causes of migration

Question 1

drivers of migration

Answer 1

• forces which lead to the inception of migration and to the perpetuation of movement
• drivers are the factors which get migration going and keep it going

Question 2

poverty

Answer 2

• poverty was (at first) held to be a key driver of migration
• however, since the early 1990s, it has been recognised that the poorest often cannot migrate
• this is because of poor finances or health, lack of education, the is a lack of awareness or understanding that migration is an option, prioritise basic needs over migration
• therefore, it is not the poorest of the poor who migrate
• as a result, debate has arisen of whether development can reduce the pressures that drive migration or stimulate more migration by giving people the resources to move

Question 3

transport and communication developments

Answer 3

• lack of communication used to be a big obstacle to international migration
• without connectivity, people will not know that there are better opportunities elsewhere and are more likely to stay where they are
• in recent years, global telecommunications growth rates have reached extraordinary levels
• in 2005, 6% of Africans owned a mobile phone in comparison to the 67% in 2020
• many mobile phones provide internet access making it easier for potential migrants to find out about the opportunities other countries offer
• international migrants communicate with one another using apps (in 2015, a facebook group called stations of the forced wonderers helped more than 10,000 migrants to exchange advice on how to avoid authorities and find routes across European borders using GPS information)
• migration becomes easier when people can maintain long distance social relationships more easily than in the past
• ISIS uses social media to encourage young men and women from the uk and France to migrate to the middle east and join its ranks
• the growth of the global middle class has driven the expansion of flights between asia and other countries

Question 4

switched off places

Answer 4

• not everyone has access to communications technology and/or the money/political freedom needed to travel internationally
• Massey argued that the time space compression is socially differentiated: not everyone experiences the sense of a shrinking world to anything like the same extent because of income differences
• billions of people still can not afford the cost of a smartphone and broadband subscription
• political factors play a role in the persistence of a digital divide between switched on and off societies (eg north korea)

Question 5

primary commodity prices

Answer 5

• in theory, a country’s commodities allow it to trade with other countries, although this doesn’t always happen
• countries that solely trade in primary commodities don’t alway gain a good income and are therefore unable to import manufactured goods, making development goals harder to achieve
• lack of good schools and healthcare drives educated and skills people to countries that provide these services (brain drain). this creates further development challenges through positive feedback
• primary commodities that are valued do not always mean high levels of development
• poor governance and conflict over products has lead to problems (resource curse theory)
• overproduction can lead to lower prices
• eg Sierra Leone - diamonds demand a high commodity price and should allow a range of goods to be imported and invested in the country

Question 6

post colonial movements

Answer 6

• between the late 1950s and 1970s, the uk received migrants from the caribbean, india, pakistan, bangladesh and uganda
• today, these countries are commonwealth countries
• originally, they came to fill gaps in labour post war or in specific industries (eg bangladesh migrants working in textiles in tower hamlets, london)
• other countries have links like this (eg france with algeria and tunsia)

Question 7

poor access to markets within global systems

Answer 7

• the division of the world into trade blocs is another reason why poverty persists in some developing countries
• the eu is trading area that protects its own farmers by placing import tariffs on food imports from other countries
• this does mean non eu countries like Kenya struggle to get a fair price for their commodities from countries within the eu
• landlocked countries rely on transit states

Question 8

laws

Answer 8

• one example of a law that alters migration is the Schengen Agreement
• the Schengen Agreement is a treaty which led to the creation of Europe’s Schengen area, in which internal border checks have largely been abolished
• it was signed on 14 June 1985, near the town Schengen, Luxembourg, by five of the ten member states of the then European economic community

Question 9

drivers of uk migration

Answer 9

• historical development - colonial links and past migrant flows from the west indies and new commonwealth
• past and present government policies - most migrations have been government driven from 1950s onwards
• cultural attitudes to newcomers - language and other cultural barriers prevent mobility among particularly non eu born families
• economic opportunity - most migrant populations are urban, with only agricultural workers from eastern europe defying this rule

