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Rivers Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a drainage basin?

A

An area within which water, supplied by precipitation, is transferred to an ocean, lake or larger stream

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2
Q

What is a watershed?

A

The imaginary lines that separate adjacent drainage basins

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3
Q

Is a drainage basin and open or closed system and why?

A

An open system. This is because it connects to a larger water body (ocean/ lake)

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4
Q

Define ‘River Discharge’

A

The volume of water passing a given point over a set time

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5
Q

What is the formula for river discharge?

A

River discharge = cross-sectional area x mean velocity of water

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6
Q

What is the unit for river discharge?

A

cubic meters per second (cumecs)

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7
Q

What are the factors affecting river velocity? (4)

A

-> Gravity - the gradient of the river
-> Frictional resistance with the bed + bank - this opposed downstream flow
-> volume of water - i.e. from precipitation
-> channel shape

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8
Q

What are the different flows of water?

A

-> Laminar flow
-> Turbulent flow

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9
Q

Define ‘Hydraulic radius’

A

The efficiency of a stream’s shape

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10
Q

What is the formula for hydraulic radius?

A

Hydraulic radius = cross-sectional area/ wetted perimeter

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11
Q

What is the wetted perimeter?

A

The water touching the river’s edge

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12
Q

Choose the correct word.
The higher the hydraulic radius ratio, the more/less efficient the stream is, and the smaller/larger the frictional loss

A
  • more
  • smaller
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13
Q

What is the ideal river shape?

A

A semi-circular river shape

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14
Q

Where is water stored?

A

-> Aquifer
-> Cryosphere

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15
Q

What is an aquifer?

A

A body of rock and/or sediment that holds groundwater

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16
Q

What is groundwater?

A

Groundwater is the word used to describe precipitation that has infiltrated the soil beyond the surface and collected in empty spaces underground.

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17
Q

Describe the movement of water into an aquifer

A

It moves slowly downwards from the soil into the bedrock. When water slowly drips into porous materials, it is called percolation

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18
Q

What is a ‘water table’ ?

A

The upper layer of the saturation zone

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19
Q

What is a cryosphere?

A

Freshwater held in a snow and ice environment

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20
Q

What is the Bradshaw model?

A

A model depicting how the characteristics of the upper course of a river vary to the lower course

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21
Q

What are the best conditions for laminar flow?

A

-> shallow channels
-> low velocity
-> smooth, straight channels

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22
Q

What are the best conditions for turbulent flow?

A

-> high velocities
-> complex channel shapes (i.e. meanders)
-> Cavitation - pockets of air that explode under high-pressure

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23
Q

Which area in the river is fastest? why?

A

The middle of the river. It is affected by no friction due to the river bed, banks or air

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24
Q

What is vertical erosion? where is it usually found? and what does it create?

A

Downwards erosion
usually found in the upper course
creates v-shaped valleys

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25
Q

What is lateral erosion? where is it usually found? and what does it create?

A

Sideways erosion
usually found in the middle to lower course
creates wide and flat U-shaped valleys

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26
Q

What are the factors affecting the rate of erosion? (6)

A

load
pH
velocity and discharge
gradient
geology
human impact

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27
Q

What are the types of erosion?

A
  • Hydraulic action
  • Attrition
  • Abrasion
  • Solution
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28
Q

Briefly describe Hydraulic action, Attrition, Abrasion and Solution

A

Hydraulic action -
the force of the water wearing away at the river bed and banks
Attrition -
when two rocks collide with force. They break down and become smoother and rounder
Abrasion -
Rocks are dragged along the bed, creating a sandpaper effect that wears down the rock making them smoother and rounder
Solution -
River water is slightly acidic due to CO2 and humic acid absorption. Carbonate rocks (limestone) dissolve into the river water

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29
Q

What are the types of transportation?

A

traction
saltation
suspension
solution

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30
Q

Briefly describe the 4 types of transportation?

A

traction-
large boulders pushed along the river bed
saltation-
smaller particles are bounced along the river bed. They hit other particles, passing on the energy to continue bouncing
suspension-
when lightweight material is held by the river. Does not touch the river bed or banks
solution-
any material carried by being dissolved in the water

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31
Q

What is deposition?

A

When the river velocity falls, its energy falls to. This causes it to put down its load

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32
Q

What is the ‘capacity’ of a river?

A

How much the river can carry

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33
Q

What is the ‘competence’ of a river?

A

The largest particle the river can carry

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34
Q

How is a waterfall formed?

