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USSR > RUSSIA Social Developments PART 2 > Flashcards

RUSSIA Social Developments PART 2 Flashcards

1
Q

When did a new marriage law give equal status to registered and unregistered marriages?

A

1927

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2
Q

By when was Russia’s divorce rate the highest in Europe?

A

Mid-1920s

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3
Q

When was the Family Code revised to make divorce even easier, leading to so-called ‘postcard divorces’?

A

1926

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4
Q

By 1926, how many marriages in Moscow ended in divorce?

A

50%

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5
Q

How did abortions outnumber live births in Moscow?

A

3:1

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6
Q

When did the government become so concerned about the detrimental effects of family breakdowns, that measures were introduced to raise the status of marriage?

A

Mid-1930s

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7
Q

When was Stalin’s ‘Great Retreat’?

A

1936

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8
Q

Great Retreat

A

Stalin issued a series of more conservative laws

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9
Q

How was divorce made more expensive as a result of the Great Retreat?

A

Increased from 4 roubles to 50

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10
Q

What was declared illegal as part of the Great Retreat?

A

Male homosexuality

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11
Q

What was outlawed as part of the Great Retreat?

A

Abortion

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12
Q

How was the status of pregnant women increased during the Great Retreat?

A

Pregnant women were guaranteed job security and the right to be given lighter work; maternity leave was extended to 16 weeks

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13
Q

Which marriages lost their legal status as part of the Great Retreat?

A

Free marriages

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14
Q

As part of the Great Retreat, what reappeared in shops after being branded as ‘bourgeois’?

A

Gold wedding rings

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15
Q

How did the number of nursery places change between 1928-30?

A

Doubled and continued to grow during the 2FYP

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16
Q

When did further strengthening of the family take place?

A

July 1944

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17
Q

During the Great Retreat, what was was the concept of family suggested to be?

A

Necessary unit of socialist society

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18
Q

How was the family unit strengthened in July 1944?

A

‘Mother-heroine’ awards; tax on single people; divorce made more complicated

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19
Q

What was much of the social stability of the Khrushchev years underpinned by?

A

Government’s promotion of the family as a social unit

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20
Q

How much of the workforce did women make up by 1960?

A

49%

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21
Q

Which family members sometimes took up domestic duties as a result of wives being in full-time employment?

A

Babushki

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22
Q

When was abortion legalised again?

A

1955

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23
Q

When did the government reinforce traditional values with the a new Family Code?

A

1968

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24
Q

In the 1970s, what put extra pressure on economically productive family members?

A

Declining rate of population growth- by 1982, growth had fallen to just 0.8%

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25
Q

Where were the birth rates higher?

A

Central Asian republics

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26
Q

How many children did the average family have in 1970?

A

2.4- a drop from 2.9 in 1959

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27
Q

What did the Party leadership discuss the for inclusion in the 1981 Party Programme?

A

Use of ‘birth incentives’

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28
Q

What continued to put strain on family relationships in the 1970s?

A

Shortage of adequate housing

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29
Q

How much alcohol was the average Soviet consuming by 1982?

A

18 litres of spirits per year

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30
Q

What did the Family Code of 1968 require?

A

Couples to give 1 month’s notice before a wedding

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31
Q

What was the problem of technical schools aimed at the children of the middle class pre-communism?

A

Small in number; confined to the larger cities

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32
Q

What provided many primary schools before communism?

A

Russian Orthodox Church

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33
Q

In Tsarist Russia, how many children in rural areas failed to complete primary education?

A

88%

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34
Q

Who was control of education given to in 1917?

A

Commissariat of Education (Narkompros)

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35
Q

When did church schools get taken over by the state and education at primary and secondary become based on a comprehensive model?

A

1918

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36
Q

When was the campaign for the ‘liquidation of illiteracy’?

A

1919

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37
Q

When was the Quota system for higher education abolished?

A

1935

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38
Q

How many schools were destroyed by WW2?