Question 10

drivers over time

Answer 10

• drivers may operate in different locations: at places of origin, transit and destination
• they may influence migrations over different timeframes
• ‘the conditions that initiate international movement may be quite different from those that perpetuate it across time and space’

Question 11

dimensions

Answer 11

• locality: some drivers might be associated with the place of origin (eg demographic or environmental pressures whereas some are centred around the area of destination eg immigration policies)
• scale: could be local, national and regional to global (eg famine may cause people to consider moving across a whole region or a factory opening may change migration patterns to a specific town)
• timeframe: drivers operate over different time frames (eg an acute political crisis may force people to leave their homes very quickly and take refuge elsewhere ~ Libya or a chronic crisis like zimbabwe may result in an ongoing exodus of people over a long period)
• depth: drivers may be imbedded such as a community that believes spending time away from family is an essential step into adulthood or simply responsive to a visa requirement or change in policy

Question 12

freedom of movement

Answer 12

a human rights concept encompassing the right of individuals to travel from place to place within the territory of a country, and to leave the country and return to it

Question 13

how does the USA (superpower) exert disproportionate influence to attract migrants

Answer 13

• the 320 million people who live here (less than 1/20 of the global population) own more than 40% of global personal wealth (soft)
• of the 500 largest global companies, 1/4 were US owned in 2015 (soft)
• US cultural influence is so strong that terms such as ‘Americanisation’ and ‘mcdonaldsation’ are widely used to describe the way american food, fashion and media have shaped global culture (soft)
• the USA has used military power and covert intelligence operations to intervene in the affairs of almost 50 states since 1945 (hard)
• the USA’s influence over international organisations (UN, NATO, the IMF, world bank) has given it greater influence over global politics than any other state
• the USA was the main architect of the global economic system created at the end of WW2
• the economic principles that underpin globalisation have become known as ‘the Washington consensus’

Question 14

how does china (superpower) exert disproportional influence to attract migrants

Answer 14

• china’s growth began in 1978 when Deng Xiaoping began the radical ‘open door’ reforms that allowed china to embrace globalisation, while remaining under one party rule
• today, china is the world’s larger economy (hard)
• over 400 million of its people are though to escape poverty since the reforms began
• FDI from China and it’s MNCs is predicted to total US$1.25 trillion between 2015 and 2025
• the average income of china’s population is still led that a third than that of a US citizen
• recently, it’s economic growth has slowed
• china lacks the soft power of the USA, partially because of its cultural isolation from the rest of the world (eg few foreign films are allowed into china and internet freedoms are restricted)
• the lack of democracy in china also affects its relations with some other countries

Question 15

how has the USA benefited over time from immigration

Answer 15

• the USA has approx. 300 million people of foreign ancestry
• since the 1990s, skilled Indian migrants have travelled to the USA in large numbers, the diaspora community is more skilled and highly paid than any other US migrant community
• many of the USA’s cultural exports/soft power is derived from the culture of immigrant groups
• eg African American influenced rock and hip hop music and american hamburger/apple pie (German and Dutch origins)

Question 16

how has Australia benefited over time from immigration

Answer 16

• Australian government uses migration policies carefully to maintain strength in any economic sector where labour shortages are evident
• the country currently operates a points system for economic migrants called the migration programme
• in 2013, only 190,000 economic migrants were granted access to Australia

Question 17

what is a superpower

Answer 17

• the term global superpower was originally used to describe the ability of the USA, USSR and the UK to project power and influence anywhere on earth to become a dominant worldwide force
• a regional superpower exerts significant influence over its neighbours (eg Nigeria, South Africa and Australia)

