consequences of migration

Question 1

changes in the host country

Answer 1

• these large scale migrants also lead to significant cultural change in the host country, such as increased diversity of religious ideas
• eg, the british Indian Sikh community is now the largest Sikh community outside India
• gurdwara temples can be found in Cardiff and other major cities
• an exchange of ideas can also be seen in the impact young British asians have had on popular culture: london’s jay sean (who’s real name is kamaljiey singh shooti) has brought elements of south Asian music into British mainstream

Question 2

high skilled workers

Answer 2

• the movement of smaller numbers of high skilled workers and high wealth individuals also has a significant effect for both source and host countries
• the variety of these elite-migrants (highly skilled and/or socially influential individuals) include: property developers, musicians, academics, computer programmers, health professionals and bankers
• their wealth derives from their profession or inherited assets
• some elite migrants live as ‘global citizens’ and have multiple homes in different countries
• most governments welcome highly skilled and extremely wealthy migrants
• skilled IT professionals from the USA, India and elsewhere work in the UK’s quaternary industry clusters in cities such as Bristol, London and Cambridge

Question 3

migration flows that lead to interdependence

Answer 3

Russian migrant millionaires buying properties in London:
- during the early 2000s, Russian investment in London’s housing market helped push up property prices in fashionable districts such as Kensington
- property developers became very reliant on Russian money while homeowners throughout London enjoyed seeing their own house values increase
- in turn, London provided Russian oligarchs with a secure place to invest their cash
- thus, certain elements of UK and Russian society became economically interdependent

Question 4

consequences of global movement

Answer 4

• fewer workers paying tax is an economic cost for the government of the source country (taxes fund the public sectors, eg health and education)
• increased pressure on schools brings a social cost for communities in the host country
• more people buying goods in shops is an economic benefit for the host country
• increased traffic congestion is an environmental cost for cities in the host country
• higher wages for workers due to undersupply of labour may be an economic benefit for communities in the source countries
• closing schools due to falling numbers is a social cost or communities in the source country (education allows for sustainable development)
• the introduction of rules to limit further immigration is a political change affecting the host country
• rising property prices due to high demand is an economic cost for home buyers in the host country (fosters a social divide and its a problem that takes a long time to fix)
• lower carbon emissions due to fewer people using local transport services is an environmental benefit for the government of the source country

Question 5

remittances

Answer 5

• around US$500 billion of remittances are currently sent home by migrants annually, this is 3-4 times the value of overseas development aid
• 1in 9 people globally rely on remittance money to survive
• migrants send on average 15% of what they earn as a remittance
• around half the money goes to rural areas, where it is needed the most
• the UN estimates that remittances are 3x more important than international aid
• US$68.968 billion was sent to India in remittances in 2017

Question 6

positive effects (reducing inequality and promoting growth) for the host regions

Answer 6

• fill particular skill shortages (eg Indian doctors arriving in the UK in the 1950s)
• economic migrants willingly do labouring work that locals may be reluctant to (eg Romanian fruit pickers on UK farms)
• working migrants spend their wages on rent, benefiting landlords and pay tax on legal earnings
• some migrants are ambitious entrepreneurs who establish new businesses employing others (in 2013, 14% of UK start up businesses were migrant owned)

Question 7

negative effects (exacerbating inequality and promoting tension) for the host regions

Answer 7

• social tensions arise if citizens of the host country believe migration has led to a lack of jobs or affordable housing (a view adopted by some UK newspapers)
• local shortages of primary school places due to natural increase among a young migrant community (eg London boroughs that have become eastern European migration hotspots) and this places financial burden on local authorities
• employers may favour using migrants instead of native workers and working class communities may suffer unemployment as a result

Question 7

positive effects for the source regions

Answer 7

• in time, migrants or their children may return, bringing new skills (young British Asians have relocated back to India to start health clubs and restaurant chains)
• in Bangladesh, the value of remittances exceeds foreign investment; unlike international aid and lending, remittances are peer to peer finance flow: money travels more or less directly from one family member to another; the money helps the social development of communities that have previously been excluded financially from access to education and healthcare

