rural to urban migration

Question 1

rural to urban migration in developing countries

Answer 1

• is the most significant population movement occurring globally
• within a few years, there will be 1 billion rural-urban migrants living in the world’s towns and cities
• global urbanisation keeps rising and developed countries are now around 75% urbanised LICs around 45%

Question 2

push factors for rural to urban migration

Answer 2

• land grabbing: large multinationals buy cheap land in LICs, often through dishonest means and evict vulnerable people from their homes to make room for activities such as cash cropping and other agribusiness
• modernisation of farming practices: with the growth of MNCs, such as Monsanto and Cargill, and the introduction of mechanised farming, fewer workers are required on farms and subsistence farmers/cattle herders are being priced out of both local and international markets
• population growth: which means the same area of land has to support an increasing number of people
• high levels of local disease and inadequate medical provision
• natural disasters, such as floods, tropical storms and earthquakes
• wars and civil strife

Question 3

pull factors for rural to urban migration

Answer 3

• offshoring: MNCs moving parts of the supply chain to LICs and MICs has seen practices such as outsourcing (eg call centres in India), which require large numbers of workers who are paid considerably lower wages than the company’s country of origin
  -Bosch, Black and Decker and Hitachi have taken advantage of cheap Chinese labour for a number of years, further fuelling urbanisation and are now looking towards countries like Bangladesh and Vietnam as Chinese wages increase
• employment in factories and service industries
• earning money from the informal sector, selling goods on the street, providing transport or prostitution
• more job opportunities and more variety of jobs
• better social provision, eg education and healthcare
• perceived improved quality of life

Question 4

export processing zones (EPZs)

Answer 4

• according to the world bank an export processing zone is an industrial estate, usually a fenced in area of 10 to 300 hectares, that specialises in manufacturing for export
• EPZs are industrial areas specially set up by governments to attract foreign investment and to create employment
• incentives to companies choosing to operate within such zones include duty free imports of raw materials, flexibility of labour laws (including in some zones exemption from labour laws) and generous and in some cases long term tax concessions
• Asia’s three most populated countries (China, India, Indonesia) have all established special economic zones (SEZs) where export processing takes place
• costal SEZs were crucial to China’s early economic growth, many of the world’s largest MNCs were quick to establish offshore branch plants or build outsourcing relationships with Chinese owned factories in these low tax territories; by the 1990s, 50% of China’s GDP was being generated in SEZs
• the low tax export processing zone in Jakarta is one reason why so much rural-urban migration has been directed towards Indonesia’s capital city; it is a popular offshoring location for MNCs such as gap and levi’s

Question 5

the consequences of rural to urban migration

Answer 5

• ageing population structure: India is home to over 100 million people aged 60 and over, mostly residing in rural areas due to the mass youthful out migration
• falling economic productivity: due to the youthful out migration, many rural areas have been left with an ageing workforce, this threatens agricultural production and can lead to issues of food security

Question 6

urban problems

Answer 6

• growth in the number of megacities, there are 30
• the sheer number of residents in these LIC and MIC cities is more than the authorities can provide for in terms of housing, education and infrastructure (eg San Paulo, Brazil)
• homogenisation of the landscape as cities spread outwards
• urban sprawl increases air pollution, loss of farmland, decrease in water quality
• shortage of affordable housing in higher income cities, which leads to slum settlements
• unemployment and underemployment
• transport issues

Question 7

Santacruz electronics export zone (SEEPZ)

Answer 7

• in Mumbai, India
• 400 units
• mostly look the same
• predominantly electronic hardware manufacturing companies, software companies and jewellery exports
• more than 40% of India’s total jewellery exports came from here

Question 8

madras export processing zone (MEPZ)

Answer 8

• the zone employs over 26,000 people of which 20,000 work in manufacturing
• as of 2008, software exports from the zone averaged 300 to 350 million rupees per month (£3-4million)
• in Chennai, India

Question 9

what is causing rural-urban migration - push in rural

Answer 9

• poverty
• farming work is labour intensive
• lack of basic services and education
• people can be displaced as a result of land grabs
• reduced need for farmers due to mechanisation

Question 10

what is causing rural-urban migration - pull in urban

Answer 10

• MNCs have moved factories and offices abroad for cheaper labour costs (offshoring)
• MNCs outsource production, eg nike footwear production in Thailand, South Korea, Vietnam and India
• jobs for companies such as IBM and Microsoft are more attractive than farming
• EPZs have led to greater investment in areas making them more desirable
• EPZs provide jobs for unmarried, poorly educated women

Question 11

consequences of rural-urban migration for rural areas

Answer 11

• young, economically active and ambitious, especially men, are most likely to migrate
• elderly people who remain may be the least able to the physical agricultural work, for example 70% of India’s population over 60 are rural dwellers (would lead to food insecurity, thus leading to economic insecurity, inflation of prices of basic necessities)
• the most educated often leave, so rural areas become less likely to be introduced to new, innovative ideas (brain drain, creates a cycle which limits development in in certain areas, confining them to certain employment sectors)
• changes in the workforce make rural areas less productive, making the areas more vulnerable to land grabs
• migrants can send remittances back to family members in rural areas, which support the population