A
  1. The soft rock under the hard rock breaks away due to hydraulic action
  2. This creates a soft rock undercut
  3. Due to the missing soft rock, the hard rock’s weight is no longer supported, and the overhang collapses. This accumulates in the river below
  4. The velocity enhances erosion in the waterfall, creating a plunge pool (this is done through hydraulic action)
  5. The sediment, collected from the collapsed overhang, erodes through abrasion and attrition
  6. The waterfall retreats upstream, leaving behind a gorge
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35
Q

How is a meander formed?

A
  1. As the river erodes laterally it forms large bends
  2. The velocity increases on the outside of these bends, eroding the river bank
  3. As most of the river’s energy and velocity is on the outer bend, the inner bend loses energy and deposits material, e.g. sand and shingle
  4. The outer bend erodes and this creates a river cliff
  5. This erosion and deposition moves the bend in a certain sideways direction, creating a meander
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36
Q

How is an oxbow lake formed?

A
  1. As a meander erodes laterally, the neck gets closer and closer, until it breaks
  2. The river has now found a quicker way to flow, leaving a horseshoe-shaped lake, disconnected from the river, called an oxbow lake
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37
Q

How is a levee formed?

A
  1. When a river floods, the sediment carried by the river is suspended in the water
  2. During this flood, a river will lose its energy, and will deposit sediment onto the floodplain
  3. It deposits the larger particles first because they are the most heaviest. The smaller particles are deposited further away from the river’s edge
  4. After the flood, the levee is left
  5. Now the river has a larger capacity to hold more water. This means when there is a higher volume of precipitation, the floodplains are at a smaller risk of flooding
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38
Q

How is a delta formed?

A
  1. A delta is formed in the lower course of a river when the river reaches the sea
  2. The river slows down and loses energy
  3. It has to deposit some of the rocks and sediments that it has carried downstream. The deposition begins with large, impermeable rocks and finishes with silt and sand further downstream.
  4. These depositions create smaller tributaries or channels for the river to flow through.
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39
Q

What are the 4 types of deltas?

A
  1. Hybrid delta
  2. wave-dominated delta
  3. Tide-dominated delta
  4. river-dominated delta
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40
Q

What is infiltration capacity?

A

How much water can be absorbed by the soil

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41
Q

What is a storm hydrograph?

A

It shows how a river channel responds to key processes of the hydrological cycle

river discharge is plotted against time

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42
Q

Urban vs rural hydrographs

A

URBAN: impermeable

RURAL: permeable

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43
Q

Physical factors affecting flood risk

A

Geology
Vegetation
Prolonged rainfall
Heavy rainfall

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44
Q

What is the lag time?

A

The time interval between peak precipitation and peak discharge/flow

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45
Q

What is lag time influenced by?

A
  • basin shape
  • steepness (gradient)
  • impermeability of rocks
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46
Q

What is a flood?

A

When the volume of water exceeds the rivers capacity and overflows onto a floodplain

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47
Q

What is a river regime?

A

The seasonal variation in the flow of the river

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48
Q

What do seasonal variations depend on? (4)

A
  • Amount + nature of precipitation
  • changes in vegetation cover
  • variations in geology and soil
  • variations in temperature and evapotranspiration
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49
Q

What is urban hydrology?

A

Urbanisation changing a drainage basin hydrology (i.e. sewers and drains)

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50
Q

Factors affecting flood risk? (4)

A
  • urbanisation
  • deforestation
  • increasing channel cross- section
  • frequency and magnitude of flood
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51
Q

What are the benefits of hydrographs?

A
  • it can predict flood events based on precipitation and basin geology
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52
Q

What are the disadvantages of hydrographs? (2)

A
  • The data does not stretch far back (only 50 years)
  • It does not take historical events and basin surveys into account
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52
Q

What is climate modelling?

A

A climate model is a numerical representation of the climate system providing geological locations and elevations

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53
Q

PROS of climate modelling?

A
  • It predicts advanced weather warnings, predicting tropical storms, therefore it helps save lives
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54
Q

CONS of climate modelling?

A
  • inability to predict a flash flood
  • the landscape is constantly changing due to human impact
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55
Q

What is the main attempt at flood prediction?

A
  • weather forecasting
56
Q

An increase in magnitude = ?

A

= decrease in frequency

57
Q

What two flooding case studies do I need to know?