Question 8

negatives effects for the source regions

Answer 8

• the economic loss of a generation of human resources, schooled at government expense, including key workers such as teachers and computer programmers (Poland has lost young people every year since the 1960s)
• the increased proportion of aged dependants creates a long term economic challenge
• there is reduced economic growth as consumption falls (especially urban services and entertainment for as young adult market: many nightclubs closed in Warsaw in 2004 when Poland joined the EU)

Question 9

how migration can foster economic and social interdependency

Answer 9

• remittances sent home to a source country generate as much as 40% of GDP for some poorer states (eg Tajikistan), this can help pay for education and health
  → can lead to (vice versa), its a cycle
• much needed migrant workers are often an essential part of some host country populations; they provide many vital economic and social services

(every country depends, to some extent on the economic health of others for its own continued wellbeing)

Question 10

how migration can foster increased political and environmental interdependency

Answer 10

• in time, a closer political partnership may develop between states that have become socio-economically interdependent, such as EU states
  → can lead to and vice versa, its a cycle
• this increases cooperation to tackle shared environmental threats, such as climate change; many European scientists have migrated to work in universities in other EU states

Question 11

Indian workers moving to the UAE
(how migration and remittance flows create economic interdependency)

Answer 11

• over 2 million Indian migrants live United Arab Emirates, making up 30% of the total population
• many live in Abu Dhabi and Dubai
• an estimated US$15 billion is returned to India annually as remittances
• most migrants work in transport, construction and manufacturing industries
• around 1/5 are professionals working in service industries

Question 12

Filipino workers moving to Saudi Arabia
(how migration and remittance flows create economic interdependency)

Answer 12

• around 1.5 million migrants from the Philippines have arrived on Saudi Arabia since 1973, when rising oil prices first began to bring enormous wealth to the country
• some work in construction and transport industries, others as doctors and nurses in Riyadh
• US$7 billion is returned to the Philippines annually as remittances
• reports of ill treatment of some migrants suggests there is a human cost to interdependency

Question 13

examples of interdependency

Answer 13

• when large scale migrant labour flows become focused on core or hub regions, a process called backwash is said to be taking place, which can drain peripheral places of young workers
• the Schengen agreement has accelerated the backwash at an international level
• many economists believes backwash works in everyone’s interest because it provides EU governments with greater tax revenues to pay for road building projects, payments for farmers and grants for new businesses
• core periphery theorist John Freidmann said that backwash is balanced out by the trickle down of wealth to every country
• critics argue that backwash migration ‘losses’ for peripheral states in eastern European are really far greater than any trickle down gains they may
• in reality, its hard to either accept or reject the hypothesis because of the sheer complexity of the economic and demographic processes involved

Question 14

benefits of interdependency

Answer 14

• can strengthen the friendship between states, reduces prospects for geopolitical conflict and deliver mutually shared growth and stability instead
• less conflict: the first steps towards the EU were taken shortly after the WW2 ended, European state governments believed that greater interdependency would end conflicts
• economics and politics working together: Friedman argued that economic and political interdependency are linked, in the golden arches theory of conflict prevention; two countries with McDonald’s restaurants would never wage war because their economies had become interlinked (the recent conflict between Russia and Ukraine has weakened this theory but it remains an idea worth exploring)
• states that are home to a large diaspora population often have strong geopolitical ties: with the diaspora’s country of origin (eg the arrival of a large Korean diaspora population in the USA has deepened the country’s friendship with South Korea)

Question 15

risks of interdependency

Answer 15

• the UK entered recession in 2009 during the Global Financial Crisis (GFC), many building projects were cancelled and the knock on effect was that many migrants working in construction industries lost their jobs and stopped sending remittances home
• as a result, Estonia’s economy shrank by 13%
• many citizens view interdependency as a threat to their nation’s sovereignty, for the EU, the recent renewal of nationalism is linked with a broader debate about ‘loss of sovereignty’
• a large proportion of citizens in each EU country would like to end the freedom of movement brought by the Schengen Agreement as they believe too much in-migration has been allowed to take place (ethnicity/race conflict)

Question 16

migration and economic inequalities

Answer 16

• the arrival of large numbers of low skilled workers in a country can result in sizable remittance flows directed towards the source country
• low waged international migrants are drawn towards global hubs in large numbers
• London, LA, Dubai and Riyadh are all home to large numbers of legal and illegal immigrants working for low pay in kitchens, on construction sites or as domestic cleaners
• migration flows can contribute to the increased interdependence of the countries which migrants are moving between