Question 12

solutions for rural areas

Answer 12

• countries investing in agriculture to make it a more attractive occupation, for example investment in the production of cocoa in Ghana led to the return of 2 million Ghanaians (provides jobs with skills the locals already possess)
• investing in rural areas so people are less likely to leave
• improving services such as healthcare and education, for example free healthcare and housing improvements reduced migration in Sri Lanka
• improving infrastructure, such as water supply and sanitation, as well as transport links to aid the transport of agricultural produce to market or processing factories
• some policies have unforeseen consequences; the attempt to develop more rural industries in India increased migration, as rural dwellers found the new skills they had attained were in demand in cities where they could earn more money

Question 13

consequences of rural-urban migration for urban areas

Answer 13

• rural-urban migration results in the rapid growth of cities and an increase in the number of megacities with a population of over 10 million (Lagos, Nigeria)
• it is estimated that 3 million move to cities globally every week, a large proportion of them are from rural areas
• as well as larger populations cities also increase in size, which can add to problems of congestion and air pollution (eg Nairobi, Kenya)
• a lack of suitable housing and the inability to meet the demand for housing in cities lead to the growth of squatter settlements
• jobs available to migrants in EPZZs are often poorly paid
• the cost of installing infracstructure in settled areas can be 9 times higher than installing it before development
• slum areas become important to the economy, eg Dharavi in Mumbai has over 7,000 businesses and 15,000 single room factories, with a turnover equivalent to £700 million a year

Question 14

top down development strategies

Answer 14

government funded and led, aimed to benefit the whole country

Question 15

bottom up development strategies

Answer 15

NGOs working with local people to better suit their needs

Question 16

solutions for urban areas

Answer 16

• managing rapid urban growth in developing megacities can involve top down methods, where authorities plan and provide for the growing population, eg the construction of housing developments and new cities in China
• this makes the country less dependant on the aid of other countries
• bottom up models involve people working together to make their own improvements; the organisation practical action supports community led schemes in squatter settlements around the world to improve water supply, waste disposal and sanitation (tends to be quicker)
• management methods may be a combination of top down and bottom up schemes; eg in Rochina, Rio de Janeiro the authorities supported bottom up schemes by providing residents with materials for building permanent accommodation; the money saved on labour allowed top down plans to provide services such as water, electricity, schools and health centres and now the area is home to many businesses

Question 17

rural to urban migration in Kolkata, India

Answer 17

• in 2007-08, the migration rate to Kolkata was 30.9%
• large population growth in rural areas puts more pressure on the environment
• wages in Kolkata are approximately six times that of rural areas
• sub division of land passed on makes a subsistence life more difficult and reduces the assets against which a rural inhabitant could get a loan
• increased mechanisation of agriculture to feed growing population means greater rural unemployment
• a large number of migrants are a consequence of natural disasters such as those faced annually in the monsoon season
• Indian cities receive approximately 6 times the investment of their rural counterparts
• women often chose to move for better medical and healthcare, infant mortality is lower in Indian cities than rural areas (2.6% in 2010)
• men often move for education purposes (4.5%)
• the Harris and Todaro model says that creating job opportunities in urban areas can actually lead to an increase in unemployment by attracting more migrants than the new jobs
• many MNCs are trying to attract jobs for IT industry and creating employment opportunities, leading to an increase of migrants coming to Kolkata
• in the 2001 census other reasons for migration included terrorism, displacement dur to building of infrastructure and flooding
• women move to marry (53.5% in 2010)

Question 18

consequences for Kolkata

Answer 18

• a chance to escape the rigid caste system that is still very strong in rural areas
• higher rates of infant mortality than towns
• half a million people living on the street
• increased air pollution as the pressures of population create a need for more industry, people also need to use charcoal and wood for cooking
• the old water system can’t cope, leaking pipes allow contamination to enter the water supply, in monsoon season it is particularly bad because sewage infects the water
• increased traffic causes greater air pollution problems, 60% of the population suffer from breathing problems
• busters have to occupy the least desirable land, this often prone to flooding particularly during monsoon season but is also likely to be located near industry which experience toxic chemical discharge
• alternatively, the development could be on steep slopes, increasing the chance of landslides
• as migrants are unable to find work, it widens the gap between the rich and the poor in the city which can lead to social disorder, severe class conflict, crime and widespread violence

Question 19

consequences for the area they leave
(to go to Kolkata)

Answer 19

• if the migrant finds work in the city, then it is likely that the village they left behind will benefit form remittances
• as the pressures of urbanisation increase so government expenditure on urban areas must increase, this leaves rural areas facing a more difficult situation as lack of investment on health and welfare will have negative effects on those left behind