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Biology > SB5 - Health, Disease And The Development Of Medicines > Flashcards

SB5 - Health, Disease And The Development Of Medicines Flashcards

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1
Q

What’s the world health organisation (WHO)

A

Responsible for making ways to improve health across the world -

According to them good health means more than just feeling well it’s a state of complete physical, social and mental well being

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2
Q

What is physical health?

A

Includes being free from disease, eating and sleeping well, getting regular activity, limiting intake of harmful substances

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3
Q

What’s social well being

A

Includes how well you get on with other people and how your surroundings affect you

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4
Q

What’s mental well being

A

Includes how you feel about yourself

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5
Q

What are some reasons people have poor health

A

Can’t afford a healthy diet

In LEDCs where there’s more disease and fewer hospitals

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6
Q

What is a disease

A

A problem with a structure or process in the body that’s not the result of an injury

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7
Q

What could be the cause of a disease

A

Might be due to microorganisms getting into the body and changing how it works

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8
Q

What are the microorganisms that cause disease also known as

A

Pathogens

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9
Q

What is a communicable disease

A

They can be passed from an infected person to other people

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10
Q

What is a non communicable disease

A

They are not passed from person to person - caused by a problem in the body eg fault in the genes or as a result of way we live - our lifestyle

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11
Q

What does “some diseases can be correlated” mean

A

So that having one disease means a person is more likely to have another disease

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12
Q

Tell me the cause of a correlation

A

A disease that damages the immune system can make it easier for other pathogens to cause disease

A disease that damages the body’s natural defences and barriers allowing pathogens to get into the body more easily

A disease can stop an organ system from working effectively making other diseases to occur

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13
Q

What is genetic disorder

A

A type of non communicable disease caused by faulty alleles of genes - genetic disorders can be passed to offspring but nothing else!

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14
Q

What is malnutrition

A

It’s a non communicable Disease as a result of s poor diet

Occurs when you get too little / much of particular nutrients from your food

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15
Q

What’s a deficiency disease

A

The lack of a certain nutrient can cause a specific deficiency disease

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16
Q

What is protein deficiency also known as

A

Kwashiorkor

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17
Q

What are some kwashiorkor symptoms

A

Enlarged belly, small muscles, failure to grow properly

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18
Q

What are some good sources of protein in diet

A

Meat, fish, dairy, eggs, pulses (eg lentils)

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19
Q

What’s a vitamin c deficiency also known as

A

Scurvy

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20
Q

What are some symptoms of disease

A

Swelling and bleeding gums, muscle and joint pain, tiredness

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21
Q

What are some Good sources of vitamin c in diet

A

Citrus fruits, some vegetables eg broccoli

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22
Q

What is vitamin D/ and or calcium also known as

A

Rickets (vitamin d) osteomalacia (calcium)

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23
Q

What are some symptoms for vitamin d/ and or calcium

A

Soft bones, curved leg bones

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24
Q

What are some good sources of vitamin D and calcium

A

Oily fish (vitamin d)

Dairy products (calcium)

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25
Q

What is iron deficiency also known as

A

Anaemia

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26
Q

What are some symptoms of anaemia

A

Red blood cells that are smaller than normal and reduced in number, tiredness

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27
Q

What are some good sources of iron

A

Red meat , dark green leafy vegetables, egg yolk

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28
Q

What is a drug

A

A chemical that changes how the body works

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29
Q

What drug is found in alcoholic drinks

A

Ethanol

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30
Q

What happens to ethanol in the body

A

Broken down in liver

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31
Q

What’s can large amounts of Ethanol lead to

A

Lead to liver disease - including cirrhosis

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32
Q

What is a cirrhotic liver like

A

Paler, rougher and much harder - it does not function well and can result in death

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33
Q

What is obesity and his is it formed

A

Malnutrition caused by a diet that is high on sugars and fat - where large amounts of fat formed under skin and around organs such as the heart and kidneys

Too much fat can increase diseases such as cardiovascular disease

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34
Q

What do we still need some fat

A

To cushion our organs when we move, to store some vitamins and provide a store of energy