Question 17

migration policies of host countries

Answer 17

• host countries differ greatly in terms of how liberal their international migration rules are
• laws governing economic migration vary over time in line with changes in workforce needs
• the UK government adopted a broadly ‘open door’ approach to international migration in the 1950s and again during the early 2000s
• both decisions related in part to skills and labour shortages arising during those periods
• few countries have laws preventing the out movement of people because this contravenes in the UDHR, article 13 states that everyone has the right to leave a country, including his own, and to return to his country
• as a result, almost all states are in theory, potential source countries for unlimited out migration
• one notable exception to this rule is North Korea, whose government requires that its citizens obtain an exit visa before being allowed to leave
• in the past, citizens of the Soviet Union faced similar restrictions on their freedom of movement
• in Saudi Arabia and Qatar, some foreign migrants must apply for an exit visa before being allowed to go home

Question 18

rise in anti immigrant movements

Answer 18

• in some countries, anti globalisation political movements are increasingly popular with voters
• for many people, the growing rationale for retreating from globalisation is rooted in the valid concern that national cultural identity may be threatened
• migration creates political tensions because of differing perception of, and viewpoints on, the cultural changes it brings
• new political movements in the EU and USA share a common aim, which is to regain control of their borders
• there is a national philosophy that is relatively lacking in enthusiasm for multiculturalism and internationally minded politics

Question 19

brexit - examples of anti immigration movements

Answer 19

• when a majority of UK voters chose to leave the EU in a referendum on membership in 2016, immigration was the most important issues influencing how people voted
• of London’s 8 million residents, 30% were born in another country
• some Londoners judge the scale and rat of cultural change to have been too great
• in many other EU states, nationalist parties now command significant support
• in the UK, this is UKIP and in France it is the national front, which has the support of 45% of working class voters

Question 20

France (2015) - examples of anti immigration movements

Answer 20

• in France 2015, gunmen of Algerian descent killed staff of the satirical magazine Charlie Hebdo
• the magazine is well known for writing articles and creating cartoons mocking politics, the extreme right, culture and religion
• the murderers said their Islamic faith has been mocked
• extreme events such as these are still rare but demonstrate tensions in multicultural Europe that may ultimately threaten the survival of free movement of people

Question 21

overpopulation - examples of anti immigration movements

Answer 21

• some groups are more against overpopulation than against immigration, but sometimes overpopulation is caused by immigration
• some people think there is a certain size of land needed to provide for a population (environmental space), eg to provide for the population’s consumption, including absorption of waste products
• immigrants, in theory, reduce the per capita size of land of the native country
• some are concerned about urban sprawl and congestion, alterations in the wildlife and natural environment of the state and an expansive carbon footprint due to immigration
• furthermore, some are concerned over a state’s scare resources, dwindling water reserves (eg California), energy and quality of soils

Question 22

the USA

Answer 22

• the USA provides an example of how migration policies can change over time
• in the past, it was relatively easy for migrants to enter the country and gain US citizenship
• around 50 million people live in the USA currently who were not born there; over 200 million more are descendants of migrants
• recently, however the coveted US green card has been harder to gain
• the issue of illegal migration across the Mexican border is a major policy issue that divides the US public and politicians
• while in office, Obama called for work permits to be issued to many of the estimated 8 million unauthorised workers living in the USA
• in contrast, during his election campaign, Trump demanded that a wall be built along the Mexican border

Question 23

economic migration issues that divide popular opinion in the US

Answer 23

• one view is that migrants are a vital part of the US economy’s growth engine
• from NYC restaurant kitchens to California’s vineyards, legal and illegal migrants work long hours for low pay
• however, high unemployment in some deindustrialised cities has led to calls for American jobs for American citizens

Question 24

national security - migration issues that divide popular opinion in the US

Answer 24

• the terrorist attacks on the USA in 2001 led to heightened security concerns
• support for Trump and far right parties grew because of this

Question 25

demographic impacts - migration issues that divide popular opinion in the US

Answer 25

• youthful migration helps offset the cost of an aging population
• in the USA, higher birth rates in immigrant communities is changing the population composition
• in 1950, 3 million US citizens were Hispanic
• now, it is 60 million (1/5 of the population)