A

82,000

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39
Q

When did the Cultural Revolution lead to chaos in many schools?

A

1931-32

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40
Q

When were Khrushchev’s education reforms put in place, with emphasis placed on technical and vocational education?

A

1958

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41
Q

When were Khrushchev’s educational reforms dropped?

A

1964

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42
Q

What was the educational campaign launched in 1917 by the Bolsheviks?

A

Ambitious programme to provide free, universal and compulsory education for all children aged 7-17; simultaneous expansion in higher education

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43
Q

Why did the aim of universal compulsory education not materialise during Lunachevsky’s lifetime?

A

Lack of resources caused by the civil war of 1918-21; shortages left students with pieces of coal to write with

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44
Q

When was the goal of providing universal compulsory education largely achieved?

A

During the 1930s; particularly in urban areas

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45
Q

How did the number of students change between 1929-31?

A

Increased from 14 million in 1929 to over 20 million in 1931

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46
Q

When was the basic pattern of Soviet schooling established?

A

1934

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47
Q

When did the cost of school transport have to be funded by parents until?

A

1965

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48
Q

When had low fees been introduced for the last years of secondary education?

A

1940

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49
Q

When were school fees withdrawn?

A

1956

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50
Q

When did the government feel more confident to move ahead with further education expansion?

A

1951

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51
Q

What did the 5FYP set a target of for education?

A

Implementing a ten-year compulsory education for urban schools by 1955 and rural schools by 1960

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52
Q

What were the results of the over-optimistic plans for education as part of the 5FYP?

A

After 1958, schools delivered an 8 year programme of compulsory education (ages 7-15)

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53
Q

How did Khrushchev implement a programme of affirmative action to improve education for those in rural areas?

A

Reserved college places for those who had two years work experience on collectives

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54
Q

What was the Rabfak?

A

Schools set up after the Bolshevik Revolution to teach basic literacy and numeracy to drop outs

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55
Q

Which leader was a former rabfak student himself?

A

Khrushchev

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56
Q

After 1917, what did Narkompros declare about universities?

A

They should be open to all

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57
Q

What did the government appoint to each university to ensure equality of access to higher education?

A

A Communist rector

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58
Q

Which two branches did Soviet education consist of?

A

Universities that delivered academic and theoretical courses and specialist institutes; colleges of higher education

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59
Q

When did the government introduce a quota system for universities, whereby 70% of places had to be allocated to those of working class origin?

A

1929

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60
Q

What figure of drop-outs did the quota system for working-class students cause?

A

70%

61
Q

How many people were studying in higher education on a part-time basis in 1964?

A

1/2 million

62
Q

How many Soviet citizens were involved in some form of education by the 1980s?

A

1/3

63
Q

In the last few years of the Tsarist reign, what was the illiteracy rate?

A

65%

64
Q

What was the ‘liquidation of illiteracy’?

A

Initial aim was to make all Soviet citizens 8-50 literate

65
Q

How many people completed basic literacy courses at the ‘liquidation points’ set up in towns in rural areas?

A

5 million between 1920-26

66
Q

Where were rabfaki usually located?

A

Factories

67
Q

What did all soldiers recruited into the Red Army have to do as part of their service?

A

Attend literacy classes

68
Q

What was established to promote literacy?

A

A literacy league complete with its own magazine

69
Q

How many of the illiterate population in 1917 were women?

A

14/17 million

70
Q

Who provided literacy courses for women?

A

Zhenotdel

71
Q

What were literacy rates by 1939?

A

94% for the urban population; 86% for the countryside

72
Q

What had literacy figures improved to by 1959?

A

99% for the urban population; 98% for the countryside

73
Q

As part of the Great Retreat, what was a symbolic move which emphasised tradition in education?

A

Compulsory pigtails for schoolgirls were required

74
Q

What was the curriculum based on from Stalin’s ‘Great Retreat’ of 1936 onward?

