BRITAIN Radical Reformers Flashcards
When was the French Revolution?
1789-99
When were the Napoleonic Wars?
1793-1815
When were the September Massacres?
1792
When was Louis XVI executed?
1793
What had contributed to a growing interest in political affairs among working people, especially the skilled working class?
Success of the American Revolution; early events of the French Revolution
Society for Constitutional Information (SCI)
An organisation that promoted social and political reform; mostly middle-class industrialist members who weren’t prepared to get involved in radical activity
When was SCI formed?
1780
Who formed SCI?
Major John Cartwright
When did support for the SCI begin to fall?
1783
Why did support for the SCI fall?
Its members joined other organisations
When did the SCI cease to exist?
After 1795
When were a number of corresponding societies established in London and provincial towns?
Early 1790s
Who did the new corresponding societies draw their membership from?
Growing ranks of skilled working classes
When was the LCS founded?
1792
Who founded the LCS?
Thomas Hardy
London Corresponding Society (LCS)
Promoted twin causes of universal suffrage and annual parliaments; worked to promote political education of its members by publishing pamphlets
Who was the LCS supported by?
Skilled craftsmen in London
Why did the organisation of the LCS mark a new departure for radical groups?
Never tried to limit its membership to any particular class and charged a very low subscription fee; kept its local associations deliberately small
When was the activity in France at its most extreme?
1791-93
What was established in response to the LCS and other radical organisations?
Loyalist societies
Where was association membership drawn from?
Almost exclusively from the middle classes
How did the government support the Association movement?
Used loyalist press to promote patriotic propaganda; gave secret help to associations; took action against reformers
When was the Spa Fields meeting?
1816
What had effectively silenced British radicalism in the early years of the 19th century?
Government’s determination; growth of national feeling during the Napoleonic War
From when did Lord Liverpool’s government face a number of challenges to its authority?
1815
When did reform meetings in London prove uncontroversial?
Early months of 1816
Who was unhappy with the moderate stance being taken in the early months of 1816?
Followers of Thomas Spence
What did the followers of Thomas Spence plan in 1816?
Mass meeting in East London, which they hoped would lead to violent rioting and disorder
Who was invited to address a meeting in Spa Fields in November?
Henry Hunt
How many people gathered at the Spa Field meeting in November?
10,000- largest gathering seen in London since the anti-Catholic Gordon riots of 1780
What was the aim of the Spa Fields meeting in November?
Hunt was asked to present a petition to the Prince Regent, urging him to reform Parliament
What did Hunt champion in his November Spa Fields speech?
Moral force behind the petition, but came dangerously close to suggesting the use of physical force if the petitioners’ demands were not met
Why was a second Spa Fields meeting called in December?
Hunt was not received by the Prince Regent
When was the second Spa Fields meeting called?
2 December 1816
Who was Hunt pre-empted by at the second Spa Fields meeting?
Spenceans, who stirred up sections of the crowd and urged them to take a course of direct action
What happened at Spa Fields as a result of the Spenceans’ actions?
Number of people left the meeting; looted a number of gunsmiths; set off to seize the Tower of London/Royal Exchange
Why weren’t the Spa Fields rioters successful?
Quick action of Lord Mayor of London and his force of constables dispersed them and arrested their leader
When was the trial of the ringleaders of the Spa Fields affair?
1817
What did the trial of the Spa Fields ringleaders reveal?
Role of government informers and spies in the affair
What was the government informer who encouraged the Spa Fields riots called?
Castle
What happened to those who had been put on trial as a result of the Spa Fields affair?
Acquitted
What condemned the Spa Fields riot without reservation?
‘Leeds Mercury’, a strong supporter of the radicals
When was the Pentridge Rising?
1817
What had Liverpool’s government established to combat radical activity?
Committee of Secrecy
When was the significance of the use of spies by the government highlighted?
Pentridge Rising
Who joined the Pentridge meetings?
A Londoner who called himself Oliver
When did a government informant join the Pentridge meetings?
May 1817
When did the government informant persuade the Pentridge radicals that there would be nationwide uprisings?
9 June
Who led the Pentridge radicals towards Nottingham?
Jeremiah Brandreth
How many Pentridge radicals marched towards Nottingham?
300
What happened to the Pentridge radicals as they tried to march?
Rebels were intercepted by a regiment of soldiers before they could reach the city; many fled but 80 were arrested
Who published a detailed investigation that exposed the government informant’s role in the Pentridge rising?
‘Leeds Mercury’
How were the Pentridge radicals punished?
14 men were transported and Brandreth, along with 2 others, was hanged and beheaded in public
When was Peterloo?
16 August 1819
Why were radical activities dampened down in 1818?
Actions taken by the government in 1816-7; some improvements in economy
When did Henry Hunt stand for election to parliament?
1818
Why was Henry Hunt defeated when he stood for parliament?
