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Biology > SB7- Animal coordination, control and homeostasis > Flashcards

SB7- Animal coordination, control and homeostasis Flashcards

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1
Q

What’s the hormonal system

A

Another response other than the nervous system - it works more slowly than the nervous system but can cause responses in many parts of the body

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2
Q

What does the hormonal system use

A

Chemical messengers callee hormones are carried by the blood and so take time to get around the body

Different hormones are released by a range of endocrine glands

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3
Q

What are the endocrine glands

A

Include pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, ovaries, tested and pancreas

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4
Q

What does the pituitary gland release

A

Many hormones including

ACTH

FSH

LH

And growth hormone

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5
Q

What does the thyroid gland produce

A

Several hormones including thyroxine

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6
Q

What gland does the pancreas produce

A

Some cells produce insulin and other produce glucagon

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7
Q

What hormone do the ovaries produce

A

The was hormones oestrogen and progesterone

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8
Q

What hormone do the testes produce

A

Testosterone

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9
Q

What hormone do the adrenal glands produce

A

Several hormones including adrenalin

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10
Q

What’s a target organ

A

An organ specially affected by a specific hormone

The hormone affects the organ by changing what the organ is doing - eg growth hormone stimulates cells in muscles and bones to divide, it also stimulates the digestive system to absorb calcium ions - also used to help make strong bones

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11
Q

Tell me about some endocrine glands being the target organs for other hormones

A

For the sex hormones oestrogen and testosterone which are released by reproductive organs, stimulate the release of growth hormone

The release of sex hormones increases during puberty which helps to increase the growth rate at this time

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12
Q

What’s your metabolic rate

A

Is the rate at which the energy stored in your food is transferred by all the reactions that take place in your body to keep you alive

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13
Q

How is resting metabolic rate measured

A

Measured with the body at rest in a warm room and long after the person last had a meal

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14
Q

Tell me about thyroxine and metabolic rate

A

Thyroxine is taken into, and affects many different kinds of cell

It causes heart cells to contract more rapidly and strongly and it also increases the rate at which proteins and carbohydrates to break down inside cells

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15
Q

Why is thyroxine concentration in the blood an example of negative feed back

A

An increase in thyroxine concentration directly causes changes that bring a decrease in amount of thyroxine being released into blood

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16
Q

Negative feedback loops

A

Check pg 144 diagram

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17
Q

What is adrenalin

A

A hormone that is released from the adrenal glands - normally very little is released into the blood

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18
Q

When do amounts of adrenalin in blood change

A

In frightening or exciting situations - an increase in impulses from the neurones reaching the adrenal glands from the spinal cord triggers the release of large amounts of adrenalin into the blood

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19
Q

What are the target organs of adrenalin

A

Including the liver in which causes the breakdown of a storage substance called glycogen

Glycogen is a polymer made of glucose molecules, when glycogen is broken down, the glucose molecules can be released into the blood providing additional glucose for respiration

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20
Q

What’s the fight or flight response

A

Some of the other target organs and effects of adrenalin together these effects prepare the body to fight or run away from danger

Hear muscle cells contract more rapidly to increase heart rate and more strongly to increase blood pressure

Diameter of blood vessels to muscles increase and to organs decease

Liver cells change glycogen to glucose

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21
Q

What’s the menstrual cycle

A

A cycle of changes in a woman’s reproductive system

It prepares the body for fertilisation of an egg cell, leading to pregnancy

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22
Q

How long does the menstrual cycle last for

A

28 days

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23
Q

When does the cycle start and end

A

Around 12 at puberty and ends in early 50s (menopause)

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24
Q

What happens in days 1 to 5 of the cycle

A

This is menstruation - when the uterus lining breaks down and is lost with the unfertilised egg cell

Progesterone levels are low
Oestrogen levels are lol
At day 4, low levels of progesterone allow FSh to be released to cause the growth and maturation of egg

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25
Q

When and what happens when menstruation ends

A

Menstruation ends at day 10, the uterus lining start to thicken again

Oestrogen levels are now rising a lot, progesterone levels still low
Oestrogen levels stimulate release of more LH - LH surge triggers ovulation

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26
Q

When and what happens in ovulation

A

Days 13-15, the ovary releases the egg

Oestrogen levels are high and progesterone levels begin to rise now
As progesterone begins to be released - this inhibits FSH and LH being released

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27
Q

What happens from days 16 to 28!