Question 18

global superpowers

Answer 18

• the UK was a colonial power, alongside France, Spain, Portugal, Germany, Italy and Belgium
• between approx 1500 and 1900, these leading powers built global empires
• one result was the diffusion of European languages, religions, laws, customs, arts and sports on a global scale
• in contrast to the direct rule of the British, the USA has dominated world affairs since 1945, mainly by using indirect forms of influence or neo colonial strategies

Question 19

soft power

Answer 19

• a persuasive approach to international relation, typically involving the use of economic or cultural influence
• eg the us government’s provision of international aid s cultural influence of american media companies (eg hollywood)
• soft power could be exerted as cultural influence, international decision making and leadership, and moral and ethical authority

Question 20

hard power

Answer 20

the geopolitical use of military force and the economic influence achieved through forceful trade policies, including economic sanctions or import tariffs

Question 21

smart power

Answer 21

the skilful combined use of both hard and soft power in international relations

Question 22

the other states which claim to be true global superpowers (except the the USA)

Answer 22

• china became the world’s largest economy in 2014 vu one measure and exerts great influence over the global economic system, through its sheer size
• although no single European country can equal the influence of the USA any more, several have remained significant global players in the post colonial world (most notably the G8 nations)
• another view is the European states can only rival the usa’s global superpower status when they work together as members of the eu

Question 23

regional superpowers

Answer 23

• many countries can claim to be regionally powerful and to also except global influence in certain ways
• eg Qatar (Middle Eastern state) has the highest gdp per capita in the world, in excess of US$100,000
• it’s wealth and global influence is partly due to fossil fuel sales
• Qatar has 14% of all known gas reserves
• Qatar’s government has reinvested its petrodollar wealth in ways that have diversified the national economy
• the city of Doha has become a powerful place where international conferences and sporting events are held, served by Qatar airways and Doha international airport
• important un and wto meetings have taken place in Doha, including the 2012 un framework convention on climate change (unfccc) climate negotiations
• the city also held the 2022 football World Cup
• Qatar’s Al Jazeera media network rivals the bbc and cnn for influence in some parts of the world and is an important source of soft power
• however, despite this, Qatar is regarded as a regional not global superpower

Question 24

the benefits of international migration for superpower states

Answer 24

• at certain moments in their history, superpower states have encouraged immigration as part of a carefully calculated growth strategy
• there are two kinds of labour shortage that countries may experience from time to time:
• skilled labour shortages: a shortage of people trained in a particularly important profession (eg medicine, engineering) can be economically or socially damaging for a country
• unskilled labour shortages: too few people willing to do poorly paid but essential work (eg construction, building) can impede economic progress

Question 25

the uk

Answer 25

• the british state actively encouraged post colonial migration to take place when it found itself desperately short of labour after ww2 in 1945
• this consisted of voluntary movement of people from former colonies of the British empire
• some worked in factories, skilled individuals filled important medical posts in the newly formed nhs
• one reason why it was so easy for the uk to achieve this aim was because of its language, customs and traditions
• these had been introduced to British territories under colonial rule in the 1800s
• medical schools in india used the same textbooks as British teaching hospitals
• the populations of ex-colonies spoke fluent English and showed an affinity with the British way of life
• the uk was therefore able take advantage of its past influence over these countries by advertising work opportunities to young Asians and African who were excited to move to the uk, following an education in schools where British history and culture would have been celebrated

Question 26

being selective

Answer 26

• countries like the USA and Australia have benefited from sometimes selective in migration of people from other states
• it is not the case that all powerful states are always in favour of allowing immigration to take place
• less than 2% of the Japanese population is foreign or foreign born
• despite japan’s important status as a global economic power, migration rules have made it tough for newcomers to settle
• the ‘pass or go home test’ has a pass rate of less than 1%
• nationalist law makes the acquisition of Japanese citizenship by residents foreigners an elusive goal
• Japan faces the challenge of an ageing population and many think they will have to relax immigration laws to maintain its economic role in the world

