion suffered most from Russification? How many were living in Russia?
Jews
5 million
What was ingrained in Russian society? What broke out between 1881-84?
Anti-semitism
Jewish pogroms
What did authorities not do a lot of? What happened to many Jews? What happened to some Jewish property?
Curb anti-semitic violence
Raped or murdered
Destroyed
What was passed during Alexander III’s reign to restrict Jews? Where were Jews forced to live?
Laws
Ghettos
What happened to many Jews? Who were 2 key figures who joined revolutionary groups?
Emigrated or expelled
Leon Trotsky and Julius Martov
What does Historian Martin Sixsmith say about Alexander III’s intentions towards Russification?
“Alexander III wanted to unify the country by turning an empire into a nation”
What does Historian Orlando Figes say about Russification’s central aim?
“It had always been a central aim to assimilate non-Russian peoples”
What does Historian John Gooding say about Jews?
“Jews were seen as a particular problem”
What class did Russia not possess?
Middle class
What did Von Reutern believe Russia needed? What did he introduce?
Economic change
Reforms
What type of farming was abolished? What did this mean?
Tax-farming
Companies could no longer collect taxes
What organisation was reformed under Von Reutern? What systems were established?
The Treasury
Auditing and budgeting
What facilities were made available from Banks?
Credit facilities
What was offered to private railway companies?
Subsides
What was guaranteed by the government for foreign investors?
Annual dividends
What was lowered on trade? What was negotiated?
Tariffs
Trade treaties
What 2 industries expanded because of Von Reutern? What field was there an improvement in?
Cotton/Mining
Agriculture
In what 2 fields did mobility remained limited? What was slow?
Transport/Labour
Growth
What was unstable in the economy? Where did a lot of income go towards?
Russian Currency
Paying off debts
Which place did Russia remain underdeveloped towards?
Western Europe
What did Vyshnegradsky try to build up?
Industry
What tariffs were increased? How much by?
Import tariffs
30%
Why were grain imports increased? How much were they increased by between 1881-91?
To make peasants sell to the state
18%
Where did Russia get a loan from in 1888?
France
What 3 things did peasants suffer from under Vyshnegradsky?
High taxes
High good prices
Grain requisitions
When did a famine take place under Vyshnegradsky? How many people died?
1891-92
350,000
What did Witte want from abroad? What 3 things did he increase investment in?
Loans
Mining, oil and banking
What did Witte encourage European experts to oversee? What did he want advice on?
Development
Planning
What did Witte achieve with the railway network?
A huge expansion
Why did emancipation bring little change to agriculture for peasants?
Peasants had too little land to become prosperous
Why did the Mir fail to bring agricultural success?
Backwards farming practices favoured by the elders
Who were the biggest Landowners? What did many of them do?
Nobles
Sell their land to pay debts
Why did some Landowners abandon farming? What did some of them start up?
To learn professions
Businesses
How did Kulaks buy land? Who did Kulaks employ?
Loans from the Peasants Land Bank
Lower peasants
What did the poorer peasants become?
Landless labourers
Why were most peasants unable to do military service? What was the average life expectancy in Russia for peasants?
Unfit
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What does Historian Orlando Figes say about the economic partitions?
“Partitions made little economic sense”