A

Traditional subjects

75
Q

How many foreign languages were usually offered in schools post-1936?

A

One- English being the most popular

76
Q

What was the element of curriculum that was most obviously indoctrination?

A

Study of Marxist-Leninist Theory

77
Q

When was the only time that boys and girls were split up in Russian education?

A

During WW2

78
Q

By when was the system of Soviet education well established?

A

1950s

79
Q

How did the number of Komsomol members grow between 1929-40?

A

From 2.3 million in 1929 to 10.2 million in 1940

80
Q

By the 1980s, what were activists of Komsomol expected to do?

A

Support community schemes

81
Q

How many Komsomol members were there by 1982?

A

Over 40 million

82
Q

How many Soviet scientists were awarded Nobel prizes for science?

A

8

83
Q

Why did social policy become more important after the death of Stalin?

A

Reduction in the use of terror

84
Q

Why was the Communist regime slow to achieve social and material benefits for the population?

A

Chaos of the early years of Bolshevik rule

85
Q

What did Stalin’s push to industrialise do for the labour market?

A

Produced full employment and labour shortages

86
Q

Who arranged jobs and distributed pay within arteli?

A

Older members

87
Q

What were the ‘shock brigades’?

A

Made up of enthusiastic young communists who worked on construction projects from 1929

88
Q

What did the government think about arteli?

A

Backward feature of the organisation of the economy

89
Q

Why could the skilled workers demand higher wages under the NEP?

A

Relative shortage of skilled workers; much in demand as the economy recovered from civil war

90
Q

Why did full employment lead to divisions in the workplace?

A

Old industrial workers were swamped by new peasant recruits

91
Q

How did full employment under Stalin affect the trade unions?

A

No longer allowed to negotiate with managers to improve conditions

92
Q

What did managers use to meet production targets?

A

Uninterrupted hours

93
Q

Why did the government introduce a passport system?

A

Workers constantly changed their occupation in search of better employment

94
Q

What was introduced alongside the internal passport system to keep workers where they were needed?

A

Food rations were distributed through the workplace

95
Q

What was introduced to reward workers alongside increased wage differences between them and unskilled workers?

A

Better rations and bonuses

96
Q

Why were higher wages only a small incentive?

A

There was so little in the shops to buy

97
Q

Who often formed the ‘shock brigades’?

A

Komsomol enthusiasts

98
Q

When did many new Russian cities emerge?

A

During the industrial development of the 1930s

99
Q

What does the cramped housing and lack of privacy in Soviet Russia help to explain the popularity of?

A

Communist youth groups

100
Q

What was the maximum most families spent on accommodation?

A

8% of income

101
Q

When did the conditions of Soviet housing improve marginally?

A

1930s

102
Q

What were canteens instructed to keep to ensure a supply of meat for the workforce during the difficult years of the 1930s?

A

Rabbits

103
Q

What proves that sanitation was taken seriously in Soviet Russia?

A

Sanitary inspectors were given the status of doctors

104
Q

How high did labour turnover remain under Khrushchev?

A

30% a year

105
Q

What did the internal passports provide the rural population with?

A

Hope of mobility and betterment

106
Q

Why had Khrushchev offered many of his workers promotions which forced them to move?

A

To keep officials fresh and encourage innovation

107
Q

What did do you have to show to advance professionally under Brezhnev’s leadership?

A

Loyalty to the system

108
Q

What became one of the most useful vehicles for gaining social status in Soviet society?

A

Education

109
Q

Why did education play a key role in perpetuating a Soviet elite?

A

Schools in large urban areas attracted better teachers, especially in residential areas occupied by the elite

110
Q

What was housing like under Khrushchev?

A

Drab; uniform; poorly finished

111
Q

What was the problem with Soviet healthcare pre-1950?

A

Quality of provision

112
Q

What proved the Soviet government’s fear of social instability?