Question 27

global hubs

Answer 27

• superpower demand for migrant labour is often concentrated in particular global hubs within these states
• a global hub is a particularly important city when views at both a national and global scale
• this is on account of the presence the HQs of major MNCs, globally renowned unis, global financial or political institutions or other world class assets
• global hubs (eg New York, mumbai) have gained in economic strength over time by attracting flows of foreign investment and the international workforce this brings
• they play a vital roles managing the European operations of american, Chinese, Indian, Japanese and Singaporean companies who have established offices there
• some global hubs are mega cities with more than 10million residents
• size is not a prerequisite for global influence (eg smaller sized hubs included Washington DC and Doha)
• in 2016, Oxford uni was named the world’s leading educational institution, therefore despite its small size the city of Oxford is a powerful place

Question 28

superpower out migration

Answer 28

• in addition to the role played by in migration, out migration of citizens also help superpowers to gain worldwide influence
• large numbers of uk and us citizens have moved overseas
• Indian and Chinese diasporas in Africa have recently grown significantly in size recently
• in each of these cases, diaspora members have the capacity to act as unofficial soft power ambassadors for the country of origin or ancestry

Question 29

global visa programme

Answer 29

• for each travel destination, if no visa is required or a visa on arrival is available, the passport in question received a score of 1
• if a visa or other form of government approval is required before departure, the passport receives a score of 0
• Japan holds the top position in the index for the thrift consecutive year, either alone or jointly with singapore
• over the past 7 years, the us passport has fallen from the number one spot to 7th place, a position it currently shares with the uk
• north korea has a visa free/visa on arrival access to 39 destinations, the only country in Europe included is Belarus
• the uae had continued its upward trajectory, in 2021, it has a score of 173 and held 16th ranking, in 2006 it had a score of 35 and was ranked 62nd
• the biggest climbers over the past decade are: uae, Colombia, Timor-leste, Ukraine, Georgia and Peru
• in contrast, Syria, Yemen, Nigeria, Libya, The Gambia and sierre leone have fared the worse

Question 30

the world’s most powerful passports (2021)

Answer 30

1. japan (191 destinations)
2. Singapore (190 destinations)
3. Germany and South Korea (189 destinations)
4. Finland, Italy, Luxembourg, Spain (188 destinations)
5. Denmark, Austria (187 destinations)

Question 31

world’s least powerful passports (2021)

Answer 31

103. North Korea (39 destinations)
104. Libya, Nepal (38)
105. Palestinian territory (37)
106. Somalia, Yemen (33)
107. Pakistan (32)
108. Syria (29)
109. Iraq (28)
110. Afghanistan (26)

Question 32

migration from poland

Answer 32

• nationals from A8 countries who wish to work in the uk for over a month are generally required to register the home office’s worker registration scheme
• by July 2006, 447,000 people from eastern europe had applied to work in the uk (far more than expected), 62% came from Poland
• the polish embassy stated that the number of polish workers in britan was between 500,000 and 600,000
• this makes polish people now the 3rd largest minority ethnic group in the uk
• the proportion of polish people within the A8 group migrating into the uk for at least a year increased from about 35% in 2004 to over 70% in 2005

Question 33

causes of polish migration

Answer 33

• 8 of the 10 countries that joined the eu in 2010 were Eastern Europe (A8)
• by law, any resident of an eu nation has the right of free movement amongst all of the other member states
• GDP in Poland was $12,700 per capita compared to $30,900 in the uk
• youth unemployment rates in poland of around 40%
• on the 1st of April 2004, Poland was 1 of 10 countries admitted to the eu
• on the ascension to the eu, it was anticipated that emigration from the A8 countries in particular would lead to an increase in immigration into more prosperous areas of the uk
• rural unemployment in Poland in some areas of over 40% and typical earnings of around €150 per month
• the uk was one of only 3 countries who didn’t restrict the number of immigrants from the A8 countries
• average unemployment in Poland is 18.5% in 2005