A

Fertilisation lead if to pregnancy is most likely around days 18 to 20
The uterus lining continues to thicken

Around day 25 the egg cell travels along the oviduct to the uterus, progesterone levels high and start to fall around 28 and cycle starts again, oestrogen levels have decreased from day 14 and then stayed the same and now are falling a bit too and cycle ends

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28
Q

What hormones is the cycle controlled by

A

Oestrogen and progesterone- which are released by the ovaries in to the blood

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29
Q

How can fertilisation occur

A

During sexual intercourse, sperm cells are deposited in the vagina, they then pass through the cervix to the uterus and into the oviducts - if a sperm cell meets an egg cell fertilisation can occur

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30
Q

What’s contraception

A

Is the presentation of fertilisation- there are hormones and then physical barriers

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31
Q

What’s the success rate and how does the male condom work

A

98% succes

It’s placed over an erect penis to prevent sperm entering the vagina

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32
Q

Tell me about the success and how a diaphragm or cap works

A

92-6% success

It’s placed over the cervix (entrance to the uterus) prevents sperm in the vagina entering the uterus

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33
Q

Tell me about the success and what the hormone pill or implant placed under the skin

A

> 99% success rate

It releases hormones to prevent ovulation and thickens mucus to the cervix making it difficult for sperm to pass through

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34
Q

What is FSH and LH

A

Follicle stimulating hormone - FSH and Luteinisong hormone is released from pituitary gland, release of hormones are controlled by concentration of oestrogen and progesterone released after ovulation when egg cell becomes a corpus luteum structure

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35
Q

When do levels of oestrogen increase

A

Levels increase as the egg follicle matures

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36
Q

When can FSH be released

A

When there are low levels of progesterone

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37
Q

What does increasing progesterone do to levels of FSH and LH

A

Increasing progesterone inhibits FSH and LH

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38
Q

What do high levels of oetrogen allow

A

Stimulate release or more LH

Oestrogen levels are stimulated to rise from maturing follicles

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39
Q

What does increasing oestrogen levels do to uterus lining

A

It causes it to thicken

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40
Q

What hormone does the corpus luteum release

A

Progesterone

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41
Q

What do falling levels of oestrogen and progesterone cause

A

Menstruation

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42
Q

Tell me about hormonal contraception - how does it work?

A

Uses a progesterone like hormone either on its own or with oestrogen. Raising hormone concentrations in this way prevents the natural fall of concentrations at the end of the menstrual cycle

43
Q

What’s Assisted reproductive technology (ART) -

A

which uses hormones and other techniques to increase the chance of pregnancy

Eg clomifene therapy and IVF

44
Q

Tell me about clomifene therapy

A

This is useful for women who rarely release an egg during their menstrual cycles - clomifene is a drug that helps to increase the concentrations of FSH and LH in the blood

45
Q

Tell me about in vitro fertilisation (IVF) - when is it useful?

A

This can overcome problems such as blocked oviducts in the woman or if the man produces very few healthy sperm cells

Any healthy embryos not used in the first attempt at pregnancy may be frozen and stored for use another time

46
Q

How does IVF Work?

A

Egg follicle maturation is stimulated by hormones, egg cells released by many follicles and taken From ovary, sperm cells are taken from the man

Then eggs and sperm are combined to allow fertilisation

One or two healthy embryos are placed in the uterus

47
Q

What can urine tests be used for

A

Identifying disease - diabetes

In the Middle Ages the urine may have been tasted, today we use simple chemical tests

48
Q

Where does glucose come from

A

It’s released from carbohydrates in our food

Glucose is easily absorbed from the small intestine into the blood and then into cell, where it is broken down during respiration.

49
Q

Why is there a risk glucose levels may become very high

A

It takes time for cells to take in the glucose released by digestion - high concentrations can damage organs

In most people this doesn’t happen because blood glucose concentration is carefully controlled

50
Q

Tell me about the release of insulin

A

As blood glucose concentrations increase - it stimulated certain cells in the pancreas to release insulin

Insulin causes cells in the liver and other organs to take in glucose which causes a fall in blood glucose concentration

51
Q

Explain the process of control of glucose concentrations in the blood

A

Glucose is absorbed from the small intestine after digestion of food, blood glucose concentration rises, pancreas responds by releasing insulin

Insulin causes liver, muscle and other cells to take up glucose and change it to glycogen for storage - blood glucose concentration fell to normal

52
Q

What happens if blood glucose concentrations in blood fall below a certain level

A

Cells just stop releasing insulin B)