A

Indus system - Pakistan
Queensland, Australia

58
Q

What is the development of Pakistan?
population
life expectancy
HDI

A

184.8 million
66 years
0.49

59
Q

What is the development of Australia?
population
life expectancy
HDI

A

22.4 million
88 years
0.937

60
Q

What is the relief of the Indus system, in Pakistan? and its affects

A

Mountainous - high river velocity - dangerous to transport along the river

61
Q

What is the relief of Queensland, in Australia? where are most of the rivers usually found + what course are they?

A

Hardly any mountainous regions - lower course of the river in the South-east

62
Q

What were the causes of the 2 main flood events in the Indus system?

A
  • 2010 -> Heavy monsoon rainfall caused the Indus River to overflow and break its banks
  • 2011 -> During the monsoon season, floods began in the Sindh region
63
Q

What were the effects of the 2 main flood events in the Indus system?

A
  • 2010 -> 140,000 acres of cropland destroyed, 2000 people died, 1,000,000 homes destroyed
  • 2011 -> 434 killed, 1,500,000 homes destroyed, 1.7 million acres of cropland destroyed
64
Q

In which course of the river would a dam be built?

A

upper course

65
Q

What were the causes of the flood events in Queensland, Australia?

A
  • Heavy monsoon rainfall caused Wivenhoe Dam to overflow, as the reservoir had reached its capacity
66
Q

What was the effect of the flood event in Queensland, Australia?

A

No deaths

67
Q

How could we mitigate against floods? (name 4)

A
  • building less important infrastructure on floodplains
  • Channel modification (for example, making it straighter and deeper)
  • Preparing and educating people in flood-prone areas
  • Building flood defences, i.e. dams, embankments, flood relief channels
68
Q

What is hard engineering?

A

Man-made structures to control the natural behaviour of a river

69
Q

What is soft engineering?

A

A natural approach to control river behaviour that minimises environmental impact

70
Q

What is mitigation?

A

An effort to reduce the loss of life and prevent property damage i.e. by floods

71
Q

How does afforestation mitigate floods? (3)

A
  • Increase in interception (so water reaches a river at a slower rate)
  • Decrease in overland flow
  • Decrease in erosion (because of increased interception, there is less power for erosion to take place)
72
Q

ADV and D.ADV of dams (name 3 positives and 2 negatives)

A

+ Hydroelectric power
+ agriculture
+ tourism
- expensive
- displacement of people during its construction

73
Q

Name 3 examples of channel modification

A
  • straightening the river
  • raising the banks
  • creating new channels
74
Q

Give one example of channel modification, its use and one positive and one negative

A

Artificial levee - raising the banks of the river so it has a larger capacity
+ When water levels rise, there is a smaller risk of the water damaging the artificial banks, therefore reducing the risk of flooding
- All the river’s power is flowing through a smaller space. Water levels are higher and water flows faster.

75
Q

What is water stress?

A

Occurs when the demand for water exceeds the available amount during a certain period or when poor quality restricts its use.

76
Q

What are some indications of water stress?

A
  • per capita water supply is <1700 cm^3
  • the area is subject to frequent water shortages
77
Q

What are the problems with water stress?

A

problems related to food production and economic development

78
Q

Finish the sentences:
1) When the world population is 3x, the water usage is ______

2) 1/2 global _______ disappeared

3) 20% freshwater species are now __________

4) many aquifers are _________

5) water tables are rising/falling

A

1) 6x

2) wetlands

3) extinct/endangered

4) depleted

5) falling

79
Q

What is water usually used for?

A

domestic use, industry and agriculture

80
Q

What is water quality?

A

the condition of the water with respect to its suitability for a particular purpose like drinking or swimming

81
Q

What are some water-related diseases, and how many people does WHO estimate is going to die from them?

A
  • typhoid
  • hepatitis
  • malaria
  • cholera

4 million deaths a year

82
Q

How might water quality be affected?

A
  • sewage
  • fertilisers
  • farming pesticides
  • acids from industrial processes
83
Q

Factors affecting access to safe drinking water (4)

A
  • water availability
  • water infrastructure
  • cost of water
  • an area of ruralness
84
Q

What is ‘nexus’?

A

The interrelationship, interdependence, and relations between water, food and energy

85
Q

What is eutrophication? the steps

A

1) Nitrogen and phosphorus from agricultural fertilisers are washed off into lakes and ponds
2) This causes algal overgrowth
3) The algae accumulates at the top of the pond and stops oxygen and sunlight from reaching the pond
4) In these conditions, decomposers, like bacteria, thrive and make the lake more anoxic
5) Without oxygen, fish and other organisms die

86
Q

How is eutrophication an example of positive feedback?