Question 26

cultural change - migration issues that divide popular opinion in the US

Answer 26

• migrants change places by influencing food, music and language
• Hispanic population growth is affecting the content of US media as programmers and advertisers seek a larger share of audience by offering Spanish language soap operas on channels such as Netflix

Question 27

conflicting views about migration at varying geographic scales

Answer 27

• views about the desirability of migration and cultural change vary from place to place
• deep divides were revealed by the referendum in UK society
• the country was divided and support for brexit was high among pensioners, rural communities and urban areas in northern England, whereas younger voters, the Scottish, London and Cardiff favoured remain
• similarly in the US coastal states (eg California) and places with a high proportion of Hispanic voters supported H. Clinton’s pro globalisation mainfesto in the 2016 election

Question 28

cultural differences

Answer 28

• some societies have strong spatial segregation, and people have faced discrimination in both education and employment that has led to social tensions
• some diaspora communities, particularly Muslim communities, generally hold more conservative values tend to experience tension both within their communities and with the larger liberal values of European society

Question 29

north African diaspora in western Europe

Answer 29

• historical ties - occupation of Spain and Portugal for 700 years
• the modern era of this movement started in the 1960s
• main source countries of migration from Africa to Europe have been Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, to countries such as France, Belgium, and Germany
• following the 1973 oil crisis, immigration controls in Europe were tightened, and this incentivised people to permanently locate
• Moroccans make up the largest individual group of north Africans living in Europe (approx. 5.1 million)
• the largest concentrations of Moroccans outside Morocco is France

Question 30

cultural impacts in Europe - north Africa to Europe migration

Answer 30

• brings cultural diversity that creates vibrant, and multi cultural city cultures
• north African communities have visible impacts on the cultural landscapes of the neighbourhoods they live in, e.g., Banlieue in Paris
• its known for high rates of poverty and ethnic segregation, but is also rich in art, music, and language (helping to shape Paris’ identity)
• there is a cultural identity concerning issues of marginality, stigma, and hopelessness and these issues forma cultural identity
• in Brussels, the diaspora is predominately located to the west of the city, and has its own dialect called Marols
• the high degree of ethnic concentration creates unique cultural landscapes shaped by mosques, religious community centres, high diversity schools, and culturally targeted shops and services

Question 31

effects of migration - north Africa to Europe

Answer 31

• strong north African identity in the cultural landscape of Brussels and Paris can be a source of tension
• some people feel that the north African community should come closer to western culture in terms of values, language, and dress, but these differences are a significant aspect of Muslim communities, and north African communities ask for greater understanding from wider society
• these communities are more socially deprived and experience higher rates of school drop out and unemployment
• in Banlieue, Paris, 1 in 5 children live below the poverty line
• these communities have suffered decades of government neglect, face daily discrimination and have the highest crime rates, a problem which has fed growing nationalist sentiments in both Belgium and France
• cultural problems are reinforced by the poor capacity for immigrant integration
• immigrant populations face challenges for integration: the education system is poorly suited to those whose first language is not French/Dutch, causing immigrant children to fall behind at the start; schools in Brussels are over subscribed; there is poor integration in the job market; as well as housing and social barriers
• lack of integration has created a second and sometimes third generation of north Africans that face social and economic exclusion
• this along with strong spatial patterns of segregation, a sense of isolation with wider Brussels had occurred, helping to entrench social problems and geed extremism

Question 32

causes of movement - Indonesian workers in Singapore and Malaysia

Answer 32

• a growing proportion of migrant women have been employed as domestic workers within countries in the asia-pacific region
• increases in female labour participation rates and a growing number of dual income families = the increased demand for paid domestic work and other low wage services
• the flow of Indonesian domestic workers into Singapore and Malaysia can be seen as driven by economic and demographic disparities within the region
• the majority of migrants are women, employed as domestic workers, nannies, and elderly care workers
• pay differentials = strong incentive for Indonesian women to migrate to improve their livelihoods and social status
• high levels of unemployment and underemployment in Indonesia make it difficult for people (esp. women) to seek local job opportunities (9.4% of people in Indonesia live below the poverty line)
• Indonesia’s GDP per capita = US$4,788 (2022)
• Singapore’s GDP per capita = US$82,808 (2022)
• Malaysia receives the highest annual number of Indonesian domestic workers within the region due to geographical proximity and ethnic/linguistic similarities