53
Q

What’s glucagon and what does it do to glycogen

A

Glucagon causes liver cells to convert glycogen back to glucose when blood glucose levels fall below a certain level

as blood glucose levels concentrations increases again, the amount of glucagon released from the pancreas falls

54
Q

Define homeostasis

A

Maiming constant conditions inside the body

Other examples include temperature and water content

Processes involved in homeostasis help to prevent damage to the body as internal and external conditions change

55
Q

Tell what type 1 diabetes is

A

In a few people, the pancreatic cells that should produce insulin do not - this is becusses the cells have been destroyed by the body’s immune system

This means they can’t control rising blood glucose concentration

56
Q

What’s often the first test for type 1 diabetes

A

When blood glucose concentrations is too high - some glucose can be detected in URINE

57
Q

What do people with type 1 diabetes do to fix levels of glucose

A

Inject insulin into fat layer below the skin where it can enter the blood causing blood concentrations to fall

58
Q

What is type 2 diabetes caused by

A

Either insulin releasing cells not producing enough insulin or by target organs not responding properly to the hormone

59
Q

How do people with type 2 diabetes control insulin and fix it

A

Just eating healthily and being physically active, eating low amounts of sugar

Being physically active takes glucose out of the blood

People with more severe type 2 diabetes may be given medicines to reduce the amount of glucose that the liver releases into the blood or to increase the sensitivity of the cells in target organs that respond to insulin

60
Q

What else has increased as the number of people with type 2 diabetes increase

A

Average body mass

The 2 factors are correlated - more fat on someone body, the more likely they are to develop type 2 diabetes

61
Q

What is BMI

A

Body mass index
BMI= mass(kg) divided by height squared(m)

It calculates wether a person has the right mass for their height

There is a correlation between BMI and type 2 diabetes- more people that are obese, higher percentage of them have type 2 diabetes

62
Q

Tell me about waist:hip ratio

A

It’s calculated as the waste measurement divided by the hip measurement, as people increase in mass, they tend to develop more fat on their waists compared to hips - which increases their waist:hip ratio

The ratio also correlates with the risk of developing type 2 diabetes

63
Q

What’s the normal temperature of major organs - heart, liver, brain

A

37 degrees Celsius

64
Q

What temperature is a fever

A

Above 38 degrees c

65
Q

What’s temperature is hypothermia

A

Temperatures below36 degreee c

66
Q

What’s thermoregulation

A

It’s the control of body temperature which keeps the temperature of the major organs close to 37 degrees c most of the time

67
Q

What’s the hypothalamus

A

A small part of the brain that constantly monitors temperature, it receives information from temperature receptors in the dermis of the skin
Receptors inside the hypothalamus detect temperature changes in the brain and the blood

68
Q

What does the hypothalamus do when blood or brain temp starts to fall below 37 degreee or detects cold environment- 3 things

A

Shivering , contraction of erector muscles, reduction of blood flow near the skin

69
Q

Tell me about shivering

A

Shivering is when muscles contract and relax rapidly - some of the energy released from cell respiration for shivering warms you up

70
Q

Tell me about contraction of erector muscles

A

Erector muscles in the dermis of the skin causes body hairs to stand up right - in humans this has little effect but in other mammals it traps air next to the skin for insulation

71
Q

Tell me about the reduction of blood flow near the skin

A

Keeps blood deeper inside the body which reduces the rate of transfer of energy to the air by heating

72
Q

When does sweating happen

A

When the body temp rises above 37 degreeee c

73
Q

The hypothalamus causes sweating - how does this cause the body to cool down

Sweat glands secrete sweat

A

Sweat spreads out as a thin layer over the skin epidermis, where it evaporates - as it evaporates, it transfers energy from the skin to the surroundings by heating, so the skin cools down

74
Q

What does the hypothalamus do about blood flow when the body is hot

A

Increases blood flow nearer the surface of the skin so blood can transfer energy to the air so we cool down

75
Q

What’s vasoconstriction

A

When it’s cold, the hypothalamus sends nerve impulses to small arteries deep in the skin, causing them to narrow, this reduces blood flow to capillaries near the surface of the skin to help reduce energy transfer to surroundings

76
Q

What’s vasodilation

A

When the body is hot, the hypothalamus causes the small arteries to widen - which increases blood flow through skin capillaries, bringing warm blood nearer to the surface of the skin and increasing energy transfer to surroundings