A

Its nervous reaction to developments in its satellite states

113
Q

What were the 1980 Polish protests about?

A

Food prices

114
Q

Why did the Free Trade Union Association come to nothing?

A

Gained little open support

115
Q

Why did the rise in the divorce rate do little to help women support children?

A

Few received financial support from the children’s fathers

116
Q

Why was the long-term impact of the civil war or women limited?

A

Lost their jobs when men returned post-war; traditional attitudes persisted; famine of 1921-22

117
Q

When had the government chosen to take a softer, more gradual approach to changing the Muslim population’s attitude to women?

A

By the 1930s

118
Q

What reflected the lower status attached to agriculture over industry?

A

Low wages of agricultural work; life in countryside meant fewer services

119
Q

How did WW2 affect the lives of rural women?

A

Women provided the bulk of the agricultural workforce

120
Q

What skilled jobs did women begin to make up a large proportion of the workforce in?

A

Expanding areas of healthcare and education- low wages and top levels still dominated by men

121
Q

When did a more privileged group of urban woman emerge?

A

1930s

122
Q

What made career progression difficult for women?

A

Double burden

123
Q

When was the Politburo known as the Presidium?

A

1952-66

124
Q

When did Ekaterina Furtseva’s career decline?

A

After Khrushchev was dismissed in 1964

125
Q

When did Yuri Gagarin become the first man in space?

A

1961

126
Q

What did the high abortion rate in the cities reflect?

A

Short supply of contraceptives

127
Q

How long were the prison sentences for fathers who did not pay towards the upkeep of the kids?

A

2 years

128
Q

How many children did you have to have to be considered a ‘mother-heroine’?

A

10 or more

129
Q

What helped to reduce the cost for the government of supporting the old and sick?

A

Soviet society had great respect for the elderly

130
Q

How had the Khrushchev years lessened the strain placed on the family?

A

Increased provision of social benefits

131
Q

What was different about Brezhev’s social policy from Khrushchev’s?

A

Government’s growing awareness of social problems that weakened the family and subsequent attempts to address them

132
Q

What were the restrictions placed on divorce in the Brezhnev years?

A

Illegal to divorce a pregnant woman or within a year of the birth of a child

133
Q

What is often seen as one of the great successes of Soviet social policy?

A

Education

134
Q

Who headed the Commissariat of Education in 1917?

A

Anatoly Lunachevsky

135
Q

How long had the average child attended school for in 1926?

A

2.77 years

136
Q

How did education change during the 1930s?

A

Extended to children of ‘alien social elements’

137
Q

Why did the standard of teaching rise in rural areas in the 1930s?

A

Schools benefited from the large numbers of teachers deported to isolated areas during the Great Terror

138
Q

How did state spending on schools change under the NEP?

A

Declined

139
Q

What were the key obstacles to the expansion of education?

A

Lack of resources; low wages of teachers; underfunded school transport; tuition fees

140
Q

What concerned Khrushchev about education?

A

Different levels experienced by rural children compared with those in towns

141
Q

What did many people from ethnic minorities view education as a vehicle for?

A

Russification

142
Q

How many people were attending courses that allowed them to return to education after dropping out by 1964?

A

Over 2 million

143
Q

What was the enormous expansion of higher education helped by?

A

Provision of free education; system of grants to support students’ living costs

144
Q

When had literacy rates improved markedly?

A

1939

145
Q

Why did the government believe that education was so important?

A

Instill socialist values; vehicle to attack traditional beliefs and practices; Russification; technical skills and expertise for modern economy

146
Q

When did government revert back to a policy of co-educational schools?

A

1954

147
Q

How did early radicalism affect education?

A

Children would study themes rather than traditional subjects; tests abolished; corporal punishment forbidden

148
Q

What are examples of themes that children would study in school in the early radicalism of education?

A

Farming; nature

149
Q

Which youth group did most Russian children join?

A

Pioneers

USSR (25 decks)

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