Question 33

causes of movement for the host countries - Indonesian workers in Singapore and Malaysia

Answer 33

• Malaysia has experienced significant labour shortages in the low wage sector because of its state led industrialisation programme (new economic policy, NEP and the national development policy, NDP; in the late 20th century), which sought to diversify the economy through export promotion and the establishment of an educated workforce
• similarly, economic restructuring in Singapore since the 1970s has attracted large numbers of migrant workers to predominantly low skilled jobs in construction, manufacturing, and waged domestic sectors (that the locals do not want to do)
• in the host countries: rapid industrialisation and an increase in female participation in the workforce = a steady rise in the number of dual income families, which was accompanied by a strong demand for migrant domestic workers who were paid substitutes for the labour needed within these middle class households
• in Singapore, the labour force participation rate among women is 63% (among men, it is 76%)
• Indonesian women constitute the majority (55%) of the domestic workers in Singapore, where 1 in 5 households employ a live in domestic worker

Question 34

patterns of migration - Indonesian workers in Singapore and Malaysia

Answer 34

• in response to the demand for domestic labour the Indonesian government has increasingly promoted overseas labour migration as a development strategy to address issues of poverty, domestic underemployment, and to encourage FDI through remittances
• remittances represent 0.7% of Indonesia’s annual GDP
• the majority of workers migrate with the intention of working abroad for a limited period of time in order to finance their children or siblings in school, or to save enough for a house or business venture (enabling upwards social mobility)
• in Malaysia (2009), there was a ban on new arrivals of Indonesia domestic workers, following a series of cases of abuse, has triggered a domestic crisis, where almost 35,000 households are left without a helper (negative reaction does not always cause a deterrence)
• this pattern of migration stems from strict policies enforced by Singapore and Malaysian governments, which prohibit permanent settlement
• often, migrants are re-contracted overseas once their finances have been depleted, which enforces the self-perpetuating migration cycle
• since the 1980s, the Singapore and Malaysian governments have taken steps to regulate the labour market for migrant domestic workers, recognising the growing need for paid domestic services
• polices include: measures to ensure stricter control of labour recruitment activities, and higher penalties imposed to deter illegal immigration
• the employment agency act in Singapore rules that agencies can be fined considerably and face imprisonment for operating without a license

Question 35

negative effects of the migration - Indonesian workers in Singapore and Malaysia

Answer 35

• in Singapore, it is an accepted norm among employers that employing Indonesian service workers implies that they are not legally obliged to provide any days off for the worker
• Indonesian workers are offered poor terms of employment than their Filipino counterparts (who are paid 30% more), as they are generally perceived to be less skilled and educated
• Indonesian women chose to migrate to improve their economic situation, however, indebtedness and lack of education make them vulnerable to exploitation and abuse

Question 36

Indonesian workers in Singapore and Malaysia

Answer 36

• on a macro scale: economic and demographic disparities caused by the uneven processes of globalisation and demographic transition represent disparities that underpin the sustained inflow of migrant domestic workers from Indonesia to Malaysia and Singapore
• high levels of unemployment and underemployment in Indonesia pushed women to migrate, especially for higher wages, and where growing demand for migrant domestic labour has become embedded in the their labour markets
• the encouragement of Indonesian out migration to secure remittances and geographical proximity of migrant source and host countries = key driver of migration
• migration flows are facilitated by state policies (in both the source and host countries), playing a mediating role in determining the proportion/type of migrant labour needed to meet specific labour demands within the market
• however, Indonesian women remain susceptible to deception, abuse, and exploitation at both ends of the migration chain
• on an individual/family level: Indonesian women engage in labour migration as part of familial survival strategies and a way of seeking upwards social mobility
• however, as the domestic work undertaken in Singapore and Malaysia is overwhelmingly undertaken by young, migrant women from less economically developed countries (Indonesia), suggests that the driving factors of this pattern of migration are not entirely economic, but also rooted within social hierarchies of gender, age, and class