77
Q

What feedback type is the control of body temperature

A

Negative feedback

78
Q

What is osmoregulation

A

The control of the balance of water and mineral salts in the body, if the balance of water and mineral salts is wrong then cells may take in or lose too much water by osmosis - this can damage cells because water in cells allows molecules in cells reactions to move and around and water is also need to maintain the shape of the cell

79
Q

What is the function of the urinary system

A

To remove excess amounts of some substances from the blood - including water and and minerals

Also removes waste products such as urea

80
Q

How is urea produced

A

It’s produced in liver cells from the breakdown of amino acids that are in greater amounts than needed - the urea passes into the blood and is carried to the kidneys

81
Q

What do renal veins do

A

Carry blood with wastes removed back to the body

82
Q

What do renal arteries do

A

Carry blood away from body to the kidneys

83
Q

What do the kidneys do

A

Remove substances from the blood and make urine

84
Q

What do the ureters

A

Carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder

85
Q

What does the bladder do

A

Stores urine

There’s a muscle to keep the exit of the bladder closed until the person wants to urinate

86
Q

What’s the Urethra

A

When urine flows to get of the body,

87
Q

What’s kidney failure

A

We have 2 kidneys - you can survive with just one

When both stop working properly - that’s kidney failure

88
Q

Why does kidney failure put people’s lives at risk

A

The persons life is in danger because waste substances increase in concentration in the blood, the person will need kidney dialysis every few days to keep the concentrations of substances in the blood at safe levels

89
Q

Tell me about the process of kidney dialysis

A

Blood carrying wastes passes to the machine from a vein,

The dialysis fluid is containing the same concentration of glucose as blood plasma

There’s a partially permeable membrane separating blood from dialysis fluid, urea and waste diffuses overall to dialysis fluid whilst no glucose is lost and blood returns into the vein

90
Q

Tell me about organ donation - what is it?

A

When a kidney from another person is put into a patients body and attached to their blood system

91
Q

What are problems with kidney donation

A

Replacing a kidney involved several hours of surgery, which may be too much for weak patients

Kidney cells have antigens on them - cells in the immune system recognise and attack strange antigens, this can cause rejection of the kidney - so antigens on organ must match patients cells, which can take a long time to find a suitable kidney

92
Q

Where is urine made

A

In the kidneys - in the thousands of tiny microscopic tubes called nephrons - urine is made in a series of stages

93
Q

How is urine made in the nephron

A

Blood flows through a network of capillaries called a glomerulus, which runs inside the bowmans capsule of each nephron

Diffusion and absorption of substances occur

  • selective reabsorption of water, mineral ions and glucose

Waste goes to collecting duct to ureter

94
Q

How are the bowmans capsule and glomerulus adapted

A

They are adapted to let very small molecules such as water, urea
And glucose through in to the nephron

Large molecules such as proteins and blood cells stay in the blood - this process is called filtration

The capillary cells in the glomerulus and bowmans capsule have spaces between them which makes them “leaky” - small molecules can filter through these spaces

95
Q

What substances are included in selective reabsorption

A
  • substances the body needs: glucose and some mineral ions
96
Q

Tell me about the reabsorption of glucose and mineral ions

A

These substances are pumped through proteins in the cell membranes in the first convoluted tubule of the nephron by active transport - no glucose is usually left in urine

97
Q

Where is water reabsorbed

A

Water is reabsorbed by osmosis depending how much body needs, it happens in the loop of Henle and In the collecting duct

98
Q

What is the substance at the end of the nephron going to the ureter

A

The fluid contains excess water the body doesn’t need plus urea and other substances - it’s now urine

99
Q

Tell me how the nephron is adapted in several ways for reabsorption of substances

A

There is a large surface area of contact between the nephron and capillaries

The membrane of the cells lining in the first convoluted tube has tiny folds - microvilli, these increase surface area to volume ratio of the cells

Cells that have protein pumps in their cell membranes contain many mitochondria

100
Q

What is ADH

A

Antidiuretic hormone - is released by the pituitary gland to the kidneys when there is too little water in the blood - ADH changes the permeability of the collecting duct in nephrons and increases the concentration of the urine

101
Q

What happens when the collecting duct is permeable

A

Water is absorbed by osmosis from the collecting duct back into the blood, when there is plenty of water in the blood, the pituitary gland stops releasing ADH

102
Q

What happens when ADH is present

A

Collecting duct is highly permeable to water

there is high reabsorption of water

Small volume of concentrated urine produced

103
Q

What happens when no ADH is present

A

Collecting duct is not permeable to water, a large volume of dilute urine is produced

Biology (12 decks)

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