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35
Q

How is cardiovascular disease caused

A

As a result of circulatory system functioning poorly - one sign is high blood pressure which can lead to heart pain or even a heart attack

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36
Q

What is body mass index (BMI)

A

Measuring the amount of fat on the body - it assumes the mass of other body tissues are in proportion to height

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37
Q

What number of BMI is considered

Obese

A

30

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38
Q

How is bmi calculated

A

mass divided by height ^2

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39
Q

What fat is linked closely with cardiovascular disease linked with

A

Abdominal fat

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40
Q

What is a better way to measure abdominal fat

A

Waist measurement divided by hip measurement to get waist:hip ratio

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41
Q

How can tobacco smoke cause damage to lungs

A

It contains harmful substances when breathed in they can be absorbed from lungs into blood and transported to body that can damage blood vessels, increase blood pressure, make blood vessels narrower and increase the risk of blood clots in blood vessels

^ this can lead to cardiovascular disease

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42
Q

How can you treat high blood pressure

A

Exercise more, give hm smoking

If very high could be given medicines to reduce it

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43
Q

Who can a narrower blood vessel be widened

A

By inserting a stent (small mesh tube) at the narrowest last to hold it open

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44
Q

How can blocked arteries be bypassed

A

By inserting other blood vessels so that the heart tissues is supplied by oxygen and nutrients again

^people who have these treatments may have to take medicines for rest of lives to help prevent a heart attack or stroke

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45
Q

What symptom does cholera cause

A

Diarrhoea (watery faeces)

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46
Q

What did Filipino Pacini

A

He www the first person to isolate a bacterium from people with cholera
And to suggest that bacterium caused the disease

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47
Q

What pathogen causes cholera

A

Vibrio cholerae

  • Robert Koch showed this
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48
Q

How did Robert Koch prove that vibrio cholerae causes cholera

A

The bacterium was always found in the diarrhoea from people with cholera but no in the diarrhoea from people with other diseases

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49
Q

What’s a pathogen

A

A microorganism that causes disease

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50
Q

What is a host

A

Eg humans, an organism that is infected by the microorganism

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51
Q

What is Chalara dieback

A

It’s disease of ash trees caused by fungus

Symptoms include lesions on trunk and branches, leaves dying earlier than usual and dieback of the crown (top of branches)

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52
Q

What are viruses

A

They are not true organisms because they don’t have a cellular structure

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53
Q

How do viruses multiply

A

By infecting a cell and taking over a cell DNA copying processes to make new viruses

Different viruses infect different organisms, including bacteria

They can affect many parts of body at once

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54
Q

What is the Ebola virus

A

It causes the breakdown of blood vessels and liver and kidney cells this leads to internal bleeding (haemorrhaging) and so causes haemorrhagic fever

55
Q

What is internal bleeding also known as

A

Haemorrhaging

56
Q

What’s HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)

A

It attacks and destroys white blood cells in the immune system

57
Q

How does AIDS develop

A

People infected with HIV often develop AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) because their immune systems cannot protect them from secondary infections

Many people die from these other infections such as TB

58
Q

Tell me about hidden pathogens

A

Many types of bacteria live in our bodies - some essential for our health

Others may not affect us most of the time

59
Q

What’s HELIOBACTER PYLORI

A

50 per cent of people have that bacteria in the stomach and over 80 percent of these people never show symptoms of disease by these bacteria

Others may develop sore areas called ulcers where the bacteria attack the stomach lining

60
Q

How can we find how to stop the spread of disease

A

If we know how they spread, then we can find ways of stopping that disease

61
Q

How can colds, flu and tb spread

A

When sneezing or coughing, it sends droplets containing pathogens into the air

Most flu viruses can survive for about a day

62
Q

How does fungi spread

A

Can spread in air and as tiny though spores in plants

Eg strong winds can carry Chalara dieback spores over long distances

63
Q

Tell me some examples of a pathogen that spreads in water

A

Such as bacteria that can cause cholera, typhoid or dysentery

64
Q

What’s good hygiene

A

Keeping things clean to remove or kill pathogens

Outbreak of disease such as cholera occur when hygiene is difficult, such as in poor areas after environmental disasters or in refugee camps