His advocacy of parliamentary reform was unpopular with electorate
When did the Political Register cease publication?
1817, after Cobbett fled to the USA
Where did Peterloo take place?
Saint Peter’s Fields in Manchester
Why did significant protest take place in Manchester in 1819?
City and its surrounding mill towns provided fertile ground for working-class radicalism to flourish; long tradition of trade unionism in the region
What exemplified the working-class activity in Manchester?
March of the Blanketeers in 1817- badly organised attempt by Manchester textile workers to publicise their grievances
What did the radical activity in Manchester fluctuate with?
Economic conditions
What gave rise to a sustained campaign of mass meetings and demands for parliamentary reform in Manchester?
Downturns in the textile industry in 1818
Who was invited to address the gathering at Peterloo?
Henry Hunt
How many people turned up for Peterloo?
80,000
What did several groups carry to Peterloo?
Banners calling for universal suffrage and annual parliaments
How many people were killed at Peterloo?
11
How many people were injured at Peterloo?
Over 500
Who had been called in to arrest Hunt at Peterloo?
Salford Yeomanry
What did Peterloo provoke?
Widespread national revulsion, leading to several outbreaks of sporadic rioting and further growth of political unions
When was the Battle of Waterloo?
1815
When were there isolated outbreaks of violence in Britain?
1820-21
Who relied on local magistrates to maintain order in towns and cities?
Pitt in the 1790s; Liverpool in the post-war years
What had been achieved in the first 30 years of radical activity and progress?
Much in terms of organisation and political education of the working class as a whole
When had popular radicalism been virtually stamped out?
1800
What were the two serious problems post-war radicalism faced?
Leadership; moral vs physical force
When was radicalism largely the preserve of the middle classes?
1790-99
Why did the reform climate change in 1810?
Radicals were better organised than before; ideas of reform were supported by people drawn from all social classes
Why did political agitation die down until 1830?
Economic difficulties of the post-war years were overcome
When did the role of the magistrates increase in importance?
From 1793, when Britain went to war against revolutionary France
When was there a royal proclamation against seditious writings?
1792
When did the LCS and SCI send delegates to a meeting in Edinburgh to agree on the calling of a national reform convention?
1793
When did the reform societies regroup and announce the calling of a national reform convention?
1794
What were the LCS and SCI members who were arrested charged with?
High treason
How many members did the LCS have in its height?
No more than 5,000
When did the trials of the LCS and SCI members take place?
End of 1794
What did the prosecution claim that the LCS was planning to support the charge of high treason?
Assassination of George III
What happened to the defendants who had been charged with high treason?
Acquitted
What had Pitt proposed in 1785?
Some limited measures of parliamentary reform
What had convinced Pitt to abandon all his proposals of reform?
Revolution; the French war
What did the events of 1794 show?
Just how seriously the government/Pitt took the threat of domestic unrest and opposition
What did William Cobbett write many pamphlets about?
Against the French wars
What did Cobbett establish?
‘Political Register’
When did Cobbett become increasingly radical in outlook?
1806
Why was Cobbett sentenced to two years imprisonment?
Seditious libel against the armed forces in 1810
When did Cobbett decide to reach a much wider audience?
1816
How did Cobbett make the ‘Political Register’ available to a much wider audience?
Issued a single sheet of the ‘Register’ for just two pence, which meant that the newspaper wouldn’t have to pay the high newspaper duty set by the government
How many copies of Cobbett’s two-penny register had been printed and circulated by 1817?
200,000
When was Cobbett the most influential radical journalist in Britain?
1800-20
When did Hunt begin to gain a reputation for his brilliant oratory skills?
1810
How had Hunt managed to establish himself as one of the most important leaders of British radicalism by 1815?
His many speeches opposing property taxes and the Corn Law of 1815
What made Hunt different to Cartwright and Cobbett?
Proposed universal suffrage at a mass meeting for the first time
What was Hunt charged with after Peterloo?
Promoting a seditious conspiracy; jailed for 2 1/2 years in 1820
What made Cobbett believe more strongly that the British electoral system was corrupt?
Stood for parliament in Honiton in 1806 and was not elected
When did Cobbett move to the USA?
1792
When did Cobbett return to England after his time in America?
1800
What was the circulation of the ‘Register’ by 1805?
4,000
Up until 1800, what did Hunt support?
Political and social outlook of men of his class- gave unqualified support to Pitt’s domestic and foreign policies
What changed Hunt’s political outlook?
Imprisoned 1799-1800 for defying the orders of the commander of his local militia; came into contact with radicals in prison
What had the French war done to Britain’s overseas trade?
Dislocated it, leading to rapidly rising unemployment in industrial towns
Why was 1795 a difficult year for the country?
Rapidly rising unemployment in industrial towns; poor harvests; inevitable rise in food prices
What did the government use as a pretext to take strong action in 1795?