Question 34

effects of polish migration

Answer 34

• by July 2006, 447,000 people from eastern europe had applied to work in the uk (nationals from the A8 countries was required to register with the WRS if they wish to work for over a month)
• injection of foreign cash, £1.2 billion was sent in remittances from the uk to Poland in 2011
• between 0.5% and 1% of uk growth in 2006 was attributed to migrant workers from the A8
• 62% of the migrants between 2005-2006 were from Poland
• €2.5 billion contributed to the economy by eastern european immigrants
• 427,000 migrant workers who successfully registered to work brought with them 36,000 dependants (spouses, children)

Question 35

responses of polish migration

Answer 35

• the uk government predicted an increase of 15,000 migrants from the A8 moving to the uk for employment in the first 2 years
• between 0.5% and 1% of uk growth in 2006 was attributed to migrant workers from the A8
• polish migrants were generally skilled and semi skilled industrial workers and tradesmen, often with young families, the vast majority employment within factories as warehouse operatives, cleaning duties and farm workers
• 80% of migrants are between 18 and 35 years old and national insurance contributions help the uk cope with an aging population

Question 36

the Afghan-Iran/Pakistan corridor

Answer 36

• since the 1970s, there have been at least three distinct waves of forced migration from Afghanistan towards Pakistan and Iran, with the refugee population peaking at 6.22 million in 1990
• the duration of the crisis in Afghanistan has changed the shape of Afghan migration, away from repeated and fluid transborder movement and towards permanent and often irregular settlement
• since 2005, a political crisis resulting from the retreat of the weak Afghan state and increased militarisation in regions such as Helmand and Kandahar has driven a new wave of displacement
• most are conflict induced IDPs and massive rural to urban flows towards Kabul
• repatriation has caused new flows or re-migrations which are not primarily precipitated by the direct impact of conflict and militarisation, but by poor prospects for refugee reintegration
• lack of access to sustainable livelihoods within Afghanistan and the political weakness of the Afghan state and its inability to secure space free from corruption
• Afghan labour migration was viewed as an almost inevitable reaction to endemic state fragility and chronic economic underdevelopment resulting from decades of conflict and state militarisation
• the rapid return of 4 million Afghan refugees from 2002 placed even greater pressure on Afghan’s limited economic infrastructure

Question 37

sanctuary city

Answer 37

• in the US, it means that neither the police nor any city agency can ask anyone for proof of their immigration status
• when a person is accused of a crime, their fingerprint is added to the FBI databases and if they are undocumented, ICE send a detainer request, which means that they can be deported
• sanctuary cities don’t have to honour this request
• the police often honour this request because if they don’t immigrants won’t report crimes or come forward to being a witness and as a result become easy targets

Question 38

why do sanctuary cities want migrants

Answer 38

• people are leaving cities (which is bad for the economy) and more people are needed to fill the gap for employment
• builds the cities reputation (positive feedback loop)
• which helps developing communities

Question 39

baltimore (sanctuary city)

Answer 39

• provided opportunities for assimilation, ie through translation, interpretation and document support
• provides job training and financial incentives to employers that help employees buy homes
• the mayor’s office partnered with local organisations offer business loans of between $5,000 and $50,000 (immigrants can choose what to do with the money which encourages entrepreneurship which leads to employing more people)
• eastern avenue near inner harbour has become a centre of latino culture

Question 40

san francisco (sanctuary city)

Answer 40

• gateway city, most economically active opens up to opportunities for economic industry
• 29.5% immigrant population in 2009
• attracts more highly skilled migrants

Question 41

the national picture on sanctuary cities in the USA

Answer 41

• 13.1% of the national population is an immigrant
• there is a long history of Mexico - USA migration (because part of Texas used to be Mexico and therefore there is a high mexican population)
• sunbelt states such as Arizona have benefited from workers willing to accept low pay as there is lots of agriculture and harvesting that requires low skill manual labour