65
Q

What is the oral route

A

Where pathogens enter through the mouth

66
Q

HELIOBACTER bacteria are thought to spread…

A

When people touch other people’s food after touching they mouths or going to the toilet (oral-faecal transmission)

Or on the feet of flies that have fed on infected faeces and then landed on food

67
Q

What’s an epidemic

A

It’s when many people become infected when burying those who has died from Ebola

68
Q

How is malaria spread

A

It’s a protist that is carrier in blood by mosquitos that sucked blood from an infected person

The mosquito injects the protist directly into the blood of the next person it feeds on

69
Q

What is a vector

A

Organisms that carry pathogens from one person to the next

Controlling the spread of the pathogen may involve controlling the spread of the vector

70
Q

What is a capsid

A

FOUND IN VIRUSES One or more strands of genetic material surrounded by a protein coat

Many viruses have additional layers on the capsid

71
Q

What kind of cells do viruses do invade processes of to replicate

A

Plant cells

Bacterium cells

Human eg HIV and Ebola virus

72
Q

How do viruses copy the genetic material

A

By taking over cell processes so cell copies viral genetic material and make new viral genetic material and proteins, these components assemble in to new viruses

73
Q

How do viruses escape the cell?

A

Some cause the complete breakdown of cell or LYSIS

Others leave by pushing out through cell membrane

^ both methods damage cell and causes disease

74
Q

What happens to viruses once they have left the cell

A

They can go and infect other cells

75
Q

Tell me about the lysogenic pathway

A

their genetic material inserts into the cells genetic material so each time the cell divides the viral genetic material is too - this can ballet many times

At some point the virus’s genetic material triggers the copying of itself and making viral proteins and switches to the lytic pathway

76
Q

Tell me about the lytic pathway

A

When a virus causes the cell to go through lysis and immediately starts making copies of the virus

77
Q

Tell me the steps of the lytic pathway

A

Virus attaches to cell and injects genetic material

Viral genetic material forms a circle

New viral genetic material and proteins are produced and assembled

Cell lyses and releases virus’s

78
Q

Tell me the steps in the lysogenic cycle

A

Viral genetic material inserts itself into the bacterial chromosome

Bacterium/cell reproduced normally, replicating viral Genetic material with it

The cell/ bacterium reproduce many times

The viral genetic material separates from the bacterial chromosome triggering the lytic cycle

79
Q

How can the effect of viruses on bacteria be studied

A

Using bacterial lawn plates made with nutrient agar and on top the tin layer of bacteria grows

Then the virus is added to plate and after a day or two, clear circles can be seen where bacteria have been killed by ghetto virus

80
Q

How is the cross sectional area of the clear circle calculated

A

pi X r^2

81
Q

What does the size of the clear circles mean

A

The larger the area, the more effective the virus has been at replicating and killing bacteria

82
Q

What Is the cuticle

A

A waxy layer on the leaf that acts as a physical barrier so it is difficult for pathogens to get to cells beneath

83
Q

What is bark

A

A physical barrier on trees that protects the stem

84
Q

How do some pathogens get through the physical barriers on plants

A

They can release enzymes that soften cell walls

Others infect parts of the Plant thag have weaker walls eg young shoots and parts not growing well

85
Q

Tell me about chemical barriers of plants

A

They can use chemical substances to deter herbivores and pathogens only when attacked

86
Q

Tell me what chemical defences one type of wild potato uses

A

Releases a substance into the air when attacked by aphids which is the alarm substance that aphids release when attacked by a predator so other aphids fly away

87
Q

How do fox gloves use Chemical barriers

A

They produce poisons all the time by this takes energy so it must be worth the cost to the plant to make them

88
Q

What is aspirin

A

It’s produced from salicylic acid which can be produced from meadowsweet and willow trees