Stones thrown at George III’s coach
What had persuaded ministers to amend the treason law in order to strengthen their powers against radicalism?
Failure of 1794 treason trials
Treason Act 1795
Made it an offence to kill, or even to harm, the king; anybody outside parliament who called for parliamentary reform could be charged with treason
What was the Treason Act 1795 accompanied by?
Seditious Meetings Act 1795
Seditious Meetings Act 1795
Restricted size of public meetings to 50 people, unless they were approved in advance by the magistrates
What do some historians see the 1790s as?
Decade of repression imposed by Pitt’s government, in alliance with the magistrates
What damaged radical activity throughout the years of the Napoleonic wars?
Development of patriotic feeling
When were the Gagging Acts?
1817
In the post-war years, up until when did Lord Liverpool’s government face a number of serious challenges to its authority?
1819
Why did the return of peace post-France not lead to immediate improvement in the country’s economy?
Poor harvests; after a brief post-war boom, economy fell into depression; rising unemployment
How many troops were demobilised after the wars in France?
300,000
Why did the government do little to alleviate the stress of the post-war years?
Laissez-faire belief that economy would revive in time, without need for government intervention
What did the radical activities of 1815-7 lead ministers to believe?
Existence of a broad national revolutionary conspiracy
What were the three measures Liverpool’s government passed designed to combat radical activity during 1817?
Treason Act 1795 made a permanent measure; habeas corpus suspended for all those suspected of treasonable activities; Seditious Meetings Act 1817
When was the Treason Act 1795 due to lapse?
On the death of George III
Seditious Meetings Act 1817
Justices of the Peace were given the power to attend any public meeting and disperse it if they considered it unlawful; societies with a secret oath were banned outright; all Spencean clubs were suppressed by name
How successful were the Gagging Acts 1817?
Succeeded in their aim of quelling unrest in the short term, especially in London
When did most of the terms of the Gagging Acts lapse?
1818
When did the government meet to consider Lord Sidmouth’s proposals to prevent similar events to Peterloo?
End of 1819
What was Lord Sidmouth’s role in 1919?
Home Secretary
When were the Six Acts?
1819
Six Acts 1819
Unlawful Drilling Act; Seizure of Arms Act; Misdemeanours Act; Seditious Meetings Prevention Act; Criminal Libel Act; Stamp Duties Act
Which element of the Six Acts was most strongly opposed by Whig opposition?
Seditious Meetings Prevention Act
When was the Seditious Meetings Prevention Act repealed?
1824
How effective were the Six Acts?
Had desired effect- calm was soon restored and there would not be another Peterloo; the crisis years of 1815-19 would not be repeated
Thomas Paine (1737-1809)
‘Declaration of the Rights of Man’ 1791-92- applauded changes taking place in France; rallied against unearned privilege and wealth; advocated sweeping reforms and universal manhood suffrage
Edmund Burke (1729-97)
‘Reflections on the Revolution in France’ 1790; not opposed to reform but appalled by violence in France; celebrated rule by monarchy and aristocracy
Why was Paine’s ‘Rights of Man’ part two so popular?
Written in an accessible style; sold cheaply
How many copies of ‘Rights of Man’ part two were sold in a year?
200,000
Why was Paine’s writing so important?
Political debate was no longer limited to the landed classes
Who did many people see the Seditious Writings Act 1792 as an attack on?
Thomas Paine
Who published ‘A Vindication of the Rights of Man’ 1790 in response to Edmund Burke?
Mary Wollstonecraft
When was the Hampden Club formed in London?
1812
Who were the Hampden Clubs named after?
John Hampden, one of the leading opponents of Charles I in the English Civil War
Why was the London Hampden Club so exclusive?
High annual subscription of 2 guineas
When did Cartwright tour the industrial districts of the north and the Midlands?
After 1812
When did Cartwright encourage the creation of regional Hampden Clubs?
1816
Who founded the Hampden Clubs?
Major John Cartwright
How were the regional Hampden clubs different from the London one?
Membership was open to all who could pay a weekly subscription of one penny; frequent meetings took place
What did the Hampden Clubs effectively replace?
LCS
When was LCS disbanded?
1794
When was LCS formally outlawed by the government?
1799
Why did Cartwright encourage the creation of regional Hampden Clubs?
Saw firsthand the widespread poverty and poor living conditions that existed in the cotton towns
What did the rapid growth in the popularity of the regional Hampden Clubs persuade Cartwright and the others to do?
Invite local delegates to a plenary meeting in London in 1817 to settle matters of policy
What did delegates at the Hampden Club plenary meeting decide on?
Universal suffrage; annual parliaments; approved a broad policy of petitioning parliament
From when were the Hampden Clubs unable to act effectively?
1817
Why were the Hampden Clubs no longer able to act effectively?
Magistrates arrested club members, charging them with attending seditious meetings- local leaders were arrested in 1817 and sent to prison in London, only to be released without charge a few months later