A

As algae grow, there are good conditions for decomposers. The lake becomes more anoxic making good conditions for decomposers, making it more anoxic, and so on…

87
Q

What is a case study for eutrophication?

A

China’s Li River

88
Q

What are the three main problems related to high nitrogen concentrations?

A
  • Nitrogen compounds can cause undesirable effects in aquatic ecosystems - especially excessive algal growth
  • Loss of fertiliser is an economic loss to the farmer -> impact of agricultural output
  • High nitrate concentrations in drinking water may affect human health
89
Q

What is salinisation?

A

When increased irrigation frequently leads to an increase in salt levels

90
Q

How does salinisation occur?

A
  • When shallow-rooted plants are planted, less water is taken in and the water table rises
  • The salt rises (in the water) & kills the plants
  • Without the plants, the soil cracks and erodes away
91
Q

What is the case study for salinisation?

A

The Murray Darling Basin

92
Q

What stakeholders are involved in salinisation?

A
  • farmers
  • consumers
  • local people
93
Q

What are the effects of salinisation?

A
  • Financial loss of crops
  • loss of land to soil
  • increases deforestation to regain land
  • construction (buildings) will have a shorter life
94
Q

Where are droughts mostly located?

A
  • Along the equator (e.g. western Sahara)
95
Q

What is the relationship between population and droughts?

A

Increase in population = Increase in droughts (due to an increase in resource use)

96
Q

What is the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)?

A

Occurs in an area, where the northern and southern hemispheres meet (along the equator). This is where warm air rises and cool air sinks

97
Q

What is the process of the ITCZ?

A
  1. warm air rises (lots of moisture). This has low-pressure
  2. As it rises up, it cools and forms clouds. It holds a lot of moisture and lots of rainfalls (this will happen in rainforest regions)
  3. The cold clouds move along and the cold air sinks. This has high pressure. In these regions many deserts are found because there is no moisture in the clouds, and therefore a lack of rain.
98
Q

What is an el Niño?

A

It affects ocean temperatures, affecting how much it rains on land. It is usually associated with droughts

99
Q

What is la Niña usually associated with?

A

flooding

100
Q

What is the case study about scarcity and drought?

A

The horn of Africa (HoA) (2011)

101
Q

Where and when did the HoA happen? and what happened

A

Between 2011-2012 a severe drought affected East Africa and caused a severe food crisis across Somalia, Ethiopia, Kenya

102
Q

What was the worst affected country of the HoA?

A

Ethiopia

103
Q

Why did the HoA happen?

A

A strong La Niña, over the Pacific, had interrupted seasonal rains, causing the rains to fail

104
Q

What were the economic effects of prices due to the HoA event? (3)

A
  • cereal prices rose to record levels
  • prices for livestock decreased
  • reduced purchasing power
105
Q

What are the social effects of the HoA event? (6)

A
  • Rebel activity from the Al-Shabaab
  • 260,000 deaths
  • Increased infant mortality and overall mortality
  • 920,000 people fled from Somalia to Ethiopia and Kenya
  • 440,000 people in 3 refugee camps, when the capacity was only 90,000
  • 30% of children suffering from malnutrition
106
Q

What are the environmental impacts? (2)

A
  • Increased deforestation to house refugee camps for refugees
  • over cultivation areas led to desertification and degradation
107
Q

What are the political impacts of the HoA events? (1)

A
  • The Ethiopian government has requested for aid for drought-related events every year since 1984
108
Q

What is an aquifer? Give 2 characteristics of it

A

It is a body of rock/sediment that holds groundwater. It has good porosity and permeability

109
Q

What are the 2 types of aquifers?

A
  • confined
  • unconfined
110
Q

what is the water table affected by?

A
  • The rock type (permeability)
  • the level of precipitation
111
Q

What is an artesian well?

A

A well that brings ground water to the surface without pumping

112
Q

How much does the Great Artesian Basin (GAB) in Australia Cover?

A

It covers a 1/4 of the eastern side of Australia

113
Q

Why does the GAB attract population?

A

Because it has an access to an abundance of food and water

114
Q

Positive impacts of the GAB?

A
  • Tourism
  • Jobs
  • Mining
  • Agriculture
115
Q

Name 3 growing human pressures

A
  1. Increase population
  2. Agriculture
  3. Tourism
116
Q

What case study are we doing for rivers in Africa?

A

River Nile

117
Q

Describe the location of the River Nile. What countries does it flow through?

A

Flows through the North-Eastern/ Eastern Africa
Countries:
- Egypt
- Sudan
- Uganda
- Ethiopia
- South Sudan

118
Q

Describe the population distribution along the River Nile

A

Densely populated near the mouth of the river in Egypt and around the source of the river

119
Q

What is hydropolitics?