It can be used to control symptoms of pain or fever

89
Q

What is artemisinin -

A

it kills the plasmodium protists that cause malaria

It’s extracted from the wormwood plant

90
Q

What are aseptic technique

A

Tests to not contaminate equipment from microorganisms

Eg autoclave to sterilise equipment and growth medium

91
Q

How can drones be used by farmers

A

They can see if crop plants are under stress

92
Q

When do crop plants show signs of stress

A

When conditions are not good for growth eg too much or little water, when soil lacks nutrients or when plants are attacked by pests or diseases

93
Q

Why is identifying the cause of stress essential

A

So the farmer can treat the stress and crop correctly to prevent the loss of yield

94
Q

What is the yield

A

The amount of useful product

95
Q

What is the first step to identifying the cause of stress

A

Begins with careful observations - looking for visible symptoms

Photos can be checked against photos or other informations to suggest a cause

96
Q

What are some visible symptoms of plant stress

A

Changes in growth

Changes in colour

Blotching of leaves (lesions - areas of damage ) on stems or leaves

97
Q

What’s a distribution analysis

A

It looks at where the damaged plants occur

Flooding, drought, or lack of a soil nutrient will create similar symptoms in all plants in the area

Diseases that spread will adept plants over a wide area but most obviously where the wind first reaches the crop

98
Q

Tell me about soil pathogens

A

Usually only found in small areas

So create an obvious pattern of damaged plants

99
Q

How can tests be used to get an identification of a crop disease

A

The tests should allow a diagnosis of the of the problem

100
Q

What tests can be done to diagnose a plant disease

This is diagnostic testing

A

Growing a pathogen from damaged crop plants o

Using technology to identify presence of genetic material of a pathogen

When farmers send damaged plants for testing, they will also send in a report about other observations they have made, may also send soil samples to be tested for nutrients and toxins - helps to be more certain of the cause of a problem

101
Q

How can the skin be a physical barrier

A

Skin is very thick and pathogens have difficulty getting past it

102
Q

How can pathogens pass over skin

A

They can cross by wounds or by an animal vector that pierces the skin

103
Q

What features does the skin also have

A

It has glands that can secrete substances on to the skin surface

104
Q

What does lysozyme do

A

It’s an enzyme that breaks down the cell walls of some types of bacteria

It’s a chemical defence as it reacts with substances in the pathogen and this kills the pathogen or makes them inactive

105
Q

Where is lysozyme secreted

A

In tears from Eyes

Saliva in the mouth

Mucus

106
Q

What is mucus and how is it a defence

A

It protects thinner surfaces of the body

It’s a sticky secretion produced by cells lining the many openings eg mouth, nose, that pathogens could use to enter the body

Dust and pathogens get trapped in the mucus

107
Q

How are ciliated cells specialised (cilia)

A

They are specialised to move substances such as mucus across their surfaces

This helps to carry dust and pathogens away - either out of body or into the throat where they enter the digestive system

108
Q

Tell about hydrochloric acid as a chemical defence

A

Some cells in the stomach lining secrete hydrochloric acid - reducing the ph of the stomach contents to about 2

At this acidity, many pathogens are destroyed

109
Q

Tell me an example of a type of bacteria that is adapted to survive in the stomach

A

HELIOBACTER pylori

110
Q

What is a sexually transmitted infection (STI)

A

When a pathogen is transmitted through sexual activity

Eg chlamydia bacterium or HIV virus - spread by contact with sexual fluids (semen or vaginal fluid)

111
Q

How can the chance of getting a STI be reduced

A

By using an artificial barrier eg a condom

112
Q

Tell me how a pregnant women can spread HIV and CHLAMYDIA

A

The mother can pass it on to an unborn baby which can harm the baby

May also be spread in blood eg sharing needles and injecting drugs

113
Q

What is screenings

A

It identifys an STI so people can be treated

Blood given to people who have lost a lot of blood if screened to make sure there are no HIV pathogens or any other particles

114
Q

What are antigens

A

All virus and cell Particles have molecules in there outer surfaces that identify if something inside the body is a cell of the body or if it has come inside

115
Q

What is a lymphocyte

A

A type of white blood that instead of antigens have antibodies on their sugar

The antibodies attach to the antigens on a pathogen and the lymphocyte is activated

116
Q

What happens when a lymphocyte is activated

A

It will divide rapidly to produce identical lymphocytes with the same antibodies

Some lymphocytes release large amounts of antibodies into blood so they attach tk pathogens to kill them or cause another part of the immune system to destroy them

117
Q

What are memory lymphocytes

A

When some lymphocytes with antibodies to match the pathogen after a pathogen has Been killed remains in blood

So if the same pathogen tries again the memory lymphocytes cause a much faster secondary response and means your immune

118
Q

What’s a vaccine

A

It contains weakened or inactive pathogens or bits of the pathogen that include the antigen

Vaccine can be objected or taken by mouth to allow memory lymphocytes to be created and so immunity

119
Q

What is herd immunity

A

The chance of coming into contact with an infected person (it’s usually very low with vaccines)

120
Q

How was penicillin discovered

A

In 1928, Alexander Fleming noticed something strange on an agar plate covering in bacteria that he had left for several weeks

Where mould had grown, the bacteria had been killed

He had discovered that the mould made penicillin

121
Q

What is an antibiotic

A

They are substances that either kill bacteria or inhibit their cell processes, which stops them growing or reproducing

They don’t have this effect on human cells

Makes them useful for killing bacterial infections that the immune system cannot control

122
Q

What is antibiotic resistance

A

Many kinds of antibiotic have developed to work in different ways which is important Becuase all types of bacteria have different structures and they do not all respond in the same way to a particular antibiotic

Many kind of bacteria are evolving resistance so they are no longer harmed by the antibiotic

123
Q

What is the first test of developing a new medicine

A

Pre-clinical when it’s tested on cells or tissues in a lab

It shows if the medicine can get into the cells and have the required effect

Checks for side effects - causing unintended changes that may be harmful

Testing tries to make sure the harmful side effects are limited

124
Q

What’s the second stage of testing a medicine

A

Testing may then be tested on animals to see how it works on a whole body without risking humans

125
Q

What’s the third stage to testing a medicine

A

A small clinical trial on a small number of healthy people to check it’s safe and the side effects are small

126
Q

What’s the last stage to testing a new antibiotic

A

A large clinical trial on many people who have the disease that the medicine will be used to treat

It works out the dose (correct amount to give) and checks for different side effects in different people

Only if a medicine passes all the tests can a doctor prescribe it for treating patients

127
Q

How do pregnancy tests work

A

Detect a Hormone only produced in pregnancy so monoclonal antibodies match and stick to any kind of protein eg hormones or enzymes and

128
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies

A

They are identical antibodies

129
Q

When can a lymphocyte not divide anymore

A

Once it starts to produce the monoclonal antibodies

130
Q

How do you get around the problem of lymphocytes not being able to divide once making antibodies

A

You make hybridoma cells

131
Q

How are hybridoma cells made

A

Fusing a lymphocyte that produces right kind of antibodies with a cancer cell that divides rapidly

132
Q

Tell me the stages to making a hybridoma cell

A

A particular antigen is injected into a mouse, it produces the lymphocytes that make antibodies against the human hormone

A cancer cell is fused with lymphocyte from mouse

The hybridoma cell can both divide and make antibodies against the human hormone - these are monoclonal antibodies

133
Q

What things can the antibodies stick to

A

Hormones enzymes,

Specific cells eg cancer cells or platelets

134
Q

How can monoclonal antibodies be used for medical diagnosis

A

Often done by making antibodies slightly radioactive so when they attach to cancer cell the radioactivity can be detected using A PET scanner and so cancer position can be found

Many people with cancer are given drugs (chemotherapy) or ionising radiation (radiotherapy) to kill cancer cells

Cancer cells can be found and so the drug can be delivered to the right places just to the cancer cells that need jt to reduce the amount of drugs needed and reduces the risk of damaging healthy cells

Biology (12 decks)

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