A

Rise of internationally shared water resources as a source of conflict

120
Q

Types of human pressures that affect rivers, aquifers and lakes (6)

A
  1. pressure from agriculture
  2. pressure on rivers
  3. overuse of aquifers
  4. pollution of lakes and rivers
  5. rapid economic growth in China
  6. Pressure on the MENA region (Middle East and North Africa)
121
Q

What is integrated drainage basin management (IDBM)?

A

The process of coordinating conservation management and development of water, land and other related resources across sectors within a given river basin, to maximise the economic and social benefits derived from water resources equitably while preserving and where necessary restoring freshwater ecosystems

122
Q

What needs must IDBM relate to? (5)

A
  • agricultural
  • industrial
  • recreational
  • energy
  • ecosystem
123
Q

What is the case study that we will study for the IDBM?

A

The Mississippi River

124
Q

what is the importance of the Mississippi River?

A
  • It holds 92% of the country’s farm exports
  • $54 billion in agricultural products
  • 1/2 goods and services consumed by US people produced with water from the Mississippi River.
125
Q

What are the threats towards the Mississippi River? (4)

A

-There is an increased demand for water caused by an increase in population and increased consumption
- Mississippi floods threatening people and economic activity
- an increase in the global demand for crops has resulted in an increase in the pressure of water resources
-much of the water infrastructure is ageing and needs replacing

126
Q

What are the seven key elements to a successful IDBM initiative?

A
  1. Vision
  2. Integration
  3. Scale
  4. Timing
  5. Participation
  6. Capacity
  7. Knowledge
127
Q

Explain the seven key elements of a successful IDBM initiative

A

Vision: a long-term vision for the basin, agreed upon by all stakeholders

Integration: collective decisions across all sectoral interests (e.g. fisheries, urban development, agriculture)

Scale: decision-making at the river basin scale

Timing: working within a strategic framework

Participation: active participation by all relevant stakeholder

Capacity: adequate investment from government and private sector

Knowledge: foundation of knowledge of the river basin and he forces that influence them

128
Q

What is a wetland?

A

Areas of land whose soil is saturated with moisture either permanently or seasonally. They maybe covered partially/completely by shallow pools of water

129
Q

What 3 type of wetlands are there? What do wetlands include?

A

They include:
- swaps
- marshes
- bogs
- water maybe salt water or fresh water or mixture of the two this is called brackish

130
Q

Where are most the wetlands found?
How much of the land is wetland?
Has this differed from 100 years ago and by how much?

A

They are found in northern Canada/northern American region 6% of the land is wetland and 100 years ago this was double the amount

131
Q

What are the four types of wetlands

A

-Bogs
-fens
-swamps
-floodplains

132
Q

Name eight factors as to why wetlands are beneficial?

A

-Flood control
-groundwater recharge
-transport network
-tourism and leisure
-flora and fauna
-fisheries
-water purification
-storage of organic matter

133
Q

Out of the eight factors as to why wetlands are beneficial which three factors have I chosen to remember for exams, and explain them

A

-> Flood control - can purposefully flood flood planes to limit damage elsewhere
-> Tourism and leisure-for example birdwatching rest and relaxation fishing and lake trips bring an income for local people
-> fisheries - brings in income, jobs (economic opportunities) and food source from local fisheries of a small scale

134
Q

Name six factors that cause loss and degradation of wetlands

A

-Increase demand for agricultural land
-population growth
-urbanisation
-sea level rising
-infrastructure project
-alien species invasion

135
Q

Out of the six factors that cause loss and degradation of wetlands what are the most important three, and explain them.

A
  • Population growth- an increase in water demand, food and land so wetlands are drained of the water or the source of water.
  • urbanisation- population growth puts pressure on housing demand. With urban areas growing more, more wetland areas are being drained or inhabited, this can also cause pollution, disturbance of wildlife…
  • increase demand for agricultural land- population growth increases food demand, so more wetlands are being artificially drained for agricultural land
136
Q

What is an AGWI report card

A

The AGWI measures the improvement of six sectors in relation to water resources, quality and availability

137
Q

What is rainwater harvesting

A

A method to reduce water wastage by capturing rainwater before it evaporates/drains

138
Q

What are the six community responses of water

A
  1. water saving
  2. customer pricing
  3. new technologies
  4. zoning
  5. water purifications
  6. rainwater harvesting

Geography (8 decks)

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